METHODS  AND  MATERIAL 
OF  LITERARY  CRITICISM 

LYRIC,  EPIC,  AND  ALLIED  FORMS 
OF  POETRY 


Graduate  Room 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 
FREDERIC  THOMAS  BLANCHARD 


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Library 


•Ilo5 


PREFACE 

This  book  i&  the  second  of  a  series  entitled  Methods  and 
Materials  of  Literary  Criticism,  the  volumes  of  which,  though 
contributory  to  a  common  aim,  are  severally  independent.  The 
first  volume  (Gayley  and  Scott,  1899)  was  an  introduction  to  the 
bases  in  aesthetics  and  poetics,  theoretical  and  historical.  The  pres- 
ent volume  applies  the  methods  there  developed  to  the  compara- 
tive study  of  the  lyric,  the  epic,  and  some  allied  forms  of  poetry. 
A  third  volume,  approaching  completion,  will  present  tragedy, 
comedy,  and  cognate  forms. 

Obviously  imperfect  as  it  is,  this  introduction  to  the  study  of 
the  lyric  and  epic  kinds  goes  forth  in  the  persuasion  that  it  may 
be  of  use  to  those  who  desire  orientation,  a  systematic  statement 
of  the  more  general  problems  to  be  solved,  a  quick  access  to  the 
information  available  for  the  process.  Those  who  would  naturally 
be  interested  are  the  college  student  and  the  teacher  of  literature, 
the  investigator  of  literary  history  and  theory,  the  reviewer, — 
those,  in  short,  who  make  of  criticism  a  discipline,  an  aim,  or 
a  profession. 

The  work,  though  voluminous,  is  one  of  first  aid  only ;  it  has 
not  the  effrontery  to  pretend  to  exhaustiveness.  The  arrangement 
of  subjects,  the  problems  proposed,  the  means  suggested  for  their 
solution,  the  running  discussion,  are  for  practical  convenience  in 
opening  up  investigation  rather  than  for  the  advocacy  of  method 
or  the  formulation  of  conclusions,  both  of  which  must  depend  upon 
the  scholarship  and  mature  deliberation,  the  judgment  and  skill,  of 
the  individual.  The  citation  of  references  is  nowhere  as  complete 
as  the  compilers  would  wish.  The  same  may  be  said  of  summaries 
of  periods  and  movements.  In  particular,  the  period  from  1850  to 
the  present  has  perfor^^ejn^jtreated  all  too  briefly,  —  it  demands 


iv  PREFACE 

a  book  to  itself.  To  accord  the  minor  types  or  varieties,  such  as 
elegy,  epigram,  ode,  song,  sonnet,  idyl,  or  ballad,  full  measure  of. 
definition  and  outline  would  swell  the  volume  out  of  all  proportion 
to  its  intent  —  irrespective  of  the  practicality  of  publishers,  the 
pocketbook  of  purchasers,  and  the  annos  labentes  of  the  authors. 
A  detailed  account  of  the  prosody  of  the  different  types  has  not 
been  included  because  that  aspect  of  the  study  has  been  already 
considered  in  the  first  volume  of  the  series. 

Following  the  arrangement  adopted  for  convenience  and  com- 
prehensiveness in  the  former  volume,  each  literary  type  or  species 
has  been  considered  in  a  twofold  aspect,  theoretical  and  historical. 
In  each  of  these  subdivisions  the  first  section  presents  an  analysis 
of  the  subject  under  discussion  and  a  statement  of  the  problems 
involved,  with  indication  of  the  authorities  most  necessary  to  be 
consulted ;  the  second  section  consists  of  a  bibliography,  alphabeti- 
cally arranged  and  accompanied»by  annotations  which  aim  to  give 
the  student  or  the  prospective  buyer  some  idea  of  the  content  and 
value  of  the  work  in  its  bearing  upon  the  subject ;  and  the  third 
section  supplies  in  outline  the  theory,  or  history,  as  the  case  may 
be,  of  the  type  or  form  under  consideration  as  developed  in  vari- 
ous national  literatures,  and  cites  specific  authorities  for  periods, 
movements,  and  germinative  influences  in  poetry  and  criticism. 

Especial  attention  must  be  called  to  the  fact  that  continual  repe- 
tition of  the  more  general  literary  histories,  bibliographies,  reviews, 
and  journals  has  been  avoided  by  gathering  all  such  works  into  an 
Appendix.  Since  it  is  too  late  to  insert  the  statement  in  the  proper 
place,  the  authors  take  this  opportunity  to  say  that  Gayley's  Prin- 
ciples of  Poetry,  occasionally  cited  in  the  text  as  included  in 
Gayley  and  Young's  English  Poetry,  can  be  found  only  in  the 
editions  of  that  volume  published  between  1904  and  1919.  The 
essay  will  shortly  be  republished  in  an  enlarged  and  separate  form. 

Doubtless  some  students  will  object  to  the  arrangement  of 
materials  here  by  types  as  begging  the  question  of  literary  classifi- 
cation. A  preface  is  no  place  for  discussing  this  objection.  The 
authors  can  only  say  that  they  believe  that  types  of  a  sort  do 


PREFACE  V 

exist,  subject  to  gradual  variation.  By  a  constant  factor  are  fixed 
the  only  possible  moulds  or  channels  of  communication  and,  there- 
fore, the  primary  types, — as  for  instance  within  the  realm  of  poetry, 
the  lyric,  narrative,  and  dramatic.  By  the  presence  of  other  factors, 
both  inconstant,  namely,  environment,  antecedent  and  contempo- 
rary, and  the  associational  congeries  called  the  poet,  these  types 
are  themselves  liable  to  modification.  The  idea  of  a  process  by 
evolution  may  be  unproved ;  but  that  some  process,  as  by  permu- 
tation, must  obtain  is  recognized.  The  traditional  terminology  of 
literary  criticism  tends,  indeed,  to  disguise,  hybridize,  or  otherwise 
confuse  the  subtypes  or  species.  But  the  authors  trust  that  such 
indication  of  materials  for  further  study  as  is  given  here  under  the 
traditional  headings  may  be  of  assistance  toward  a  clearer  deter- 
mination of  species,  historically  as  well  as  logically  documented, 
and  the  invention  for  them  of  a  more  definite  terminology  than  we 
now  possess. 

Considerable  headway  had  been  made  with  the  writing  of  this 
book  fully  fifteen  years  ago,  but  it  was  still  far  from  completion. 
For  its  furtherance  during  the  last  ten  years  the  originator  of  the 
enterprise,  embarrassed  by  the  growing  burden  of  other  literary 
obligations  and  latterly  of  administrative  duties,  has  been  com- 
pelled to  lean  heavily  upon  the  cooperation  of  his  former  pupil, 
present  colleague,  and  ever  present  friend,  Professor  B.  P.  Kurtz. 
Had  it  not  been  for  the  scholarship  and  indefatigable  industry  of 
the  latter,  the  manuscript  might  not  have  seen  print  for  another 
ten  years.  This  is  but  a  grateful  expression  of  indebtedness 

and  esteem. 

CHARLES  MILLS  GAYLEY 
BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 
NOVEMBER  n,  1919 


CONTENTS 

PART   I.    THE  LYRIC  AND   SOME  OF   ITS    SPECIAL  FORMS 
CHAPTER  I.   THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 

PAGE 

§  i.   STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;  ANALYSIS  ...........     3 


.  Definitions  of  the  Lyric    .............  3 

.  The  Nature  of  the  Lyric  ......    .......  8 

A.  The  Lyric  Poet   ..............  8 

&SThe  Lyric  Subject  .............  10 

.  The  Technique  of  the  Lyric    ...........  n 

A.  The  Relation  of  Music  to  Language  ......  1  1 

B.  The  Form  of  the  Lyric    ..........    .  1  1 

.  Special  Forms  .................  13 

A.  Song    ..................  13 

B.  Hymn  ........    ..........  17 

C.  Ode      ..................  17 

D.  Sonnet     .................  22 

'    E.  Ballad,  Idyl,  and  Romance  ..........  25 

F.  Elegy  ..................  25 

G.  Pastoral    .................  30 

H.  Epigram  .................  30 

/.    Vers  de  Societe  ...........     ....  32 

J.  Dramatic  Lyric    ..............  33 

K.  Reflective  Lyric  ..............  33 

/•-  V.  Classification  of  the  Lyric    ............  34 

A.  The  Kinds  ................  34 

B.  The  Stages  ................  35 

^-  VI.  Function  of  the  Lyric  ........    ......  35 

A.  Aesthetic  Function      ............  36 

B.  Ethical  Function      .............  39 

VII.  The  Lyric  and  Other  Kinds  of  Poetry      .......  40 

VIII.  Conditions  of  Society  Favorable  to  the  Lyric      ....  40 

2.   GENERAL  REFERENCES  .....  '  ............  41 

vii 


viii          .  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

§3.  OUTLINES  OF  THEORY  BY  NATIONALITIES:  SPECIAL  REFERENCES  85 

I.  Ancient  (Greek  and  Roman)  Theory  of  the  Lyric     .    .  85 

II.  The  Dark  Ages 88 

III.  Italian 89 

IV.  French 97 

^VT^nglish in 

VI.  German 129 

VII.  Dutch  and  Spanish 136 

CHAPTER  II.    HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

§4.   STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;  ANALYSIS 137 

I.  Beginnings  of  the  Lyric 141 

II.  Principles  of  Growth 144 

A.  Of  Individual  Lyrics  in  Process  of  Composition  .  144 

B.  Of  the  Evolution  of  the  Lyric  as  a  Type  ....  145 

C.  Influences  which  have  Modified  the  Lyric    .    .    .  146 

III.  Tendencies  of  the  Lyric 146 

IV.  Kinds  of  the  Lyric 147 

A.  Bases  of  Differentiation .147 

B.  Special  Forms 149 

§  5.   GENERAL  REFERENCES " 149 

§  6.  HISTORICAL  STUDY  BY  NATIONALITIES  :  SPECIAL  REFERENCES  182 

I.  The  Greek  Lyric 183 

II.  The  Roman  Lyric 189 

III.  The  Byzantine  Lyric 191 

IV.  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  Hymns  of  the  Dark  and 

Middle  Ages ^91 

V.  Other  Latin  Christian  Lyric  Poetry  from  the  2d  to  Jhe 

i4th  Century 195 

VI.  Latin  Poetry  of  the  i5th  and  i6th  Centuries     ....  203 

VII.  The  French  (including  the  Proven9al)  Lyric     ....  204 

VIII.  The  Italian  Lyric 225 

IX.  The  Spanish  Lyric 248 

X.  The  Portuguese  Lyric 261 

.•^--XTTThe  English  Lyric 265 

XII.  The  Celtic  Lyric  (Irish,  Scottish,  Welsh,  etc.)  ....  306 

XIII.  The  German  Lyric 309 

XIV.  The  Dutch  Lyric 337 


CONTENTS  ix 


PAGE 


XV.  The  Scandinavian  Lyric  in  General 339 

XVI.  The  Icelandic  Lyric 339 

XVII.  The  Swedish  Lyric 340 

XVIII.  The  Danish-Norwegian  Lyric 345 

XIX.  Lyric  Poetry  of  the  Lapps  and  Finns 352 

XX.  The  Russian  Lyric 352 

XXI.  Serbian,  Cheskian,  Magyar,  and  Polish  Lyrics     .    .  353 

XXII.  The  Turkish  Lyric 354 

XXIII.  The  Afghan  Lyric 355 

XXIV.  The  Syriac  and  Armenian  Lyric 355 

XXV.  The  Lyric  of  Arabia 355 

XXVI.  The  Persian  Lyric 356 

XXVII.  The  Indian  Lyric 361 

XXVIII.  The  Sumerian  and  Babylonian  Lyric 363 

XXIX.  The  Egyptian  Lyric 364 

XXX.  The  Ancient  Hebrew  Lyric 364 

XXXI.  The  Chinese  Lyric 367 

XXXII.  The  Japanese  Lyric 368 

XXXIII.  Lower  Races 369 

XXXIV.  Special  Forms, 374 

A.  The  Elegy 374 

B.  The  Epigram 412 

C.  The  Ode 417 

D.  The  Sonnet 420 

£.  The  Song 421 


PART  II.    THE  EPIC  AND  MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE 

POETRY 

CHAPTER  III.   THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 

§7.   STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;  ANALYSIS 423 

I.  Definitions  of  the  Epic 423 

II.  The  Nature  of  the  Epic    . 431 

A.  The  Relation  of  the  Poet  to  his  Work    ...  431 

B.  The  Subject  of  the  Epic 431 

III.  The  Technique  of  the  Epic 433 

A.  The  Elements  (Action,  Characters,  Plot)     .    .  433 

B.  The  Form ^. 436 

J 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

IV.  Varieties  of  the  Epic 436 

V.  Function  of  the  Epic 437 

A.  Aesthetic 437 

B.  Ethical  and  Religious 437 

C.  Historical      438 

VI.  Other  Special  Characteristics 439 

VII.  Minor  Forms  of  Narrative  Verse 439 

*~*><4.  Ballad 440 

B.  Pastoral 443 

C.  Idyl 445 

§  8.   GENERAL  REFERENCES •.    .    .  453 

§  9.   OUTLINES  OF  THEORY  BY  NATIONALITIES  :  SPECIAL  REFER- 
ENCES       507 

.   I.  Greek  Theory  of  the  Epic 508 

II.  Roman  Theory  of  the  Epic 513 

III.  Latin  Christian  Criticism  of  the  Dark  Ages      .    .    .  516 

IV.  Greek  Fathers  of  the  Church 519 

V.  Italian 520 

VI.  French • 535 

VII.  English 555 

VIII.  German 575 

IX.  Dutch  and  Spanish 589 

X.  Sanskrit 590 

CHAPTER  IV.   HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

§  10.   STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS  ;  ANALYSIS 591 

I.  What  is  the  Origin  of  the  Epic  ? 591 

A.  Psychological 591 

B.  Historical 593 

1.  Evolutionary  Theory 594 

2.  Individualistic  Theory 595 

3.  Relation  to  the  Lyric 596 

4.  Origin,  Distribution,  and  Transformation 

of  Epical  Stories 596 

II.  Stages  of  Development 599 

III.  Period  best  Fitted  to  Production  of  Heroic  Poetry 

and  Folk  Epic  . 600 

IV.  Development  of  the  Art  Epic t    .    .  600 


CONTENTS  xi 

PAGE 

V.  Classification  of  the  Epic 602 

VI.  Is  the  Age  of  Epic  Composition  Past? 603 

VII.  Sub-species  of  the  Epic 603 

VIII.  Relation  of  Epic  Proper  to  Allied  Forms      ....  604 

IX.  Minor  Forms  of  Narrative  Poetry 605 

~~A.  Ballad 605 

B.  Pastoral 609 

C.  Idyl .    .  611 

§  ii.   GENERAL  REFERENCES 615 

§  12.   HISTORICAL  STUDY  BY  NATIONALITIES  :  SPECIAL  REFERENCES  668 

I.  The  Homeric  Epics 668 

II.  Other  Greek  Epics 679 

III.  Roman  Epics 682 

IV.  Latin  Christian  Narrative  Poetry  to  the  Time  of  Dante  688 
V.  French  Epics 703 

VI.  Italian  Epics 712 

VII.  Spanish  Epics 729 

VIII.  Portuguese  Epics 734 

IX.  English  Epics 736 

X.  Gaelic  Epics 748 

XI.  German  Epics 749 

XII.  The  Dutch  Epic  and  Allied  Forms 765 

XIII.  Icelandic  and  Norse  Epical  Literature 767 

XIV.  Modern  Scandinavian  Epic,  Metrical  Romance,  etc.  770 
XV.  The  Finnish  Epic 773 

XVI.  Russian,  Polish,  and  Other  Epical  Materials     .    .    .  774 

XVII.  Persian  Epics 776 

XVIII.  The  Indian  Epic 778 

XIX.  The  Babylonian- Sumerian  Epic     .     . 782 

XX.  Various  Other  Epics  and  Epical  Material      ....  783 

— XXI.  Folk  Poetry  and  Fairy  Tales 783 

APPENDIX  :  A  Brief  Bibliography  of  the  History  of  Poetry   ...  785 

INDEX    .    .    . .  ' 847 


METHODS   AND   MATERIALS  OF 
LITERARY  CRITICISM 

LYRIC,  EPIC,  AND  ALLIED  FORMS  OF  POETRY 


PART   I.    THE   LYRIC  AND  SOME  OF 
ITS  SPECIAL   FORMS 

CHAPTER  I 

THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 

SECTION  i .    STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS  ;  ANALYSIS 

Theoretical  discussion  is  fascinating  but  not  final.  It  stirs  in- 
terest and  furnishes  a  working  hypothesis.  It  is  placed  first  in 
each  part  of  this  book  because  it  is  the  older  form  of  attack,  and 
because  it  prepares  the  way  for  the  concrete  method  of  historical 
investigation  which  follows :  under  Lyric,  in  Chapter  II ;  under 
Epic,  in  Chapter  IV. 

I.  Definitions  of  the  Lyric.  As  a  preliminary  to  independent 
investigation,  the  student  will  naturally  acquaint  himself  with  the 
opinions  of  writers  who  have  Adopted  distinctive  points  of  view. 
The  differences  usually  find  their  origin  in  the  variety  of  bases 
available  for  the  purpose  of  definition. 

The  lyric  may  be  defined  with  reference  to  its  content,  or  its 
form,  or  both.  Content  may  refer  subjectively  and  psychologically 
to  the  peculiarities  of  thought,  feeling,  will,  and  imagination  pre- 
sented in  the  poem,  or  objectively  to  the  representation  of  action, 
characters,  or  situations.  Under  the  form  of  the  lyric  are  sub- 
sumed ifs  metrical  scheme  and  quality,  its  singable,  melodious,  or 
tuneful  character,  its  relation  to  musical  accompaniment,  its  length, 
and  its  division  into  metrical,  logical,  or  emotional  parts.  In 
defining  on  a  basis  of  content  various  selections  or  combinations  of 
the  elements  involved  have  been  made  ;  obviously  such  definitions 
will  suffer  from  the  subtlety  and  ambiguity  of  the  subjective  terms 
on  which  they  may  be  founded.  If  the  formal  basis  be  adopted, 

3 


more  definite  limits  may  be  prescribed,  but  at  the  cost  of  arbitra- 
rily narrowing  the  lyric  field  and  ruthlessly  ignoring  the  inner  or 
spiritual  distinction  of  the  type.  Hence  it  is  that  many  critics  have 
preferred  to  adopt  as  basis  some  combination  of  characteristic  de- 
tails of^form  and  content.  Generally  speaking,  classical  and  renais- 
saficB^  criticism  preferred  the  formal  basis,  modern  philosophical 
'  vA&nd  romantic  criticism  has  emphasized  the  subjective  content  of 
the  lyric,  and  recent  professional  criticism  has  either  simplified  "the 
subjective  test  or  has  adopted  various  combinations  of  formal  and 
spiritual  differentiae.  Let  us  briefly  consider  these  three  critical 
tendencies. 

Ancient  writers  of  poetics  paid  little  attention  to  the  lyric, 
largely,  perhaps,  because  of  the  almost  purely  formal  conception 
of  the  type  that  then  obtained.  Among  the  Greeks,  for  instance, 
certain  metres  or  complex  pro'sodical  patterns  distinguished  lyric 
verse ;  the  three  kinds  of  the  lyric  —  elegiac,  iambic,  and  melic  — 
were  easily  differentiated  by  their  metrical  peculiarities.  Then,  too, 
the  lyric,  especially  melic  poetry,  was  always  regarded  as  very 
closely  connected  with  music,  sometimes  as  almost  synonymous 
with  music,  and  in  the  distinctions  of  musical  accompaniment  lay 
further  differentiations  of  a  formal  nature.  It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  Greek  lyric  could  not  be  differenced  from  the 
epic  merely  by  musical  accompaniment,  since,  on  the  one  hand, 
Homer  and  Hesiod  are  each  represented  with  a  lyre,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  elegiac  and  Jambic  verse  were  probably  not 
always  sung,  but  often  recited  with  slight  and  intermittent  accom- 
paniment. Again,  the  Greeks  classified  their  lyrics  formally  with 
reference  to  the  occasions  for  which  the  poems  were  composed. 
Poems  were  made  for  almost  every  occasion.  There  were  songs  for 
the  various  seasons  and  festivals,  plantings  and  reapings ;  hymns 
befitting  each  god,  and  severally  suited  to  a  great  diversity  of 
rituals  and  holidays  ;  birth  songs,  wedding  and  funeral  songs  ;  con- 
vivial songs  of  various  sorts ;  and  so  on  (see  Farnell,  pp.  3,  15-18). 
Dedicated  to  many  of  these  by  formal  custom  and  distinctive  prac- 
tice were,  as  already  suggested,  certain  marvellously  appropriate 


I] 

measures.  And  though  Alexandrian  and  Roman  poetry  lost  much 
of  that  sensitiveness  of  ear  that  had  naturally  decreed  the  conven- 
tions of  the  Greek  lyric  at  its  best,  yet  the  traditional  methods  of 
formal  differentiation  survived,  and  were  inherited  by  the  Italian 
and  French  critics  of  the  Renaissance.  "  During  the  Renaissance," 
says  Spingarn,  "  there  was  no  systematic  lyric  theory.  Those  who 
discussed  it  at  all  gave  most  of  their  attention  to  its  formal  struc- 
ture, its  style,  and  especially  the  conceit  which  it  contained.  The 
model  of  all  lyric  poetry  was  Petrarch,  and  it  was  in  accordance 
with  the  lyrical  poet's  agreement  or  disagreement  with  the  Petrar- 
chan method  that  he  was  regarded  as  a  success  or  a  failure  "  (Lit. 
Grit,  of  the  Renaissance,  ist  ed.,  1899,  p.  58). — On  the  variety  of 
the  Greek  lyric  see  Farnell,  Flach,  Jevons,  and  Symonds,  as  noted 
below,  §  5  ;  for  a  typical  ancient  notice  of  the  lyric,  see  below,  §  2, 
under  Aristotle.  For  historical  notices  of  Italian  and  French 
Petrarchism  qf  the  sixteenth  century,  see  Egger  and  Fieri,  §  5, 
and  under  Italy  and  France  in  the  historical  outlines  of  §  6.  For 
examples  of  renaissance  criticism  of  the  lyric  in  Italy,  Spingarn 
refers  to  Muzio,  Trissino,  Equicola,  Ruscelli,  Scaliger,  Minturno, — 
for  whom,  and  others,  see  below,  §  3  ;  renaissance  criticism  as  a 
whole  may  be  studied  by  means  of  other  notices  in  the  same  section. 
As  an  example  of  the  philosophical  critic's  emphasis  upon  the 
subjective  content  or  spiritual  apprehension  of  the  lyric,  Hegel's 
definition  (see  below,  §  2)  may  be  cited.  Hegel  remarks  that  the 
lyric  poet  draws  to  himself  all  the  world,  subjectifies  it  by  pene- 
trating it  with  his  own  personal  feeling,  and  then  expresses  it  in 
forms  appropriate  to  his  subjectivity.  Thus  the  lyric  is  distinguished 
from  other  major  types  of  poetry  as  an  utterance  of  personal 
subjectivity,  emotive  and  imaginative.  For  views  similar  to  this 
either  in  content  or  in  the  deductive  method  of  their  invention, 
see  Carriere,  Vischer,  von  Schelling,  Richter,  Wackernagel,  and 
Batteux.  Gosse  points  out  that  such  a  view  would  make  Words- 
worth's Excursion  a  lyric  and  Tennyson's  Revenge  an  epic. —  For 
other  philosophical  attempts  at  defining  the  lyric  by  means  of 
schematic  contrasts  with  the  epic  and  drama,  see  below,  vn. 


6  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

Eugen  Wolff,  it  may  be  noted,  arrives  by  an  inductive  investiga- 
tion at  a  somewhat  simpler  statement  of  lyric  subjectivity.  He 
finds  that  the  peculiarity  of  the  lyric  lies  in  the  expression  of  strong 
feeling  about  some  significant  circumstance,  and  in  the  attendant 
resolution,  composition, "  or~Tnediatibn  {Vermittlung)  of  the  emo- 
tional crisis.  Compare  Werner,  Bruchmann,  Geiger,  Woodberry, 
Palgrave,  and  Alden.  It  should  be  noted  in  this  connection  that 
for  the  practical  purpose  of  selecting  poems  for  a  collection  of 
lyrics  Palgrave's  similar  and  simple  formula,  that  the  lyric  "  turns 
on  some  single  thought,  feeling,  or  situation,"  and  is  characterized 
in  mode  "  by  brevity,  the  coloring  of  human  passion,"  and  a  com- 
mensurate "  rapidity  of  movement,"  has  proved  by  far  the  most 
apt  and  useful.  And  it  should  be  remarked  that,  whereas  the  defini- 
tion based  upon  the  philosophical  differentia  of  personal  subjectivity 
(Hegel  and  other  eighteenth-century  German  metaphysicians)  must 
be  strained  beyond  limit  to  accommodate  the  communal  choral  of 
primitive  races,  the  definition  of  Eugen  Wolff  and  those  who  are  in 
substantial  agreement  with  him  finds,  because  of  its  broader  inclu- 
siveness,  no  such  difficulty  of  application.  Indeed,  it  is  significant 
that  the  three  most  methodical  of  recent  observers  of  the  lyric,  the 
three  who  have  nearest  approached  to  ideal  methods  of  observa- 
tion —  Bruchmann,  Geiger,  and  Wolff  —  are  practically  at  one 
concerning  the  proper  differentia  of  _the  lyric  (compare  Werner) ; 
and  the  similarity  of  their  definition  to  the  most  convenient  of  all 
practical  tests  of  the  lyric  —  that  of  Palgrave  —  strengthens  the 
presumption  in  favor  of  the  substantial  accuracy  of  their  definition. 
Yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  reflective  lyric  is  possibly  as 
primitive  as  the  lyric  of  feeling  (cf.  Gummere,  Beginnings  of 
Poetry,  p.  420). 

As  already  indicated,  there  is  now  a  tendency  among  professional 
critics  to  combine  both  the  outer  and  the  inner  bases  of  definition 
by  insisting  upon  the  dual  character  of  the  lyric,  —  its  song-like 
or  tuneful  quality  or  form,  on  the  one  hand,  and  its  subjective  or 
personal  content  on  the  other  (see  Brunetiere,  F.  E.  Schelling, 
Gayley,  Reed,  Rhys;  for  a  discussion  of  such  definitions,  see 


IJ  DEFINITIONS  OF  THE  LYRIC  7 

Gosse,  Fuller).  Here  the  reliance  on  form  no  longer  has  reference, 
as  among  the  ancients,  to  specific  metrical  patterns,  but  to  a  general 
melody  that  renders  the  lyric  singable.  But  one  difficulty  in  such 
definitions  lies  in  the  fact  that  in  many  poems  that  universally  are 
called  lyrics  the  song-like  quality  is  not  obviously  present.  This  is 
particularly  true" of  the  sonnet  in  general,  and  Lycidas  may  serve 
as  an  example  of  many  lyrics  other  than  sonnets  that  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  imply  a  musical  accompaniment.  Various  definitions  of 
song-quality  have  been  suggestecllTrrneet  this  difficulty.  Brunetiere 
declared  that  in  the  modern,  mute  lyric  the  quality  of  the  original 
song-lyric  survives  in  an  extraordinary,  supple  adaptation  of  rhythms 
to  the  mood  of  the  poet.  This  produces  an  "effect  of  "  inward 
song."  Professor  Gayley  suggests  the  word  "  tuneful  "  as  descrip- 
tive of  this  mute  and  inward  song ;  compare  Wordsworth  (Preface, 
1815)  on  "an  animated  or  impassioned  recitation"  as  taking  the 
place  of  musical  accompaniment.  Gosse  somewhat  ironically  takes 
cognizance  of  the  musical  crux  when  he  speaks  of  the  lyric  as 
poetry  "  which  is,  or  can  be  supposed  to  be,  susceptible  of  being 
sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  musical  instrument." 

One  other  modern  conception  of  the  lyric,  advanced  by  Jouffroy, 
Gosse,  Fuller,  Drinkwater,  and  others,  should  be  noted.  In  despair 
of  surmounting  the  philosophical  vagueness  of  the  subjective  test 
and  the  practical  difficulties  of  the  song  or  musical  test,  they  see  in 
the  lyric  a  term  signifying  merely  the  essence  of  poetry  (see  Gosse). 
In  other  words,  pure  poetry,  that  which  has  the  essentially  poetic 
quality,  is  lyric  poetry ;  every  composition  becomes  increasingly 
lyrical  as  it  becomes  more  and  more  poetic.  The  more  poetical  a 
drama  is,  the  more  lyrical  it  is ;  the  more  poetic  an  epic,  the  more 
lyrical  it  must  be.  The  most  poetic  passages  in  drama  and  epic 
are  lyrical.  Alfred  Croiset  writes  in  his  La  Poesie  de  Pindare : 
"Ce  que  nous  appe'lons  de  ce  nom  [la  poesie  lyrique]  dans  les 
litteratures  modernes  n'est  en  general  qu'une  poesie  d'une  inspi- 
ration plus  hardie,  d'un  tour  plus^  libre,  d'un  rhythme  plus  vane", 
destine  a  traduire  des  emotions  plus  fortes."  But  have  we  not  in 
such  a  conception  a  mere  confusion  of  kind  and  quality  ?  The 


8  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

lyrical  quality  does  indeed  pervade  drama  and  epic,  and  not  seldom 
is  its  presence  obvious  in  the  most  poetic  passages.  But  that  in 
no  way  affects  the  existence  of  the  lyric  as  a  kind  separate  from 
drama  and  epic.  Besides,  it  is  clearly  impossible  to  group  all  poetry 
under  these  two  "  pragmatic  "  types,  epic  and  drama.  Why  should 
the  term  '  lyric '  be  denied  to  a  part,  at  least,  of  what  is  left  ? 

But  the  adequacy  of  any  of  these  definitions  or  their  bases  can 
be  determined  only  after  consideration  of  such  questions  as  appear 
under  the  following  divisions  of  this  section. 

II.  The  Nature  of  the  Lyric.  Approaching  the  problem  more 
independently  the  student  may  proceed  somewhat  as  follows  and, 
regarding  the  questions  under  each  head  not  as  categorical  but  as 
provocative  of  further  analysis  and  inquiry,  develop  a  tentative 
theory  or  alternative  theories  of  the  subject  under  consideration. 

A.   The  Lyric  Poet. 

i .  To  what  extent  may  his  personality  be  sought  in  his  work  ? 
(a)  Is  the  poet  both  the  subject  and  the  object  of  the  lyric  ? 
(£)  Can  we  consider  his  work  apart  from  his.  personality  ?  (c)  Does 
the  question  of  the  lyrist's  morals  fall  within  the  realm  of  literary 
criticism  ?  On  these  questions  see  the  references  in  the  next  section 
to  Schopenhauer,  Vischer,  Hegel,  Werner,  Ulrici,  Watts-Dunton, 
Browning,  (t?)  Can  it  be  shown  that  those  poets  who  have  been 
most  possessed  of  lyric  genius  have  been  most  emotional  in  tem- 
perament, or  in  any  respect  peculiarly  emotional?  (e)  It  should 
be  noted  that  the  subjective  character  of  the  lyric  does  not  limit  it 
to  autobiographical  material,  for  it  may  spring  from  the  power  of 
the  poet  to  enter  into  the  feelings  of  others  and  speak  as  they 
would.  See  Alden.  This  power  may  be  called  the  re-presentative 
power  of  the  poet  as  distinguished  from  his  power  of  present- 
ing his  own  emotions  and  ideas.  Compare  the  '  dramatic-lyric.' 
(/)  Upon  the  wealth  of  the  poet's  artistic  personality,  says 
Geiger,  depends  the  value  of  the  poem ;  this  personality  condi- 
tions both  the  nature  and  the  expression  of  experience.  Hence  it 
follows  that  the  "  inner  image  "  is  the  decisive  point  in  the  poet's 
experience  and  creation.  Upon  the  nature  and  variety  of  the  inner 


II,  A]  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  LYRIC  9 

image  depends,  therefore,  the  variety  of  states  which  serve  the  poet 
as  the  stuff  of  his  creations  (cf.  below,  2,  (£),  the  lyric  mood). 

2.  What  is  the  '  lyric  mood '  ?  (a)  Does  it  arise  from  "  the 
mingling  or  the  contrast  of  two  conflicting  principles,"  and  if  so, 
what  are  the  principles  ?  (b)  Does  it  arise  from  the  disturbance  of 
mental  tranquillity  by  a  sense  of  personal  unrest?  or  (c)  from 
some  "  inverted  action  of  mind  upon  will "  ?  See  Schopenhauer, 
Brockhaus,  Vischer,  Hegel,  Mill,  (d)  Is  the  lyric  mood  essentially 
religious?  Ulrici,  Hegel,  (e)  Is  it  the  supremely  poetic  emotion? 
the  fundamental  poetic  inspiration,  "  die  Seele  aller  Poesie "  ? 
Jouffroy,  Gosse,  Fuller.  (/)  Is  it  enthusiasm  ?  (Batteux).  Or 
emotion,  "  shared  and  controlled "  ?  Compare  Woodberry  (In- 
spiration of  Poetry),  (g)  What  relation  exists  between  the  lyrical 
and  the  musical  mood  ?  See  Lanier,  Gurney,  Schopenhauer,  Du 
Prel,  Watts-Dunton.  (/;)  Does  it  always  tend  to  personify  its  sub- 
ject by  the  intensity  of  its  realization  of  the  subject  ?  See  Mendels- 
sohn, Carriere  (Die  Poesie,  pp.  373-374)-  (*)  Is  it  more  feminine 
in  character  than  the  epic  and  dramatic  moods  ?  See  Bruchmann, 
pp.  58-68,  112.  (/)  How  does  the  James-Lange  theory  of  the 
emotions  affect  the  theory  of  the  lyric?  See  W.  James,  Psychol- 
ogy, Briefer  Course,  pp.  375  ff. ;  also,  the  same  author's  Principles 
of  Psychology ;  and  compare  W.  Wundt,  Outlines  of  Psychology, 
p.  193  (Trans,  by  C.  H.  Judd,  2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1902).  (K)  The 
lyric  mood  may  be  regarded  in  its  relation  to  will  and  thought  as 
subjective  factors  conditioning  feeling,  and  in  relation  to  external 
things  as  objective  controls  of  feeling.  Reasoned  thought,  for 
instance,  is  less  adapted  to  the  lyric  mood  than  is  intuitive  thought ; 
instinctive  will,  as  in  desires,  is  eminently  lyrical,  whereas  rational 
will  is  lyrical  when  the  idea-content  is  concrete,  as  in  a  patriotic 
song.  On  the  other  hand,  external  objects  (general  situation, 
particular  object,  mankind,  a  particular  individual)  enter  into  the 
lyrical  mood  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  feeling  attached  to 
them :  if  the  poet's  emotions  are  very  deeply  stirred,  he  tends 
to  ignore  the  situation  or  other  object  related  to  his  feelings ; 
with  somewhat  less  of  emotional  stress,  glimpses  of  the  related 


10  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

object  constitute  part  of  his  inner  image  and  mood,  and  so  appear 
in  the  poem ;  when  he  is  but  slightly  moved,  there  occurs  a  fluctu- 
ation of  object  and  emotion;  when  the  poet  is  in  a  restful,  har- 
monious mood,  the  object  is  of  greater  weight  in  image  and  mood, 
and  is  manifest  in  the  poem  itself;  when  the  passions  are  scarcely 
stirred,  the  object  reigns  supreme  in  mood,  image,  and  poem. 
See  Geiger. 

B.   The  Lyric  Subject. 

1.  Its   Essential    Character,     (a)    The    poet's    own   impulse  or 
desire  ?     (<£)  The  "  attempt  to  justify  passion  by  idealizing  its 
object "  ?   (c)  A  "  movement  of  the  fancy  by  which  the  individual 
spirit  seeks  to  attain  broader  freedom  "  ?    (</)  Some  objective  con- 
dition aroused  by  an  external  stimulus  ?    (e)  The  "  identification  of 
the  poet  with  the  object  described  "  ?    (_/)  Is  it  the  "  inner  music 
of  the  feelings  "  ?    (g)  Is  it  some  special  ordering  of  the  inspired 
imagination,  such  as  the  association  by  the  imagination  of  images 
and  ideas  independent  of  a  controlling  reference  to  an  objective 
model  ?  Compare  Mendelssohn  and  Engel ;  see  also  J.  M.  Baldwin. 
(K)  Can  the  lyric  be  said  to  '  imitate  '  the  invisible  emotion  ?  (/)  Is 
onomatopoetic  illusion  characteristic  of   the  lyric  ?     See  Lange. 
(_/')  On  the  "  inner  image  "  as  affording  the  lyric  subject,  and  on 
its  varieties  as  determined  by  its  relations  to  subjective  conditions 
and  objective  controls,  see  above,  A,  i,  (/)  ;  2,  (K).  • 

2.  Its  Methods.    Wherein  lies  the  unity  of  the  lyric?    (a)  Is  it 
in  some  "  feeling  which  takes  the  place  of  a  central  idea  "  ?  (li)  Or 
in  some  moment  of  passion  ?   (c)  Or  in  some  conflict  between,  or 
commingling  of,  emotions,  or  of  essential  principles  of  conduct? 
(d)  Or  in  the  emotional  atmosphere  that  invests  a  crisis  of  action  ? 
On  these  points  see  Hegel,  Ulrici,  Mill,  Stedman,  Palgrave,  Lotze, 
Browning,  Viehoff,  Vischer,  Watts-Dunton,  Schopenhauer,  Werner, 
von  Hartmann,  Gayley. 

3.  Its  Limitations,    (a)  Are  the  moods  and   situations  of  the 
lyric  capable  of  permanence  ?   (<£)  Can  the  feelings  expressed  be 
anything  more  than  particular  and  individual  ?    (c)  To  what  extent 
are  the  freedom,  simplicity,  and  sincerity  of  the  lyric  limited? 


II,  B]  THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  THE  LYRIC  1 1 

(d)  Are  the  occasional,  and  the  universal  the  upper  and  lower 
limits  respectively  of  the  lyric  ?  And  can  the  ancient  lyric  be  said 
to  be  predominantly  occasional,  the  modern  predominantly  uni- 
versal ?  See  below,  §  5,  Jevons.  (e)  Does  the  lyric  range  over 
the  whole  field  of  human  emotion  ?  Are  misanthropy  and  ^cynicism 
adapted  to  lyric  expression  ?  See  Schelling  (The  English  Lyric, 
Chap.  I).  (/)  Is  it  more  difficult  to  translate  the  lyric  than  poems 
of  other  types?  See  Mill,  Lotze,  Hegel,  Schopenhauer,  Werner, 
Brunetiere  (La  poesie  intime,  in  Rev.  d.  Deux  Mondes,  Aug.  i, 
1875),  and  compare  the  following  lines: 

Das  ist  des  Lyrikers  Kunst,  aussprechen  was  alien  gemein  ist, 

Wie  er's  im  tiefsten  Gemiith  neu  und  besonders  erschuf ; 
Oder  dem  Eigensten  auch  solch  allverstandlich  Geprage 
Leihn,  dass  jeglicher  drin  staunend  sich  selber  erkennt. 

E.  Geibel,  Gesammelte  Werke  (8  vols., 
Stuttgart:   1883),  vol.  V,  p.  36. 

III.  The  Technique  of  the  Lyric. 

A.  The  Relation  of  Music  to  Language.    In  the  poetical  song, 
such  as  the  early  chant  or  the  modern  hymn,  do  the  words  supply 
the  idea  and  the  music  the  emotion  ?    And  does  the  modern  or 
'  art '  lyric,  by  its  increase  of  the  verbal  melody,  tend  to  usurp  the 
functions  of  music  and  lift  itself  above  the  possibility  of  accom- 
paniment?   See  Erskine,  Chap.  I,  and  Brunetiere,  on  the  chant 
interieur.     The  problem  of  the  relation  of  music  to  poetry  is 
particularly  pertinent  to  the  lyric:  for  references,  see  below,  §  2, 
under  Ambros.    The  principles  of  versification  have  been  treated 
in  Gayley  and  Scott,  Lit.  Crit.,  §§  22-24;  statement  of  problems, 
references,  and  a  general  note  may  there  be  found. 

B.  The  Form  of  the  Lyric. 

i.  In  general,  on  swiftness,  intensity  of  movement,  episodes,  etc., 
see  Hegel,  Watts-Dunton,  Stedman ;  on  figures,  see  Herder. 
(a)  What  kinds  of  metre  are  a  priori  preferable  ?  (V)  What 
kinds  are  especially  affected  by  each  of  the  different  languages? 
(<:)  Is  rhyme  more  useful  here  than  in  the  other  kinds  of  poetry? 
(</)  Relative  value  of  '  elegance,'  '  formality,'  poetic  abandon, 


12  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

Willkurlichkeit,  or  waywardness  of  rhythm  ?  Does  the  lyric  form 
tend  toward  brevity,  and  if  so  is  this  because  the  lyric  is  the 
expression  of  inconstant  feeling-states  ?  Geiger. 

2.  Form  as  internal  structure  (motivation,  development,  etc.). 
(a)  How  is  the  ballad  differentiated  from  the  song  by  the  motive  of 
narration  in  the  former  ?  (b)  Is  there  a  '  lyric  unit '  ?  (c)  Is  unity 
of  emotion  in  the  lyric  comparable  to  unity  of  action  in  the  drama  ? 
Has  the  lyric,  as  the  expression  of  a  single  emotion,  a  more  absolute 
unity  than  any  of  the  other  kinds  of  poetry  ?  (//)  Does  the  lyric 
always  begin  by  reproducing  the  cause  or  stimulus  of  its  emotion  ? 
(e)  Does  this  stimulus  or  motive  remain  distinct,  or  is  it  absorbed 
into  the  poem  ?  When  the  poet  is  deeply  moved  does  he  ignore  the 
stimulus  or  object  of  his  emotion,  while  absorbed  in  the  expression 
of  the  emotion  itself  ?  When  he  is  not  deeply  moved  does  the  object 
(person  or  situation)  of  the  emotion  tend  to  appear  more  definitely 
in  the  poem  ?  (_/)  Does  the  lyric  end  with  or  before  the  subsidence 
of  the  emotional  excitement  ?  (g)  Are  the  emotional  stimulus  and  the 
subject  of  the  lyric  necessarily  identical  ?  (ft)  Consider  the  follow- 
ing statement :  "  If  the  original  stimulus  does  not  .  .  .  control  and 
sustain  the  emotion,  the  lyric  either  breaks  down  entirely,  or  else  sepa- 
rates into  fragments,  each  a  complete  lyric  unit  in  itself  "  (Erskine, 
p.  14).  (t)  Consider  the  following  account  of  lyric  structure,  based 
upon  the  relation  of  the  lyric  to  the  outer  and  the  inner  worlds. 

Simplest  of  all  is  the  lyric  that  remains  in  the  outer  world,  though  it 
expresses  the  inner  emotion  aroused  by  it ;  an  example  of  this  type  is 
the  old  English  [Cuckoo  Song],  which  begins  and»ends  with  the  coming 
of  summer  and  the  cuckoo.  More  familiar  is  the  lyric  which  takes  its 
beginning  at  a  point  in  the  outer  world,  but  passes  to  the  invisible 
world  of  emotional  reflection ;  of  this  type  a  great  example  is  Keats's 
Ode  on  a  Grecian  Urn,  which  takes  its  point  of  departure  at  the  visible 
object,  and  passes  to  profoundly  emotional  reflection  on  the  immortality 
of  the  spirit  of  beauty.  Or,  still  further,  we  may  have  the  lyric  which 
is  wholly  of  the  inner  life,  like  certain  of  Shakespere's  sonnets  (for 
example,  that  beginning  "  Poor  soul,  the  center  of  my  sinful  earth  "). 
Lyrics  of  this  last  type  aje  most  likely  to  be  reflective,  and  hence  to 
move  furthest  away  from  the  pure  or  song  type  (Alden,  p.  58). 


IV,  A]  SPECIAL  FORMS  13 

(/)  To  what  extent  is  the  idyl  made  up  of  a  series  of  lyrics, 
each  separate  picture  affording  a  lyrical  stimulus  ?  (£)  Does  the 
force  of  the  emotion  naturally  adjust  the  length  of  the  lyric? 
On  these  points,  see  Erskine,  Geiger,  Alden,  Hepple,  Werner, 
Gottschall,  Vischer,  Viehoff. 

For  notes  on  the  technique  of  special  forms  of  the  lyric  see 
under  the  next  division,  iv. 

IV.  Special  Forms.  In  the  following  enumeration  no  attempt 
has  been  made  to  proceed  by  logical  division  of  the  lyric  field. 
Such  division  (see  the  attempts  by  Werner  and  Moulton)  can  be 
intelligently  undertaken  by  the  student  only  after  he  has  acquainted 
himself  with  the  variety  of  kinds  most  frequently  practised  and 
mentioned,  and  critically  recognized  because  of  the  sanction  of  long 
custom.  The  subtypes,  forms,  or  kinds  here  presented  for  brief 
notice  are  neither  mutually  exclusive  nor  collectively  exhaustive  of 
the  species.  Principles  of  classification  will  be  considered  under  v, 
below.  Here  mere  hints  can  be  given  (which,  however,  may  be 
developed  in  the  light  of  the  suggestions  outlined  in  the  sections  on 
lyric  theory  in  general),  and  a  few  references  that  may  open  the 
way  to  individual  research. 

A.  Song.  The  improvised  lyric  song,  communal  or  individual, 
popular  or  artistic,  is  probably  the  simplest  and  most  spontaneous 
form  of  lyric  expression.  From  it  as  a  perpendicular  the  various 
special  forms  might  be  diagrammed  as  declensions  toward  the 
horizontal  of  the  conscious,  reflective  lyric  that  is  practically  without 
musical  adaptability  (see  K,  below).  The  true  song  is  primarily  the 
instinctive  outburst  of  emotion  or  emotional  thought  in  language 
which  by  aptness  of  word  and ,  rhythm  echoes  or  suggests  the 
underlying  emotion  and  by  melody  of  line  and  harmony  of  stanza 
is  adapted  to  such  modulations  of  the  singing  voice  as  naturally 
distinguish  emotional  utterance.  The  words  must  be  simple  and, 
at  the  same  time,  rich  in  connotation  and  sensuous.  The  rhythm 
must  reproduce  the  urgency  and  speed,  .the  flow  and  ebb,  of  the 
dominant  feeling,  on  the  one  hand  emphasizing  the  movement  by 
the  regularity  of  metre,  on  the  other  avoiding  rigidity.  The  melody 


14  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

must  be  facile  in  its  consonant-sequences,  preferably  open  in  the 
quality  and  varied  in  the  musical  pitch  of  its  vowel  sounds.  The 
harmony,  whether  of  end-rhyme  or  other  correspondence  of  sounds 
within  the  stanza,  should  be  artistically  varied,  but  so  obvious  as  to 
be  readily  apprehended,  even  anticipated  by  the  ear.  The  more 
familiar,  or  at  any  rate  unforced,  the  rhyming  and  metrical  scheme, 
the  better.  The  appeal  is  not  to  intellect  or  will,  at  least  not  in 
the  first  instance,  but  to  feeling—  "deep  calleth  unto  deep" 
and  the  nearer  the  burden  of  the  song,  the  imaginative  vesture  of 
the  conception,  and  the  musical  art  of  the  utterance  to  the  com- 
mon feeling  and  experience  of  the  race,  the  more  instinctively 
does  "  knowledge  answer  to  knowledge,"  the  reader  or  hearer  re- 
spond to  the  mood  of  the  poet  and  sing  it  understandingly  for  and 
of  himself.  The  song  is,  therefore,  more  than  any  other  lyric  kind 
a  musical  '  cry.'  The  treatment  of  the  mood,  image,  or  thought  is 
accordingly  subjective,  suggestive  rather  than  expressive,  implicit 
rather  than  enumerative,  and  of.  the  winged  swiftness  and  brevity 
appropriate  to  the  nature  of  the  peculiar  '  cry.'  The  structure  of 
stanzas  or  strophes  also  has  its  affinity  to  music.  Indeed  so  intimate 
is  the  connection  with  music  that  song  demands  and  receives  as 
much  attention  as  a  branch  of  that  art  as  of  poetry;  and  in  the 
dictionaries  of  music  some  of  the  best  analysis  and  most  helpful 
criticism  is  to  be  found. 

The  term  '  song '  is'  applied  to  an  immense  poetic  and  musical 
demesne.  In  the  parlance  of  the  latter,  indeed,  it  refers  to  any 
short  poem,  whether  lyrical,  narrative,  or  reflective,  set  to  music ; 
the  ballad,  for  instance,  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  song.  But  even 
,  short  of  such  extension  of  the  term  its  denotation  is  immense, 
since  man  has  always  been  accustomed  on  the  greatest  variety  of 
occasions  to  break  into  brief  songs  of  which  a  large  majority  are 
almost  as  winged  and  ephemeral  as 'the  singing  word  itself.  It 
follows  that  an  adequate  division  of  this  practically  illimitable  field 
is  impossible,  —  at-the  best  arbitrary  and  fruitless.  The  musician 
adopts  a  differentiation  between -songs  intended  for  one  voice  or  a 
unisonous  chorus  (homophonic  songs)  and  those  sung  in  parts, 


IV,  A]  THE  SONG 

such  as  glees  and  madrigals  (polyphonic  songs).  The  German 
historian  is  fond  of  the  division  into  popular  or  folk  song  (Vblkslied) 
and  artistic  song  (KunstlietF)  ;  but,  since  it  is  often  impossible  to 
determine  into  which  of  the  classes  a  song  may  fall,  this  division 
indicates  origin  or  tendency  rather  than  a  fixed  and  definite  dis- 
tinction. If  occasion  or  subject  be  taken  as  the  principle  of  divi- 
sion, exhaustive  enumeration  and  clean  partition  are  difficult  to 
secure.  But  in  spite  of  the  overlapping  of  such  subheads  as  love 
songs,  mocking  songs,  drinking  songs,  working  songs,  magical  songs 
or  charms,  religious,  festival,  or  seasonal  songs,  patriotic  songs,  ele- 
giac songs,  war  songs,  political  songs,  moral  songs,  and  dance 
songs,  and  their  failure  jointly  to  cover  the  field  of  lyric  occasion 
and  subject,  they  yet  afford  the  most  satisfactory  classification  for 
the  general  purposes  of  description  and  rough  identification.  From 
the  historical  point  of  view  modern  European  song  has  been  usu- 
ally traced  through  three  stages  :  the  medieval  of  Provencal  origin, 
with  the  respective  national  developments,  the  later  popular,  and 
the  later  artistic.  The  second  and  third  of  these  divisions  corre- 
spond roughly  to  historical  sequence,  since  with  the  sophistication 
of  emotion  and  thought  in  later  ages  the  artistic  lyric  tends  to 
take  the  place,  among  the  upper  classes,  of  the  popular  lyric. 

The  student  of  song  in  its  national  development  will  be  inter- 
ested in  tracing  in  individual  literatures  the  variety  and  nomen- 
clature of  special  forms.  He  will  inquire  to  what  extent  these 
national  varieties  possess  common  or  peculiar  characteristics,  and 
with  what  persistency  of  national  trait  in  subject  and  treatment. 
The  mere  enumeration  of  kinds  and  descriptive  terms  is  a  task  in 
itself.  The  Greeks,  for  instance,  possessed  scores  of  songs  differ- 
entiated by  occasion,  some  of  which  were  choral  (more  properly 
called  odes),  others  non-choral  or  monodic.  The  greater  number 
of  their  non-choral  songs  wefe  convivial  (paroenia,  scolia ;  Ter- 
pander  the  reputed  inventor).  Among  other  songs,  partly  monodic, 
partly  choral,  may  be  mentioned  the  famous  chelidonisma,  or 
swallow  song,  the  flower  song,  the  threnos,  or  dirge,  the  didactic 
nomos,  and  such  seasonal  songs  as  the  Linus,  Adonis,  ffyadnthus, 


l6  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

and  Lityerses  songs  (see  Flach,  Farnell,  and  other  references 
below,  §  6,  i,  The  Greek  Lyric).  And  in  modern  Europe  a 
somewhat  similar  diversity  is  found.  Just  a  few  of  the  Provengal- 
French  types,  for  instance,  are  the  alba  and  serena  (morning  song 
and  serenade),  the  sirvente  (the  address  of  the  devoted  servant  of 
love  to  his  mistress),  the  tenson,  or  dispute  about  a  point  of  gal- 
lantry, the  pastoral  erotic  song  known  as  pastourelle,  the  melan- 
choly lai,  dancing  songs  such  as  the  ballettes,  or  the  rondet  de  carol, 
or  the  espringerie  (jumping  dance  song)  ;  later,  we  have  in  France 
up  to  the  sixteenth  century  the  gradual  crystallization  of  early 
forms  in  the  chanson,  vaudeville,  noel,  madrigal,  rondeau,  rondel, 
triolet,  villanelle,  ballade,  sestina,  chant-royal,  pantoum ;  and,  in 
the  revolutionary  days  of  1798  and  1830,  a  host  of  political  and 
artistic  songs  of  varieties  old  and  new.  Among  the  great  modern 
writers  of  songs  Hugo,  Beranger,  Larnartine,  de  Musset,  de  Ban- 
ville,  and  Delavigne  may  be  mentioned.  See  the  section  by  M.  A. 
Jeanroy  in  vol.  I  of  Petit  de  Julleville's  Hist,  de  la  langue  et  de  la 
litterature  franchise,  where  further  bibliography  will  be  found  ;  see 
also,  on  French  poems,  de  Gramont,  Les  vers  fra^ais  et  leur  pro- 
sodie  (Paris),  and  Th.  de  Banville,  Petit  traite'  de  poesie  franchise 
(Paris  :  1881),  and  below,  §  6,  vn,  The  French  Lyric  :  on  English 
imitations  of  French  song  metres  see  Austin  Dobson,  Foreign  Forms 
of  Verse,  in  W.  D.  Adams'  Latter-Day  Lyrics  (Lond. :  1878)  ;  Tom 
Hood  the  Younger,  The  Rhymester  (ed.  "  Arthur  Penn,"  N.Y. : 
1882);  E.  W.  Gosse,  Plea  for  Certain  Exotic  Forms  of  Verse 
(in  Cornhtll,  July,  1877);  G.  Saintsbury,  History  of  English 
Prosody  (vol.  Ill,  387-391.  Lond.:  1910);  C.  M.  Gayley,  Prin- 
ciples of  Poetry ;  and  Alden,  Introd.  to  Poetry.  Among  Italian 
forms  are  the  ballate  and  intuonate  (amatory  dance  songs),  the 
maggiolate  or  May-day  songs,  the  canti  carnascialeschi  (carnival 
songs),  the  villanelle,  frottole,  madrigali,  and  the  three  principal 
forms  of  the  amatory  canti  popolari,  viz.,  the  strambotto,  stornello, 
and  rispetto ;  also  canzoni  of  many  varieties,  such  as  the  Petrarchan, 
Pindaric,  Anacreontic,  religious ;  and  the  canti  nazionali,  patriotic- 
political,  dating  from  the  modern  national  revival  (see  Symonds, 


IV,  C]  THE  HYMN  17 

Lit.  of  Ital.  Renaissance,  vol.  I,  pp.  261  ff.,  and  references  below, 
§  6,  vm,  The  Italian  Lyric,  A,  j). 

Further  enumeration  would  be  useless,  since  the  student  may  easily 
turn  to  works  where  fuller  information  abounds.  For  bibliography  of 
the  subject,  covering  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  Scandinavia,  Hungary, 
Russia,  and  the  Slavonic  nations,  and,  most  important  among  later 
artistic  developments,  Germany,  see  the  article  Song  by  Mrs.  Edmond 
(A.  H.)  Wodehouse  in  Grove's  Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians, 
vol.  Ill  (Lond. :  1883),  which  also  cites  some  of  the  older  authorities. 
See  also  Burney's  Hist,  of  Music,  Ambros'  Geschichte  der  Musik,  and 
the  Oxford  Hist,  of  Music.  Articles  on  Song  in  the  encyclopedias  also 
are  helpful  (Encyc.  Brit.,  with  bibliographical  note,  Larousse,  etc.).  The 
long  article  Lied  in  Blankenburg-Sulzer  (ciced  below,  §  2)  contains  exten- 
sive references  (critical  and  historical)  from  the  Ancient  Greeks  down 
to  the  close  of  the  i8th  century  in  Europe.  Similar  lists  in  Quadrio 
(cited  §  2).  J.  G.  Jacobi's  Abhandlung  iiber  das  Lied  und  den  Ursprung 
des  Liedes  (in  Iris,  vols.  VI-VIII.  i  776)  may  also  be  mentioned. 

On  English  song  see  the  monographs  of  Erskine,  Schelling,  and 
Reed  (cited  §  2),  in  the  bibliographical  appendices  to  which  will  be 
found  many  references  both  critical  and  historical,  and  also  lists  of 
song-anthologies.  On  German  song  see  Reissmann,  Gesch.  des  deut- 
schen  Liedes  (1874);  Schneider,  Das  musikalische  Lied  (1863).  In 
general  on  the  song,  its  kinds,  qualities,  virtues,  etc.,  see  Watts-Dunton 
(Encyc.  Brit.,  Poetry),  Hegel,  Vischer,  von  Hartmann,  Carriere,  Lotze, 
Saintsbury  (Hist.  Eng.  Prosody),  and  the  references  to  Abbott  and 
Seeley,  Lanier,  Mayor,  Schipper,  etc.,  given  and  discussed  in  Gayley 
and  Scott,  §§  22-24.  For  suggestions  on  the  historical  study  of  the 
song,  see  below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  E,  The  Song. 

B.  Hymn.   On  the  hymn,  a  special  type  of  the  song,  see  below, 
§  6,  iv,  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  Hymns ;  xi,  The  English  Lyric, 
G  ;  xni,  The  German  Lyric,  D-G. 

C.  Ode.    The  ode  may  be  regular  or  irregular  in  form.    The 
regular  ode,  descending  from  the  ancient  Dorian  odes  of  Pindar 
and  his  school,  is  distinguished  by  a  composition  unit  of  three 
stanzas  known  as  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode,  —  this  unit  being 
repeated  until  the  poem  is  complete.    "  The  strophe  or  '  turn '  and 
the  antistrophe  or  '  counter-turn '  were  chanted   by  the   Greek 
chorus  of  singers  as  they  moved  up  one  side  of  the  orchestra  and 


18  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

came  down  the  other  ;  the  epode  was  chanted  after  they  came  to 
a  '  stand.'  "  There  was  elaborate  musical  accompaniment.  Strophe 
and  antistrophe  correspond  in  form ;  the  epode  is  in  another  but 
complementary  form.  The  technique  of  these  stanzas  is  complex 
and  intricate  but  definitely  patterned.  In  the  ancient  ode  they  fall 
in  the  sequence  enumerated  above,  but  in  modern  imitations  their 
positions  have  often  been  transposed.  Another  form  of  regular 
ode  is  derived  from  the  Aeolian  school  and  is  known  as  the 
Anacreontic  or,  from  Horace  who  cultivated  it  and  handed  it  down, 
the  Horatian.  It  is  dignified  in  subject,  exalted  in  style,  and  enthu- 
siastic in  tone ;  but  it  is  an  ode  merely  by  courtesy,  for  in  form  it 
uses  the  same  stanza  throughout  and  a  simple  one  at  that ;  and  it 
lacks  the  elaboration  of  '  turn,'  '  counter-turn,'  and  '  stand.'  Tech- 
nically it  may  be  called  the  stanzaic  ode.  In  England  it  was  first 
cultivated  with  success  by  Drayton  and  Jonson. — The  irregular  ode 
(a  modern  invention  i  descending  from  the  experiments  of  Cowley, 
who  did  not  detect  the  complex  regularity  of  the  Pindaric  ode  but 
conceived  it  to  be  an  unsystematic  strain  of  unpremeditated  pas- 
sion) is  distinguished  by  complete  liberty  of  line,  rhyme,  and 
stanza,  and  by  an  audacious  intention  to  recognize  as  the  only  law 
of  expression,  the  mood,  imagination,  and  shifting  gust  of  the 
furor  poeticus. 

With  regard  to  the  form  of  the  regular  ode  many  questions 
arise,  (i)  Is  there  any  ascertainable  limit  of  length?  Does  its 
elevated  style  render  the  ode  more  capable  of  sustained  interest 
and  effect  than  other  lyric  forms  ?  (2)  Are  the  best  effects  gained 
by  intellectual  and  metrical  balancing  of  the  strophes  ?  Is  some 
regular  distribution  of  thought  between  the  two  strophes,  as  in  the 
octave  and  sestet  of  a  sonnet,  generally  desirable  ?  (3)  Should  the 
epode  echo  the  strophes,  or  resolve  their  problem  or  motive,  or 
mitigate  their  passion,  or  increase  their  passion  and  suspense  ? 
Should  there  be  a  flow  and  ebb  of  thought,  feeling,  and  harmony, 
with  the  crest  of  the  wave  between  the  strophes  and  the  epode  ? 
Are  such  effects  rendered  impossible  by  placing  the  epode  between 
the  strophes,  and  if  so  what  other  effects  are  gained  by  such 


IV,  C]  THE  ODE  19 

arrangement  ?  Should  the  epode  be  more  regular  in  form  than  the 
strophes,  or  more  varied  ?  (4)  By  what  is  the  actual  construction 
of  each  stanza  dictated  —  caprice  of  the  poet  or  "  the  inevitableness 
of  emotional  expression  "  ?  If  it  be  held  that  every  detail,  even  to 
the  finest  shadings,  of  the  stanzaic  pattern  —  feet,  length  and 
number  of  lines,  rhyme  scheme,  etc.  —  is  or  should  be  the  inexor- 
able arrangement  dictated  by  the  emotional  storm  of  the  poet  (see 
Watts-Dunton,  Encyc.  Brit.,  Poetry),  can  any  trustworthy  verdict 
be  rendered  concerning  the  success  (inevitability)  of  so  subjective 
a  form  ?  Can  another  person  be  trusted  to  tell  us  what  were  the 
nuances  of  the  poet's  fleeting  emotions,  and  whether  they  were 
expressed  in  fitting  patterns  ?  And  does  not  the  very  repetition  of 
an  intricate  pattern  in  two  successive  strophes  destroy  the  theory 
of  emotional  inevitability  ?  Otherwise  we  should  have  to  suppose 
that  twice  in  succession  (and  no  more)  the  poet  of  the  regular  ode 
passes  through  an  identical  sequence  of  exceedingly  complex  and 
fleeting  emotional  nuances  ;  and  that  he  is  capable  of  this  sequence 
even  when  the  subject  matter  is  not  identical  in  the  two  cases.  Is 
it  not  wiser  to  attribute  the  invention  of  stanzaic  patterns  to  the 
educated  and  judicial  taste  of  the  poet,  who  proceeds  to  some 
extent  intuitively,  but  also  with  a  very  conscious  criticism  of  ade- 
quacy in  details  and  of  total  effect,  and  whose  success  depends 
upon  the  supple  and  subtle  adaptation  of  his  lines  to  a  discover- 
able progress  of  thought  and  feeling  ?  The  relative  appropriateness 
of  form  to  thought  in  the  greater  English,  French,  and  German 
odes  constitutes  an  excellent  subject  for  study.  (5)  To  what  degree 
can  the  metrical  form  of  the  ode  arouse  and  satisfy  in  the  reader 
an  expectancy  of  ear  ?  Common  patterns,  such  as  the  Petrarchan 
or  Shakesperian  sonnet,  afford  the  ear  this  pleasurable  anticipation 
of  rhyme,  line  grouping,  and  conclusion ;  but  the  ode  is  character- 
ized by  invention  of  unique  stanzaic  patterns.  Is  the  ear  able  to 
carry  forward  expectantly  an  intricate  pattern  from  its  first  utter- 
ance in  one  strophe  to  its  repetition  in  the  corresponding  strophe  ? 
and  should  the  poet  provide  for  similar  cadences  and  lengths  in  the 
corresponding  parts  of  his  strophes  (all  strophes,  or  only  each 


20  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

pair  ?)  which  the  alert  ear  will  either  anticipate  or  at  least  pleasur- 
ably  recognize  ?  Or  is  the  unique  and  complex  character  even  of 
the  regular  ode  fundamentally  unsuited  to  awaken  and  satisfy  this 
pleasure  of  expectancy  ? 

In  spirit  the  ode  is  stately,  imposing,  elaborate ;  for  the  most 
part  it  retains  the  dignity  and  sonorous  harmony  of  the  ancient 
chant,  frequently  suggesting  a  musical  delivery.  In  its  regular 
form  it  "  lends  itself  to  the  expression  of  enthusiasm,  of  passion 
under  control,  of  elevated,  highly  imaginative  reflection,  of  pane- 
gyric and  elegy."  Gosse  (English  Odes)  has  denned  it  as  "  any 
strain  of  enthusiastic  and  exalted  lyrical  verse,  directed  to  a  fixed 
purpose,  and  dealing  progressively  with  one  dignified  theme."  For 
Sharp's  definition,  see  below,  §  2.  It  is  distinguished  by  quickness 
of  movement  and  variety  of  matter,  the  thought  and  illustration 
springing  from  point  to  point  with  unflagging  energy. 

The  ideal  content,  as  already  indicated,  is  highly  imaginative  and 
varied,  whether  the  purpose  be  the  celebration  of  some  occasion  or 
merely  the  development  of  an  idea.  The  extent  to  which  it  fashions 
and  embroiders  ideas  with  descriptive  figure,  narrative  picture,  and 
emotional  color,  the  fullness  of  acclamation  and  apostrophe  with 
which  it  seeks  to  emphasize  ideas,  have  led  some  critics  to  regard 
the  ode  as  one  of  the  most  intellectual  forms  of  the  lyric ;  but 
'  most  imaginative  '  would  perhaps  be  a  better  description. 

Obviously  the  regular  ode  is  peculiarly  the  province  of  the  poetic 
genius  who  is  at  once  original,  plastic,  and  critical :  original,  because 
patterns  must  be  created  adequately  expressive  of  novel  and  highly 
imaginative  thought ;  plastic,  because  there  must  be  capability  to 
conform  to  the  patterns  self-imposed  as  well  as  the  ability  to  com- 
pose them  in  apparent  freedom  from  conventional  restraint ; 
critical,  because  the  flow  of  verse  must  be  such  as  will  naturally 
and  subtly  accommodate  itself  to  the  thought  of  at  least  two  suc- 
cessive stanzas.  Finally,  to  what  degree  does  the  poet  express  his 
subjective  personality  in  the  ode  ?  Upon  the  degree  to  which  the 
poet  subordinates  himself  to  his  material,  or  vice-versa,  Hegel  has 
based  a  classification  of  odes  (compare  Carriere  and  Vischer). 


IV,  C]  THE  ODE  21 

Among  the  best  English  writers  of  the  regular  ode  are  Jonson 
(Pindaric  Ode  on  the  death  of  Sir  H.  Morrison),  Congreve,  Collins 
(e.g.  Ode  to  Liberty),  Gray  (Progress  of  Poesy). 

The  irregular,  Cowleyan  ode,  more  chaotic  than  plastic,  only 
slightly,  if  at  all,  capable  of  arousing  metrical  expectancy,  mysteri- 
ously ordered  by  the  subjective  storm-caprice  of  uncontrolled 
passion,  and  to  the  tyro  precarious  in  the  undertaking  because  so 
easily  reduced,  and  reducing,  to  absurdity,  is  yet  in  the  hands  of 
great  poets  (such  as  Dryden,  Wordsworth,  Tennyson)  a  noble 
instrument,  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  utterance  of  novel,  mysteri- 
ous, and  protracted  harmonies.  It  is  precisely  because  he  is  able 
to  expatiate  without  trammel  in  an  atmosphere  of  vastness  and 
mystery  that  the  successful  writer  of  the  Cowleyan  ode  is  justi- 
fied in  dispensing  with  the  principles  of  repetition  and  common 
expectancy  upon  which  the  melodies  of  a  more  familiar  realm 
depend.  On  the  anti-social  character  of  the  tendency  to  extreme 
irregularity,  see  the  remarks  and  references  of  Alden,  pp.  348- 
349.  For  still  another  kind  of  irregular  ode  written  in  distant 
imitation  of  the  choruses  of  Greek  tragedy,  see  the  attempts  of 
Milton,  M.  Arnold,  Swinburne. 

For  stages  in  the  development  of  the  ode,  see  below,  §  6, 
xxxiv,  c,  The  Ode. 

On  the  ode,  its  nature,  origin,  stanzaic  or  emotional  law,  and  other 
questions  broached  above,  see  Hegel,  Vischer,  Carriere,  Herder,  Wacker- 
nagel,  Watts-Dun  ton  (Encyc.  Brit.,  Poetry);  Boeckh,  Dissen,  Mommsen, 
and  Bergk  on  Pindar,  Gildersleeve's  Pindar,  Mezger's  Pindar's  Sieges- 
lieder,  Fennell's  Pindar,  Bury's  Nemean  and  Isthmian  Odes,  J.  H.  H. 
Schmidt's  Die  Kunstformen  der  griech.  Poesie,  W.  Christ's  Gesch.  der 
griech.  Litt.  (under  Pindar),  Symonds'  Pindar  (in  Greek  Poets),  and 
monographs  by  Villemain,  L.  Schmidt,  G.  Liibbert,  and  A.  Croiset; 
E.  Gosse  (Encyc.  Brit.,  Ode;  also,  Introd.  to  his  English  Odes,  1881  ; 
and  his  Gray  in  E.  M.  L.,  Chap.  VI,  The  Pindaric  Odes);  Alden,  William 
Sharp  (Introd.  to  his  Great  Odes),  W.  C.  Bronson  (Introd.  to  Collins's 
Poems,  Athenaeum  Press),  W.  J.  Courthope  (Hist.  English  Poetry,  III, 
343-349,  on  Cowley's  Pindarics),  Dryden  and  Samuel  Johnson  on  Cowley, 
Coventry  Patmore  (Preface  to  The  Unknown  Eros),  Swinburne  (Essays 


22  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

and  Studies),  G.  Saintsbury  (History  of  English  Prosody,  vol.  II,  337- 
342,  381-382,  402-406,  425,  51 1-519,  and  in  vol.  Ill,  passim,  and  in 
History  of  Criticism,  vol.  II) ;  also,  among  older  critical  notices,  W.  Con- 
greve,  Discourse  on  the  Pindarique  Ode  (1705);  E.  Young,  Discourse 
on  Odes  (i  725) ;  Houdard  de  la  Motte,  Discours  sur  la  poe"sie  en  general, 
et  sur  rode  en  particulier,  prefixed  to  his  odes  in  the  first  volume  of  his 
works  (Paris:  1753);  Marmontel  (Poet,  frang.,  vol.  II,  Chap,  xv); 
Sabatier,  Discours  sur  1'ode  (prefixed  to  his  Odes,  Paris :  1 766) ;  also 
under  §  3,  iv,  c,  D,  below ;  the  numerous  '  Poetics '  from  Horace  down, 
many  of  which  are  mentioned  below,  §§3,  9,  etc. ;  several  minor  mono- 
graphs listed  by  Blankenburg-Sulzer  at  the  head  of  the  article  Ode. 
See  also  the  references  on  Pindaric  versification  given  in  Gayley  and 
Scott,  §  24.  and  the  general  references,  §§  22-24. 

D.  Sonnet.  So  much  that  is  readily  accessible  has  been  written 
on  the  character  of  the  sonnet,  and  the  essential  features  of  theo- 
retical discussion  have  been  so  clearly  and  concisely  presented  by 
T.  Watts-Dunton  (Art.  Sonnet,  Encyc.  Brit.)  that  extended  notice 
is  here  quite  unnecessary. 

The  discussion  of  technique  centers  upon  questions  among 
which  the  following  are  perhaps  salient :  Which  variety  of  the 
sonnet  (Petrarchan,  Shakesperian,  Miltonic,  Wordsworthian ;  for 
definitions  of  forms  see  any  modern  treatise  on  poetics)  is  most 
successful,  most  pleasing  in  effect  ?  If  the  pleasurable  effect  of 
the  sonnet  depends  upon  the  observance  of  a  prescribed  form  so 
that  the  educated  ear  may  learn  to  expect  or  anticipate  certain 
sounds  and  metrical  phrases  as  belonging  to  the  sonnet,  does  it 
not  follow  that  only  the  well-established  variations  of  that  form 
can  supply  this  effect,  and' that  miscellaneous,  capricious,  and  ex- 
perimental forms  fall  short  of  the  effect  just  because  they  lack 
currency  ?  What  variety  of  harmony  and  thought  is  to  be  detected 
in  the  different  forms,  especially  with  regard  to  the  separation  or 
enjambement  of  octave  and  sestet  ?  In  dealing  with  this  question 
the  student  should  contrast  the  "  wave-effect,"  sonority,  and  "  met- 
rical counterpoint  "  of  the  Petrarchan  arrangement,  which  involves 
a  pharp  metrical  and  intellectual  division  between  octave  and  sestet, 
with  the  "Jinked  sweetness  long  drawn  out  "  of  the  three  quatrains 


IV,  D]  THE  SONNET  23 

and  the  bell-like  ring  of  the  concluding  couplet  that  belong  to  the 
Shakesperian  form  (see  Watts-Dunton).  Of  the  technique  of  the 
Petrarchan  variety  Watts-Dunton  says  : 

The  crowning  difficulty  and  the  crowning  triumph  of  the  sonnet 
writer  has  always  been  to  so  handle  the  rhythm  of  the  prescribed 
structure  as  to  make  it  seem  in  each  individual  sonnet  the  inevitable 
and  natural  rhythm  demanded  by  the  emotion  which  gives  the  indi- 
vidual sonnet  birth,  and  this  can  perhaps  only  be  achieved  when  the 
richness  and  apparent  complexity  of  the  rhyme-arrangement  is  balanced 
by  that  perfect  lucidity  and  simplicity  of  syntax  which  is  the  special 
quest  of  the  "  sonnet  of  flow  and  ebb." 

With  regard  to  the  subject  and  mood  appropriate  to  the  sonnet 
the  most  cursory  observation  reveals  a  range  of  possibilities  much 
broader  than  might  be  expected  from  the  comparatively  narrow 
restriction  of  technique.  From  the  original  love  theme  the  sonnet 
has  passed  to  the  treatment  of  death,  friendship,  religion,  pastoral 
life,  war,  politics,  etc.,  —  in  fact  of  almost  any  aspect  of  nature  or 
of  human  life ;  in  mood  and  method  it  has  been  not  solely  reflec- 
tive, but  also  lyrically  passionate,  descriptive,  narrative.  Is  it  not, 
perhaps,  in  the  artistic  restraint  of  emotion  and  the  careful  selec- 
tion of  details  of  subject-matter,  both  necessitated  by  the  prescrip- 
tion of  form  and  the  brevity  of  the  sonnet,  that  its  characteristic 
mood  and  content  are  found  ?  Does  not  the  sonnet  "  veil  the  too 
fervid  spontaneity  and  reality  of  the  poet's  emotion,"  so  that  he 
"  can  whisper,  as  from  behind  a  mask,  those  deepest  secrets  of 
the  heart  which  could  otherwise  only  find  expression  in  purely 
dramatic  forms  "  ? 

The  student  will  of  course  observe  the  necessity  of  determining 
to  what  extent  the  general  outlines  of  lyric  theory,  already  noted, 
are  applicable  to  the  sonnet,  —  what  is,  in  other  words,  its  relation 
to  the  lyric  genius  or  spirit.  Is  it  the  "  least  song-like  of  all  brief 
lyrics  "  ?  the  touchstone  of  poetic  genius  (Menzini)  ?  Is  its  preva- 
lence in  any  age  a  sign  of  the  growth  of  a  vigorous  poetical  taste 
(articles  in  Dublin  J?eriete>,  1876,  1877)?  or  is  it  frequently  a 
symptom  of  an  artificial  age  ? 


24  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

As  ani  attempt  to  suggest  in  brief  space  the  characteristics  of 
the  sonnet,  and  as  furnishing  further  material  for  discussion,  the 
following,  by  way  of  exposition,  may  be  quoted : 

Like  a  cameo  it  is  small  of  compass,  rich  in  material,  delicate  and 
conventional  of  detail.  The  thought  or  mood  must  be  significant  and 
lucid,  a  poetical  unit,  single  in  its  emotional  and  imaginative  effect. 
The  octave  bears  the  burden  ;  a  doubt,  a  problem,  a  reflection,  a  query, 
an  historical  statement,  a  cry  of  indignation  or  desire,  a  vision  of  the 
ideal.  The  sestet  eases  the  load,  resolves  the  problem  or  doubt,  answers 
the  query,  solaces  the  yearning,  realizes  the  vision.  It  gilds  thought 
with  the  tracery  of  instance,  crowns  it  with  the  sufficient  and  inevitable 
actuality  that  lies  within  the  wisdom  of  art.  Hence  the  larger  move- 
ment of  the  octave;  but  also  for  simplicity  and  unity  of  effect  the 
limitation  to  two  rhymes,  for  force  the  repetition  of  the  inner  couplets, 
and  for  suspense  the  reluctant  sweep,  in  the  first,  fourth,  fifth,  and 
eighth  lines,  of  the  outer  harmony.  Hence,  too,  the  briefer  but  more 
varied  sound-scheme  of  the  sestet ;  for  the  skilful  and  rapid  interweav- 
ing of  rhymes  counterbalances  the  previous  hesitancy,  enriches  the 
music,  and  enhances  the  climactic  effect.  .  .  .  From  what  has  been 
said,  it  will,  of  course,  appear  that  while  the  thought  of  the  sonnet  is 
progressive  it  takes  breath,  as  it  were,  between  the  octave  and  the 
sestet.  But  this  pause  need  not  be  a  period,  nor  need  it  occur  only  at 
the  end  of  the  eighth  line.  More  artistic  in  my  opinion  is  the  practice 
of  those  who  suffer  the  octave  to  push  one  or  two  waves  over  the  edge 
of  the  sestet.  Such  encroachment,  or,  to  change  the  figure,  enjambe- 
ment,  occurs  in  nearly  all  of  Milton's  sonnets  (C.  M.  Gayley,  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Poetry,  pp.  Ixxxvi-lxxxvii,  in  Gayley  and  Young,  op.  cit.  §  2). 

The  author's  opinion  concerning  the  concluding  couplet,  which 
he  approves  in  the  '  fourteener,'  or  Shakesperian,  sonnet  but 
condemns  in  "  sonnets  of  the  legitimate  form,"  is  open  to  ques- 
tion. It  is  certainly  at  variance  with  that  of  Watts-Dunton  and 
some  other  critics  of  the  sonnet. 

For  further  references  on  the  sonnet  see  ,Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  504- 
505  (Schipper,  Hunt  and  Lee,  David  Main,  Mark  Pattison,  W.  Sharp, 
C.  Tomlinson,  S.  Waddington,  T.  Hall  Caine,  Rosenkranz,  Viehoff, 
Wackernagel,  Gottschall,  Lentzner,  Capel  Lofft,  French,  articles  in 
Du&lin  Re-view,  L.  de  Veyrieres,  Biadene,  Welti),  and  add:  the  an- 
thologies of  R.  F.  Housman  and  of  Dyce ;  two  articles  in  the  Quarterly 


IV,  F]  THE  BALLAD,  IDYL,  AND  ROMANCE  25 

Review  of  1866;  an  article  in  the  Westminster  Review  of  1871  ;  H.  C. 
Beaching,  The  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare ;  Corson's  Primer  of  English 
Verse;  M.  F.  Crow,  Elizabethan  Sonnet-Cycles;  John  Dennis,  English 
Sonnets;  Sidney  Lee,  on  the  sonnet  in  Arber's  English  Garner;  J.  A. 
Noble,  The  Sonnet  in  England ;  A.  T.  Quiller-Couch,  English  Sonnets ; 
T.  R.  Price,  The  Technic  of  Shakespeare's  Sonnets,  in  Studies  in 
Honor  of  Basil  Gildersleeve  (Baltimore:  1902);  S.  Waddington, 
English  Sonnets  by  Poets  of  the  Past ;  Archbishop  Trench,  an  edition 
of  Wordsworth's  sonnets ;  C.  Asselineau,  Le  Livre  des  Sonnets ;  Alden, 
Gummere,  Saintsbury,  Sharp,  and  Symonds,  as  noted  below,  §  2.  For 
references  on  the  history  of  the  sonnet,  many  of  which  (especially 
Erskine,  Schelling,  Reed,  Rhys,  Courthope)  contain  valuable  remarks 
on  technique,  see  below,  §  5. 

E.  On  the  extent  to  which  Ballad,  Idyl,  and  Romance  may  be 
lyrical,  see  Hegel,  Carriere,  Gummere,  ten  Brink,  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
Child  ;  compare  Wordsworth  on  the  lyrical  ballad.    On  the  Ballad, 
see  below,  §  7,  vn,  A  ;  on  the  Idyl,  below,  §  7,  vn,  c. 

F.  Elegy.    It  is  especially  difficult  to  speak  of  the  general  char- 
acteristics of  the  elegy  because  of  the  extraordinary  variation  of 
the  subtype  as  respects  both  content  and  form.    Speaking  of  this 
variation  Professor  Mackail  says  : 

As  in  the  heroic  hexameter  the  Asiatic  colonies  of  Greece  invented 
the  most  fluent,  stately,  and  harmonious  metre  for  continuous  narrative 
poetry  which  has  yet  been  invented  by  man,  so  in  the  elegiac  couplet 
they  solved  the  problem,  hardly  a  less  difficult  one,  of  a  metre  which 
would  refuse  nothing,  which  could  rise  to  the  occasion  and  sink  with  it, 
and  be  equally  suited  to  the  epitaph  of  a  hero  or  the  verses  accompany- 
ing a  birthday  present,  a  light  jest  or  a  great  moral  idea,  the  sigh  of  a 
lover  or  the  lament  over  a  perished  Empire  (Select  Epigrams  from  the 
Greek  Anthology,  p.  6.  Lond. :  1 890). 

Indeed,  the  first  difficulty  is  to  know  just  what  poems  should  be 
studied  under  the  general  head  '  elegy,'  —  (i)  all  poems  in  elegiac 
measure  (distich),  (2)  all  plaintive  poems,  (3)  all  plaintive  poems 
that  are  in  distichs,  —  or  all  poems  that  fall  under  any  of  these 
three  classes  ?  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  student  will  soon  discover 
that  among  the  ancients  the  term  '  elegy '  had  reference  primarily 
to  a  certain  metrical  pattern  (distich  of  dactylic  hexameter  and 


26  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

pentameter),  whereas  among  the  moderns  it  refers  primarily  to  a 
plaintive  content.  Perhaps  the  best  method  is  to  begin  with  the 
earliest  Greek  elegiac  poetry  and  thence  trace  the  numerous  rami- 
fications of  the  type.  The  historical  details  of  this  variation  are 
treated  below  (§  6,  xxxiv,  A,  The  Elegy) ;  it  will  be  sufficient,  then, 
to  mention  here  only  some  of  the  more  outstanding  traits  of  the 
elegy  in  antiquity  and  in  modern  times.  Where  names  of  authori- 
ties are  given  without  titles  see  §  2  or  §  5  for  further  information. 
i.  In  approaching  the  Ancient  Elegy  the  student  may  consider 
(i)  its  relation  to  the  epic.  Did  the  Greek  elegy  of  the  old  Ionian 
and  Dorian  schools  (see  below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  A)  stand  on  a  boundary 
line  between  epic,  objective  presentation  of  events  and  characters 
and  lyric,  subjective  interpretation  ?  The  theory  that  derives  the 
elegy  from  a  combination  of  the  hexameter  line  of  the  epic  with 
the  elegos  or  lament-song  of  the  Phrygians  gives  color  to  this 
question.  See  Wackernagel,  Bernhardy,  Mure,  Carriere  (Die 
Kunst  2  :  1 1 6),  Boeckh ;  cf .  Plessis,  Flach  (Cap.  3).  Has  the 
ancient  elegy  more  of  epic  description  than  the  modern  ?  If 
dignity  and  elevation  are  characteristic  of  the  older  Greek  elegy 
may  these  traits  be  traced  to  epical  influence  ?  (2)  What  are  the 
principal  moods  of  the  ancient  elegy  ?  They  have  beeti  summarized 
as  threnodic,  hortatory  (in  relation  to  war  and  polifics),  erotic,  and 
didactic.  See  K.  F.  Smith.  To  what  extent  are  these  moods  re- 
flective ?  Is  the  didactic  mood  alone  reflective  ?  Is  the  elegiac 
distich  peculiarly  suited  to  reflection,  —  the  hexameter  to  epic 
description  and  the  pentameter  to  a  self-contained  reflection  ?  Is 
any  one  of  the  moods  —  the  threnodic,  perhaps,  or  the  erotic  — 
more  generally  characteristic  of  the  classical  elegy  than  the  others  ? 
Or,  rather,  are  we  to  consider  that  the  essential  character  of  the 
elegy  is  its  plaintiveness,  whether  of  love  or  death,  of  personal 
disappointment  or  deprivation,  or,  more  generally,  in  relation  to 
the  vanities  of  life  or  the  departed  glories  of  a  city,  state,  etc.  ? 
Can  it  be  held  that  all  other  moods,  such  as  the  patriotic  and 
hortatory,  the  didactic  and  epistolary,  the  witty  and  epigrammatic, 
do  not  belong  to  the  elegy  proper?  The  history  of  the  elegy 


IV,  F]  THE  ELEGY  27 

would  appear  to  negative  such  an  assumption.  Is  the  transitory 
aspect  of  all  earthly  things  the  essential  tone  or  idea  of  the  elegy  ? 
May  it  be  said  that  the  limits  of  the  elegy  are  the  epic,  on  the 
one  hand,  and  reflective  poetry,  on  the  other  ?  (3)  It  would  seem 
to  be  true,  in  general,  that  the  emotion  of  the  later  Greek  and  the 
Roman  elegy  is  not  expressed  simply,  spontaneously,  but  formally 
and  elaborately ;  and  that  therefore  this  form  of  poetry  is  not 
necessarily  the  immediate  result  of  a  strong  emotion.  Can  excep- 
tions to  this  rule  be  found  in  the  elegies  of  Propertius  ?  Compare 
the  modern  elegy.  (4)  With  the  exception  of  the  narrative  elegy, 
is  the  ancient  elegy  prevailingly  subjective  ?  Is  it  reasonable  to 
trace  this  lyric  subjectivity  to  the  passing  of  the  monarchical  form 
of  government  in  Greece  and  a  resultant  development  of  individual 
consciousness  ?  See  Boeckh,  Miiller,  Carriere,  Mahaffy,  Farnell, 
Jevons,  etc.  (5)  To  what  extent  does  the  ancient  elegy  idealize 
the  past  ?  Is  such  idealization  equally  characteristic  of  the  Greek, 
Hellenic,  and  Roman  elegy  ?  Is  the  threnodic  inclination  of  the 
elegy  connected  with  this  idealization  ?  (6)  Does  the  realistic  view 
of  some  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Roman  elegies  mark  a  decline  in 
the  ideality  of  the  type,  or  its  reinvigoration  ?  Does  the  '  return- 
to-nature  '  movement  of  sophisticated  Alexandrian  life  express 
itself  just  as  effectively  in  idyl  as  in  elegy  ?  Is  the  contemplation 
of  nature  especially  conducive  to  the  threnodic  mood  ?  To  what 
extent  is  the  ancient  pastoral  elegy  both  sincere  and  imaginative 
in  the  expression  of  its  mood  ?  Compare  the  modern  pastoral 
elegy :  consider  the  character  of  the  various  social  environments 
from  which  the  pastoral  elegy  has  successively  sprung ;  do  they 
show  common  traits,  significant  in  relation  to  the  pastoral  elegy  ? 
(7)  What  rhetorical  and  figurative  forms  are  especially  favored  by 
the  ancient  elegy  ?  Does  not  the  distich  naturally  encourage  par- 
allelism and  antithesis  ?  (8)  Does  the  elegy  treat  an  episode  only 
—  usually  the  most  significant  episode  (acme  or  catastrophe)  of 
an  action  ?  And  does  not  the  lyric-subjective  element  impose  a 
certain  characteristic  brevity  and  unity  ?  Wackernagel,  Carriere. 
(9)  Compare  the  elegy  with  the  idyl  in  respect  of  epic  arrangement, 


28  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

selection  of  episodes,  descriptive  effects,  suggestion  of  character, 
dramatic  method ;  with  the  song  and  ode  in  respect  of  the  superior 
unity' of  the  former  and  the  sketchy,  or  more  diffusive,  method  of 
the  latter.  What  are  the  relative  degrees  of  objectivity  in  song, 
ode,  and  elegy  ?  Wackernagel,  Gottschall,  Carriere,  Plessis. 

2.  Turning  to  the  Modern  Elegy,  with  its  bases  in  the  Christian 
Latin  elegy  of  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages,  in  the  vernacular  elegiac 
songs  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  the  Renaissance  elegy,  the  stu- 
dent will  reasonably  extend  the  questions  of  the  last  paragraph  to 
the  new  field  in  order  to  determine  just  how  far  the  modern  elegy 
follows  or  diverges  from  the  ancient.  It  is  scarcely  necessary, 
therefore,  to  suggest  to  him  further  topics  for  study,  since  a  full 
answer  to  those  questions  will  carry  one  a  long  way  toward  a 
realization  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  modern  type.  In  general 
two  distinctive  tendencies  will,  however,  be  noted  in  the  more 
modern  field :  first,  an  inclination  to  narrow  the  range  of  elegiac 
subjects  to  sorrow  and  death,  at  the  expense  of  the  hortatory, 
erotic,  and  didactic  moods ;  second,  in  the  treatment  of  plaintive 
and  threnodic  subjects,  an  extension  of  form  so  varied  and  elastic 
that  the  old  elegiac  metre  is  ultimately  superseded  by  other  and 
more  native  measures.  The  causes  of  these  two  tendencies  and 
the  rationale  of  their  interrelation  are  provocative  of  speculation 
and  research.  Whether  any  necessary  relation  can,  a  priori,  be 
adduced  between  the  narrowing  of  the  subject  and  the  diversi- 
fication of  the  form  is  open  to  question.  May  not  the  contrast 
be  a  result  of  separate  and  unrelated  historical  conditions?  See 
below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  A. 

The  prevailing  modern  conception  of  the  elegy  is  that  of  a 
"  reflective  lyric  suggested  by  the  fact  or  fancy  of  death.  The 
emotion,  personal  or  public,  finds  utterance  in  keen  lament,  to 
be  allayed,  however,  by  tranquil  consideration  of  the  mutability 
of  life,  the  immutability  of  Something  that  justifies  life  and  death  " 
(Gayley).  But  "  in  some  instances  classical  usage  has  been  fol- 
lowed in  applying  the  term  to  poems  including  a  wide  variety  of 
subjects,"  as  the  elegies  of  Donne  and  Goethe.  The  narrower 


IV,  F]  THE  ELEGY  29 

interpretation  of  the  term  is  met  in  Dante's  definition :  "  By  elegy 
we  understand  the .  style  of  those  in  misfortune "  (De  Vulgari 
Eloquio).  Compare  Minturno,  Ronsard,  and  Boileau  on  the  elegy. 
Coleridge  took  a  broader  view  when  he  said,  "  Elegy  is  the  form 
of  poetry  natural  to  the  reflective  mind.  It  may  treat  of  any  sub- 
ject, but  it  must  treat  of  no  subject  for  itself,  but  always  and 
exclusively  with  reference  to  the  poet  himself.  As  he  will  feel 
regret  for  the  past  or  desire  for  the  future,  so  sorrow  and. love 
become  the  principal  themes  of  the  elegy.  Elegy  presents  every- 
thing as  lost  and  gone,  or  absent  and  future.  The  elegy  is  the 
exact  opposite  of  the  Homeric  epic,  in  which  all  is  purely  external 
and  objective,  and  the  poet  is  a  mere  voice.  The  true  lyric  is  sub- 
jective too ;  but  then  it  delights  to  present  things  as  actually 
existing  and  visible,  although  associated  with  the  past,  or  colored 
highly  by  the  subject  of  the  ode  itself"  (Table  Talk,  Oct.  23, 
1833).  At  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  the  French  em- 
phasized the  erotic  strain  of  the  elegy,  but  later  the  term  came  to 
signify  for  them  a  gentle  melancholy  or  tendresse  in  contemplating 
life.  As  Andre  Chenier  said  : 

Mais  la  tendre  e"le"gie  et  sa  grace  touchante 
M'ont  seduit;  I'ele'gie  a  la  voix  gemissante, 
Aux  ris  male's  de  pleurs,  aux  longs  cheveux  e"pars, 
Belle,  levant  au  ciel  ses  humides  regards. 

Chaussard,  rather  appropriately,  describes  elegy  as  the  sister  of 
'tragedy ;  Taine,  in  an  epigram,  calls  it  the  sister  of  satire,  since 
it  weeps  for  the  oppressed,  whereas  satire  attacks  the  oppressor. 
The  term  '  dirge '  should  perhaps  be  reserved  for  a  short  poem 
embodying  a  lamentation  more  immediate  and  less  reflective  than 
the  elegy.  See  Alden,  Carriere,  Gummere,  Gosse,  Gottschall,  Lloyd, 
Hegel,  Vischer,  Wackernagel,  etc.  For  Schiller's  attempt  to  fix 
the  meaning  of  the  term  '  elegiac '  philosophically,  see  his  Simple 
and  Sentimental  Poetry. 

When  the  student  is  able  to  pass  in  review  the  entire  field 
of  the  elegy,  ancient  and  modern,  he  will  be  disposed  to  ask 
whether  in  general  this  form  has  not  been  especially  congenial  to 


30  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

poets  of  imaginative  and  emotional  sensibility  rather  than  of  great 
genius.  He  should  consider  such  poets  as  Callimachus,  Tibullus, 
Propertius,  .Ovid,  Parny,  Che'nier,  Millevoye,  Lamartine,  Musset, 
Vigny,  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  Politian,  Sannazaro,  Vittoria  Colonna, 
Filicaja,  Drummond  of  Hawthornden,  Donne,  Gray,  Shenstone, 
Mattljew  Arnold,  and  William  Watson ;  but  he  should  remember 
that  the  greater  poets,  also,  have  found  occasion  for  elegiacal 
expression,  —  Dante,  for  instance,  and  Milton,  Goethe,  Hugo, 
Shelley,  Tennyson,  Swinburne,  etc. 

For  further  study  the  student  is  advised  to  focus  upon  elegy  the 
general  theory  of  the  lyric.  He  may  bring  the  larger  problems  to 
bear  by  substituting  '  elegy '  for  '  lyric '  in  the  statement  of  various 
vital  questions  propounded  in  the  previous  parts  of  this  chapter. 

G.  Of  lyrics  that  are  pastoral  in  subject  special  study  may  be 
made.  The  elegy  has  shown  an  affinity  for  the  pastoral,  as  has 
also,  in  a  less  degree,  the  song  —  especially  the  medieval  trouba- 
dour's amatory  song  (e.  g.  the  pastourelle),  which  is  perhaps  only 
the  homologue  of  the  ancient  erotic  pastoral  elegy.  For  general 
references  on  pastoral  poetry,  see  below,  §  10,  ix,  B,  Pastoral. 

H.  Epigram.  Without  classification  there  can  be  no  true  defini- 
tion, since  the  major  term  of  a  definition  is  the  genus  or  class  to 
which  belongs  the  species  about  to  be  defined.  Now  the  variety  of 
poems  termed  epigrams  is  so  vast  as  to  defy  satisfactory  classifica- 
tion according  to  either  content  or  form.  In  subject  the  epigram 
has  varied  from  the  memorial  verses  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  whether 
of  death  or  memorable  occurrences  of  any  kind,  that  were  actually 
inscribed  (Greek  '  epigram '  equals  Latin  '  inscription ')  upon  a 
monument,  statue,  or  building,  to  similar  verses  that  were  not  so 
inscribed,  to  verses  tersely  expressing  almost  any  thought,  to  scur- 
rilous or  obscene  poems  of  a  few  verses  only,  to  brief  poems  of 
wit  that  culminate  in  a  point  which  is  usually  satirical.  And  even 
beyond  this  wide  range  of  content  may  be  found  many  so-called 
epigrams.  As  for  form,  the  hexameter  and  the  elegiac  distich  were 
used  in  antiquity,  but  in  modern  times  a  variety  of  metrical  patterns 
has  obtained  in  each  national  literature.  The  only  characteristics 


IV,  H]  THE  EPIGRAM  31 

that  appear  common  to  th'e  epigram  in  all  ages  are  brevity  and 
terseness.  But  can  all  brief,  terse  poems  be  called  epigrams  ? 
And  how  brief  must  a  poem  be  in  order  to  lay  claim  to  the  title  ? 
It  is  not  unusual  to  find  epigrams  of  ten  verses.  But  one  would 
hardly  assert  that  every  terse  poem  of  ten  or  less  verses  was  an 
epigram.  The  triolet  has  eight  lines  and  is  often  terse  :  it  does  not 
on  that  account  fall  under  the  head  '  epigram.'  What  of  the  asser- 
tion that  a  madrigal  is  a  non-satirical  epigram  ?  In  view  of  the 
almost  insurmountable  difficulties  of  classification  it  is  evident  that 
attempts  to  define  this  kind  or  form  must  prove  futile.  "  Nothing 
could  be  more  hopeless,"  says  the  author  of  the  article  Epigram  in 
the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  "  than  an  attempt  to  discover  or  devise 
a  definition  wide  enough  to  include  the  vast  multitude  of  little 
poems  which  at  one  time  or  other  have  been  honored  with  the  title 
of  epigram,  and  precise  enough  to  exclude  all  others."  In  including 
epigram  under  lyric,  therefore,  we  do  not  mean  to  imply  final  classi- 
fication ;  we  merely,  for  convenience,  follow  a  somewhat  common 
but  unjustified  tradition. 

In  spite  of  the  impossibility  of  definition  the  following  questions 
may  be  suggested  for  consideration :  (a)  Is  the  epigram  a  distinct 
literary  kind  ?  Can  such  continuity  of  development  be  shown  as  to 
justify  the  wide  use  of  the  nomenclature  ?  What,  if  any,  character- 
istics, formal  or  psychological,  are  common  to  the  so-called  epigrams 
of  all  ages  ?  (^)  What  is  the  relation  of  the  epigram  to  the  elegy  ? 
to  the  lyric  ?  to  narrative,  descriptive,  and  reflective  poetry  ?  to 
"  versified  prose  "  ?  Consider  F.  E.  Schelling's  differentiation  of 
the  lyric  and  epigram,  —  the  former  as  "  emotional,  poetic,  and 
unconscious,"  the  latter  as  "  intellectual,  rhetorical,  and  conscious  " 
(The  English  Lyric,  Chap.  I)  ;  compare  Henley's  differentiation  in 
the  Introduction  to  his  collection  of  English  lyrics,  (c]  How  many 
varieties  of  epigram  may  be  detected  (Scaliger,  Herder)  ?  (cf)  What 
function  or  functions  has  the  epigram  discharged  ?  Is  it  social 
rather  than  individual  in  its  scope  and  character  ?  Does  its  brevity 
incline  it  to  triviality  ?  its  pointed  style  to  paltry  personalities  ?  To 
what  extent  has  it  attained  the  higher  functions  of  art  ? 


32  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

The  student  should  examine  the  various  attempts  at  definition  and 
division  of  the  epigram  that  have  been  made  at  different  times.  For 
this  purpose  he  may  consult  the  treatises  upon  poetics  in  general,  else- 
where listed  and  described,  of  Minturno,  Scaliger,  Vossius  (G.  J.  Voss), 
Boileau,  Trapp,  Batteux,  Hegel,  Vischer,  Gottschall,  Wackernagel, 
Scherer,  etc.  See  §  3  below  and  Index.  For  the  older  monographs  on  the 
epigram,  see  the  list  given  by  Blankenburg-Sulzer  (vol.  Ill,  pp.  1 71-172. 
Leipz. :  1 798),  or  the  condensed  list  under  the  article  Epigram  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  R.  Pechel's  Geschichte  der  Theorie  des  Epi- 
gramms  von  Scaliger  zu  Wernicke  (Introd.  to  Pechel's  ed.  of  Wernicke's 
epigrams)  is  the  fullest  and  best  treatment  of  its  kind ;  the  principal 
theories  of  the  epigram  are  discussed.  The  two  most  famous  attempts 
toward  a  fundamental  criticism  are  those  of  Lessing  (Anmerkungen  iiber 
das  Epigramm  und  einige  der  vornehmsten  Epigrammatisten)  and  Herder 
(Anmerkungen  iiber  die  Anthologie  der  Griechen,  besonders  iiber  das  gr. 
Epigramm).  For  German  critiques  of  these  attempts  see  the  gth  chapter 
of  Baumgart's  Handbuch  der  Poetik,  and  J.  C.  Brandelius'  Diss.  Theo- 
riam  Epigrammatis  Percenses  (a  pamphlet  of  14  pp.,  n.d.);  cf.  S.  Piazza 
as  noted  below,  §  5.  For  later  English  criticisms  see  J.  A.  Symonds' 
appreciative  essay  in  his  Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets  and  J.  W.  Mackail's 
introduction  to  his  Select  Epigrams  from  the  Greek  Anthology  (Lon- 
don:  1890;  revised  1906).  They  furnish  scholarly  and  suggestive 
reviews  of  the  Greek  epigram.  The  Rev.  James  Davies  has  happily 
differentiated  the  Latin  and  Greek  epigram  in  an  essay  in  the  Quarterly 
Review  (vol.  1 1 7).  The  articles  Epigram  and  Anthology  in  the  Encyc. 
Britannica,  and  similar  articles  in  the  French  and  German  encyclopaedias, 
are  very  helpful ;  of  little  worth,  the  introductory  essays  prefixed  to  the 
collections  of  epigrams  by  Richard  Graves  (Festoon,  A  Select  Collection 
of  Epigrams,  Lond. :  1 766),  W.  D.  Adams  (English  Epigrams,  Lond. : 
1878),  H.  P.  Dodd(The  Epigrammatists,  2d  ed.  Lond.:  1875).  Dodd 
mentions  a  "  Critical  Dissertation  "  prefixed  to  an  anonymous  (?)  Collec- 
tion of  Epigrams  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1735-37).  For  other  references,  more 
properly  grouped  under  the  historical  study  of  the  epigram,  see  below, 
§  6,  xxxiv,  B,  The  Epigram. 

I.  Vers  de  Soriete,  a  special  form  of  the  epigram,  offers  an  inter- 
esting field  of  study.  In  a  highly  organized  state  of  society  the 
conventions  of  social  life  are  made  the  subject  of  clever,  epigram- 
matic verse.  See  the  verse  and  prefaces  of  Dobson  ;  R.  M.  Alden's 
Introduction  to  Poetry  (N.Y. :  1909),  pp.  71-73;  Locker-Lampson's 


IV,  K]  REFLECTIVE  LYRIC  33 

Lyra  Elegantiarum  (Preface)  ;  Carolyn  Wells'  A  Vers  de  Societe 
Anthology  (Preface) ;  and  A.  H.  Miles'  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the 
1 9th  Century,  vol.  IX.  The  subject  extends  over  a  wide  range, 
from  the  present  back  to  the  eighteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies, and  still  further  back  to  Roman,  Alexandrian,  and  Greek 
times.  Does  the  vogue  of  this  verse  depend  upon  the  social  libera- 
tion of  woman,  and  is  it  therefore  of  greater  importance  in  modern 
than  in  ancient  times  ? 

J.  Individual  attention  may  be  accorded  to  the  Dramatic  Lyric 
of  Browning,  —  "  though  often  lyric  in  expression,  always  dramatic 
in  principle,  and  so  many  utterances  of  so  many  imaginary  persons, 
not  mine." 

K.  Reflective  Lyric.  Since  reflection  often  seems  the  opposite 
pole  of  the  passion  that  finds  expression  in  the  pure  lyric,  the 
mere  nomenclature  '  reflective  lyric '  reads  like  a  contradiction 
in  terms.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  emotion  always  implies  the 
existence  of  a  thought  or  image.  The  matter  for  present  con- 
sideration, therefore,  is  not  the  admissibility  of  a  reflective  element 
but  the  extent  to  which  it  may  color  a  lyric  without  destroying 
essential  poetic  emotionality.  The  reflective  lyric  may  be  said 
to  emerge  at  the  point  where  thought  begins  to  .dominate  the 
utterance :  in  other  words,  where  the  direct  appeal  and  aesthetic 
effect  of  the  verse  demand  an  immediate  intellectual  rather  than 
emotional  effort  on  the  part  of  the  reader.  Yet  even  then  the 
thought,  if  the  poetry  be  genuine,  is  highly  emotionalized,  and  is 
presented  freely  and  intuitively,  with  reliance  upon  the  ultimate 
persuasive  effect  of  feeling,  —  not  merely  upon  the  pleasure  arising 
from  logical  and  dialectic  processes  (Carriere).  Frequently  the 
persuasive  effect  is  of  a  higher  degree  of  emotional  satisfaction 
because  of  the  intellectual  effort  through  which  it  was  attained. 
In  its  higher  manifestations  the  reflective  lyric  may  express  an 
intuition  of  universality  that  is  the  catharsis  or  ideal  assuagement 
of  the  poet's  emotional  fever,  as  in  Wordsworth's  two  great 
odes,  or  George  Eliot's  "  O  May  I  Join  the  Choir  Invisible  "  (see 
Vischer,  Hegel). 


34  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

The  extreme  of  the  reflective  lyric  is  didactic  poetry,  to  which 
many  critics  refuse  the  name  of  poetry,  relegating  it  to  a  realm  of 
"versified  thought"  (see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§  19,  20,  especially 
pp.  292-293  ;  also  the  article  Didactic  Poetry,  by  Gosse,  in  the 
Encyc.  Brit.).  The  difference  between  didactic  verse  and  reflective 
poetry  has  been  stated  thus  :  "  The  latter  allows  the  poetic  sugges- 
tion of  the  senses  or  imagination  to  lead  the  mind  in  certain 
channels  (e.g.  a  dead  leaf,  our  mortality).  The  didactic  poem 
forces  our  poetic  instincts,  as  well  as  suggestions  of  the  senses, 
into  certain  channels  of  its  own.  But  this  is  putting  Pegasus  to  the 
plough"  (Gummere,  Poetics,  pp.  51-52). 

The  student  will  naturally  review  the  lyric  forms  which  show 
most  affinity  to  reflection,  —  the  hymn,  ode,  elegy,  epigram  and 
proverb,  riddle,  sonnet,  etc. ;  and  he  will  consider  to  what  extent 
epistolary,  satiric,  and  descriptive  poems  may  be  regarded  as  lyrics 
of  reflection.  On  the  reflective  character  of  the  Oriental  lyric 
see  Vischer. 

For  further  comment  on  the  nature  and  varieties  of  the  reflective 
lyric,  Wackernagel,  Carriere,  Vischer,  Hegel,  Alden,  and  other  writers 
upon  poetics  may  be  consulted.  For  the  investigation  of  didactic  poetry 
see  the  numerous  critical  and  historical  data  furnished  by  Blankenburg- 
Sulzer  (Article  Lehrgedicht). 

Examples  of  the  reflective  lyric  are  legion,  but  if  the  student  needs 
a  pointer  the  following  may  be  suggested :  Schiller's  Ideal  und  Leben, 
Gliick,  Die  Cotter  Griechenlands ;  many  of  Goethe's  lyrics,  Lamartine's 
Meditations,  Sir  H.  Wotton's  How  Happy  is  he  Born  and  Taught,  Gray's 
Elegy,  Milton's  Lycidas,  Wordsworth's  Ode  to  Duty  and  Intimations, 
Tennyson's  Higher  Pantheism  and  In  Memoriam,  Browning's  Abt 
Vogler,  Arnold's  Rugby  Chapel  and  many  other  of  his  poems,  and 
most  of  A.  H.  Clough's.  See  also,  G.  Meredith,  R.  Bridges,  W.  Watson, 
Francis  Thompson. 

V.  Classification  of  the  Lyric,  The  differentiation  here  will  be, 
of  course,  by  Kinds  as  determined  by  logical  division.  Later  it 
should  be  by  Stages  of  historical  development. 

A.  The  Kinds,  i.  One  must  determine  the  most  satisfactory 
ground  or  principle  of  logical  division,  and  again  of  subdivision: 


V,  A]  CLASSIFICATION   OF  THE  LYRIC  35 

subject,  purpose  or  occasion,  mood,  treatment,  or  form.  2.  In 
considering  each  of  the  following  more  or  less  common  classifi- 
cations, it  will  be  well  to  inquire  whether  the  division  is  founded 
upon  a  single  principle  or  basis,  whether  the  constituent  species 
(or  kinds)  are  mutually  exclusive,  and  whether,  when  added  to- 
gether, they  exhaust  the  genus  '  lyric ' :  lyrics  of  love,  nature,  patri- 
otism, grief,  and  other  elementary  subjects  enumeratively  rehearsed 
(as  by  Gummere,  and  in  most  treasuries  of  selections) ;  courting 
lyrics,  wedding  lyrics,  convivial,  funereal,  panegyrical,  festival  lyrics, 
etc. ;  lyrics  of  feeling,  inspiration,  reflection  ;  of  feeling,  observa- 
tion, contemplation ;  objective  lyric  of  situation  or  persons,  sub- 
jective lyric  of  intuition  or  will;  simple,  enthusiastic,  reflective; 
epical-lyric  (whence  ode,  hymn,  and  dithyramb),  pure  lyric,  lyric 
of  reflection,  dramatic  lyric ;  social  and  expository ;  spontane- 
ous and  'cultivated ;  of  the  song  type,  of  imaginative  elaboration, 
of  reflective  and  intellectual  nature  ;  absolute  and  relative  ;  "  lyrics 
in  song  stanzas,  in  the  elegiac  or  heroic  stanza,  in  various  short 
stanzas,  odes,  sonnets,  ballades,  rondeaus,  and  so  forth."  See  in 
general  any  of  the  German  authors  mentioned  below  (§  2,  Refer- 
ences), but  especially  Werner,  Hegel,  Carriere,  Vischer,  Gottschall, 
Wackernagel,  Viehoff,  and  Geiger ;  also  Mill,  Erskine,  Schelling, 
Alden,  Gummere,  Saintsbury  (Hist  Char,  of  the  Eng.  Lyric). 

3.  Classify  the  various  lyrics  of  nature,  the  varieties  of  song, 
varieties  of  ode  or  elegy,  etc.    Compare  above,  iv,  Special  Forms. 

4.  Examine  the  classifications  current  in  various  national  literatures, 
such  as  the  medieval  French  or  Provencal,  the  Italian,  Greek, 
Indian,  Persian,  and  Chinese.    See  below,  §  6,  under  .head  of  the 
lyrics  of  the  respective  nations. 

B.  The  Stages.  See  below,  §§4,  5,  Historical  Study  of  the 
Lyric,  for  folk  lyric,  art  lyric ;  communal  and  personal  lyric ;  sym- 
bolic, classic,  romantic  lyric  (Hegel),  etc. 

VI.  Function  of  the  Lyric.  The  function  of  poetry  as  one  of 
the  fine  arts  may  be  regarded  as  aesthetic  or  ethical,  or  both ;  and 
in  each  case  the  question  of  function  may  be  resolved  into  a 
consideration  of  Purpose  and  Effect. 


36  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

A.  Aesthetic  Function.  The  discussion  turns  upon  an  under- 
standing of  the  aesthetic  emotions.  That  the  student  may  familiarize 
himself  with  methods  of  defining  and  grading  such  emotions  he 
should  turn  to  the  analyses  and  references,  especially  Hegel, 
Fechner,  Helmholtz,  Guyau,  Sully,  Marshall,  Ladd,  Allen,  and 
Bosanquet,  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§  7-9  ;  and  to  the  later  discus- 
sions by  Karl  Groos  (The  Play  of  Animals,  London:  1898;  Die 
Spiele  der  Menschen,  Jena:  i899);Yrjo  Hirn  (The  Origins  of 
Art,  London:  1900);  William  James  (The  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology, London:  1890);  G.  F.  Stout  (A  Manual  of  Psychology, 
London :  1899)  ;  Wilhelm  Wundt  (Outlines  of  Psychology,  5th  ed., 
Leipz. :  1907).  He  will  also  find  an  admirable  sketch  of  the  tran- 
sition from  bodily  feelings,  through  concrete  mental  feelings,  to  the 
abstract  mental  feelings,  or  aesthetic  emotions,  and  a  theory  of  the 
grades  of  aesthetic  emotions  (the  beautiful ;  the  coenopathic  —  or 
social :  tragic,  comic,  pathetic ;  and  the  sublime)  in  A.  Weiss 
(Introduction  to  the  Philosophy  of  Art,  Univ.  Calif.  Pubs,  in  Mod. 
Phil.,  Berkeley:  1910).  He  should,  of  course,  read  the  portions 
/  of  Aristotle's  Poetics  dealing  with  the  tragic  catharsis  and  Butcher's 
/  discussion  in  his  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art 
^  (London:  1895).  Since  the  present  authors  consider  the  problem 
carefully  under  the  sections  devoted  to  the  nature  and  kinds  of 
\  drama  and  the  tragic  catharsis  in  the  succeeding  volume  of  this 
work,  they  defer  discussion  at  the  present  time.  Abstract  mental 
feelings  are  increasingly  aesthetic  as  they  tend  toward  ideal,  social, 
unselfish— pleasure  or  pleasure-pain.  They  are  distinguished  from 
,  those  that  centre  in  a  personal  desire  to  possess  for  physical  or 
practical  enjoyment,  or  to  fly  from  that  which  inspires  disgust  or 
physical  dread.  The  pleasure  evoked  by  the  beauty  of  the  wood- 
land or  the  sublimity  of  mountains  and  the  pleasure-pain  with  which 
we  follow  the  tragic  career  of  a  Brutus  or  an  Oedipus  are  thor- 
oughly impersonal  and  ideal  —  they  maybe  shared  with  others  and 
they  growln  intensity  with  social  communication  ;  but  the  pleasure 
with  which  some  may  read  a  pornographic  description  and  the 
aversion  with  which  others  may  turn  from  it  or  from  a  gory 


VI,  A]  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LYRIC  37 

accident  are  personal  and  sensual,  or  near  akin  to  the  sensual. 
The  former  emotioXsare^estrietic ;  the  latter,  not  at  all,  or  in  a 
very  low  degree./ For  the  gradation  of  the  aesthetic  emotions, 
various  methods  are  proposed.  The  rationale'  of  gradation  is 
inherent,  however,  in  the  nature  of  the  emotions.  Since  they  are 
aesthetic  in  proportion  as  they  affect  us  less  and  less  physically  — 
by  recalling  personal  memories  pf  the  sensuous  or  by  stimulating 
the  imagination  of  possible  sensuous  experience — and  as  they  affect 
us  more  and  more  socially  and  ideally  (i.e.  as  having  no  counter- 
parts in  our  individual  sensuous  life),  it  may  be  permissible  to  grade 
them  as  follows  :  ( i )  those  that  border  upon  physical  and  personal 
pleasure,  aversion,  or  pain,  recollected  or  imagined  ;  (2)  those  that 
are  more  social  in  quality,  but  yet  retain  some  spice  of  personal 
suggestion  and  stimulation,  such  as  the  romantic,  comic,  and 
sentimental  emotions ;  (3)  those  that  are  entirely  impersonal  and 
social  in  interest  and  universal' in  significance  and  appeal,  such- as 
the  tragic  and  the  pathetic,  and  the  comic  when  it  has  risen  to 
the  function  of  genial  and  remedial  humor  in  the  service  of  the 
social  organism ;  (4)  th.e  religious  emotion  of  the  sublime,  in 
which  we  are  conscious  of  the  presence  of  a  superior  —nay,  "an 
absolute  —  power,  but  do  not  feel  that  it  imperils  our  personality ; 
rather  that  the  absolute  lifts  the  individual  self  into  harmony  with 
it.  As  for  the  beautiful,  see  Weiss  (Introd.  to  Phil.  Art.,  pp.  291- 
296)  for  definition*  and  discussion ;  also  the  works  referred  to 
,  above.  In  the  process  6f~conHict  between  sensuous  and  spiritual, 
individual  and  universal,  which  characterizes  any  aesthetic  emo- 
tion, the  beautiful  may,  perhaps,  be  regarded  as  one  of  those 
"  resting  points  "  when  "  a  serene  calm  comes  over  us,  and  con- 
tentment and  satisfaction  occupy  the  mind.  .  .  .  Experiencing  some- 
thing beautiful,  we  find  satisfaction  in  the  feeling  itself.  We  do 
not  need  to  destroy  it  for  the  sake  of  satisfaction,  and  we  do 
need  to  create  physical  conditions  in  order  to  sustain  or  enhance 
our  feeling."  The  feeHng-tone  of  our  experience  is  capable  of 
perpetuating  itself  with  serene  satisfaction ;  it  may  be  "  prolonged 
and  enhanced  even  after  the  stimulus  of  the  experience  is 


3«  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

removed."  Or  without  any  stimulation  of  an  emotional  conflict  and 
its  resolution,  the  satisfied  feeling  which  we  call  the  beautiful  may 
find  itself  in  peaceful  contemplation  occasioned  by  our  conscious- 
ness of  unity  betweetLobjective  appearance  and  subjective  aspira- 
tion. But  to  crowd  the  consideration  of  the  aesthetic  emotions 
into  a  nutshell  is  a  hopeless  attempt  and  misleading  in  effect. 
The  student,  with  study  of  such  references  as  are  given  above, 
must  examine  and  consider  for  himself. 

He  should  next  inquire  with  what  Purpose  the  varjous  forms 
of  the  lyric  —  e.g.  the  song,  the  ode,  the  hymn,  the  elegy,  the 
reflectiye_Jyric —  arouse  these  emotions  and  with  what  Effect 
they  satisfy  them.  i.  Can  the  lyric  be  classified  according  to 
the  different  grades  of  aesthetic  emotion,  as  here  suggested, 
with  which  it  functions?  2.  Does  the  personal  character  of 
the  modern  lyric  limit  it  to  the  less  universal  class  of  aesthetic 

s^~~ ; 

'  emotiofis,  or  does  individual  expression  pierce  to  the  universal 
by  its  very  intensity  ?  What  of  the  communal  lyric  ?  3.  Is  it 
the  /z«^w  of  the  lyric  to  express  the  "  desires,  hopes,  and 
fears  "  of  which  the  poet  is  subjectively  conscious,  with  such  ideal 
I  fervor  and  scope  that  "  lyric  poetry  tends  to  exalt  the  poet  himself, 
to  make  his  personality  far_rnore  to  us  than  the  events  which 
occasion  his  poem"  (Gummere,  Poetics,  pp.  40-41)?  4.  Is  it  the 
purpose  of  the  more  spontaneous  lyric  species  to  accomplish  a 

•  discharge  of  immediate  feeling  under  rhythmic  conditions  that  at 
once  heighten  the  feeling  and  satisfy,  chasten,  or  purify  it  ?  What 
of  the  more  reflective  species  ?  5.  Is,  then,  the  effect  of  the  lyric  a 
catharsisjjf  the  emotions  discharged,  and  also,  perhaps,  of  the 

/  entire  emotional-intellectual  system  ?    And  is  this  catharsis  merely 

I  medicinal  in  effect  (purgative  of  the  emotional  causes),  or  does  it 
embrace  an  idealization  and  universalizing  of  the  emotion  ?  Com- 
pare Butcher,  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art,  Chap.  VI, 
The  Function  of  Tragedy ;  A.  C.  Bradley,  Oxford  Lectures  on 
Poetry,  p.  37,  The  Sublime,  p.  69,  Hegel's  Theory  of  Tragedy; 
and  the  same  author's  Shakesperean  Tragedy  (see  Index,  under 
'  Reconciliation ') ;  compare,  in  our  forthcoming  volume  on  the 


VI,  B]  FUNCTION  OF  THE  LYRIC  39 

Drama,  sections  on'Catharsis  in  Tragedy  and  Comedy.  Is  the  lyric 
mood  "  the  vibration  between  the  peace  of  pure  contemplationjmd 
the  unrest  of  desire  "  ?  and,  if  so,  does  the  aesthetic  effect  depend 
upon  wfielferlriellesire  of  the  poet  is  satisfied  or  restricted  —  upon 
whether  he  stop  with  the  climax,  the  "  cry  "  of  regret_or  ^esife, 
or  proceed  to  the  serenity  of  attainment  or  resignation,  to  the 
recovery  of  balance  ?  or  may  that  recovery,  that  serenity,  be 
implied  withouTtreing  confessed  ?  (cf .  Schopenhauer,  Erskine).  Is 
the  lyric  peculiarly^Tomantic,  personal,  and  intimate  (J.  S.  Mill, 

Neilson)  ?     and    does    nnf  the    rhararter~TVf_JjiP    ratharsis~rfpppnfl 

upon  whether  the  rornantic  longing— is— fxu:--sornething_j;eal  or 
something  ideal  —  past,  present,  or  future  —  and  upon  the  degree 
in  which-^Ke^rnoooTTs^ dominated  by  imagination?  Is  the  solution 
of  the  emotion  in  a  mentaTaHTtude  (Erskine)  I  Is  this  universal- 
izing effect  gained  only  in  connection  with  the  highest  grade  of 
aesthetic  emotions  ?  For  the  '  problem  of  the  lyric,'  see  Lotze ; 
for  its  purpose,  Browning ;  for  '  lyric  catharsis,'  Carriere,  Erskjne, 
Gummere,  Geiger,  Neilson,  Woodberry  (Appreciation  of  Lit.) ; 
and  in  general,  the  more  philosophical  of  the  works  cited  below, 
§  2.  But  the  best  method  of  answering  these  and  similar  ques- 
tions is  by  direct  induction  from  representative  lyric  anthologies, 
such  as  Palgrave's  Golden  Treasury,  the  Oxford  anthologies  of 
English  and  foreign  verse,  or  such  anthologies  as  are  mentioned 
below,  §  6,  passim. 

'B.  Ethical  Function.  The  problem  of  ethical  purpose  and 
effect,  invariably  facing  the  critic  of  poetry,  is  complicated  here 
by  the  subjective  immediacy  which  characterizes  the  simplest  and 
most  spontaneous  lyric  forms.  Does  not  fhis"irnnieHiacy  of  pas- 
sionate utterance  suggest  a  .function  primarily  and  essentially 
psychological  and  aesthetic  rather  than  ethical  ?  To  what  extent 
has  such  utterance  been  unethical  ?  STTaH  we  not  more  readily 
find  an  aim  to  influence  conduct,  and  an  effect  actually  ethical, 
in  the  more  reflective  types  of  the  lyric  ?  As  the  purpose  becomes 
consciously  didactic  do  not  the  distinguishing  traits  of  the  lyric 
undergo  an  eclipse  ?  Is  the  tendenz-lyrik  to  be  regarded  as,  in  any 


40  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  1 

way,  a  form  of  pure  lyric?  See  Geiger,  pp.  21-24.  On  the  gen- 
eral question  of  the  relation  of  art  to  morals,  see  Gayley  and 
Scott,  Lit_Crit.,  §§  7,  8.  The  references  there  indicated  furnish 
generalizations  from  which  the  student  may  deduce  the  specific 
ethical  problems  worthy  of  consideration. 

VII.  The   Difference   between   the  Lyric  and  Other  Kinds  of 
Poetry,  especially  the  epic  and  the  drama,  may  be  considered 
from  the  following  points  of  view :   the  poet's  subjectivity ;   the 
absoluteness  or  relativity  of  his  vision4_his_  attitude, —  impression- 
istic, aesthetic,  ideal,  —  unmoral,  moral,  religious ;  the  nature  of 
the  objects  contemplated  and  emotions  aroused;  the  aim  of  the 
poet's  representation   and  its  effect  (aesthetic  and  ethical) ;    the 
movement  or  the  unity  appropriate  to  the  poem  and  to  the  species 
of  poetry ;  the  material  and  the  manner  of  the  presentation ;  the 
audience   appealed    to.     See    Browning,    Mill,    Mure,    Symonds, 
Hegel,  Vischer,   Carriere,   Wackernagel,  etc.     Is  the   lyric   con- 
cerned with  a  moment  of  time,  the  epic  and  drama  with  a  revo- 
lution of  time?    See'Geigen mhe~pTropef  differentiation  one 
between  lyric  poetry  on  the  one  hand  and  "  pragmatic  "  (including 
epic  and  dramatic  —  as  dealing  with  '  facts ')  on  the  other  hand  ? 
See  -Geiger,  Viehoff,  Goethe,  and  compare  Moulton,  Mod.  Study 
of  Lit.,  pp.  44  ff.,  197. 

VIII.  On  the  Conditions  of  Society  that  are  most  favorable  to 
the  production  of  the  lyric,  see  Hegel,  Courthope,  Posnett.    This 
consideration  is  introductory  to  the  historical  or  comparative  study 
of  the  lyric  (see  below,  §§  4-6),  inasmuch  as  the  lyric,  though 
produced  plentifully  at  all  stages  of  development,  varies  according 
to  tendencies  in  the  different  stages.    Consider,  for  instance,  the 
folk  lyric  as  contrasted  with  the  art  lyric  in  successive  periods. 
An  epos,  says  Hegel,  may  represent  a  nation,  but  only  a  vast 
collection  of  lyrics  can  hope  to  achieve  an  equally  representative 
character.    It  has  been  frequently  remarked  that  among  civilized 
peoples  an  age  of  intellectualism  and  strong  social  convention, 
as   was    the  eighteenth    century,   is   unfavorable   to    the  growth 
of  a  strong  lyric  sentiment.    The  lyric  may  therefore  be  "  the 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  41 

peculiarly  romantic  form  of  poetry,  since  it  is,  more  directly 
than  any  other,  the  utterance  of  the  personal  and  intimate  mood 
of  the  individual  soul"  (W.  A.  Neilson,  Essentials  of  Poetry, 
pp.  6 1  ff.,  147  ff.).  Does  the  poetry  of  to-day  tend  essentially  to 
the  lyric,  and  if  so  may  we  "  look  to  the  problem,  in  what  sense 
lyric  can  be  said  to  be  the  prevailing  form  at  present,  for  some 
light  on  the  larger  problem  of  what  we  mean  by  the  word"  (Gould)? 

SECTION  2.    GENERAL  REFERENCES 

In  studying  what  has  been  written  about  the  nature  of  the 
different  types  of  literature  the  student  will  often  find  himself  com- 
pelled to  consider  anterior  questions  relative  to  the  nature  of  art, 
literature,  and  poetry,  because  the  definition  of  the  kinds  of  poetry 
necessarily  presupposes  a  definite  conception  of  the  larger  classes 
to  which  they  belong,  and  because  often  the  best  way  of  testing 
the  validity  of  the  theory  of  a  genre  is  to  determine  whether  or 
not  the  definition  of  poetry  (or  literature  or  art)  that  it  premises 
is  accurate  and  defensible.  For  analyses  of  these  more  general 
problems  and  for  references  bearing  upon  them,  see  Gayley  and 
Scott,  An  Introduction  to  the  Methods  and  Materials  of  Literary 
Criticism  (Boston:  1899),  Chap.  II,  Principles  of  Art,  Chap.  Ill, 
Principles  of  Literature,  Chap.  IV,  The  Theory  of  Poetry, 
Chap.  VII,  Principles  of  Versification;  especially  useful  in  the 
present  connection  are  the  sections  on  the  theory  of  literature  and 
poetry  (§§  13-15,  19-20). 

It  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to  repeat  in  the  following 
bibliography  references  to  works  on  versification  which  have  already 
been  given  at  length  in  §§  23,  24  of  the  work  just  mentioned. 
Several  important  works  on  prosody  have,  however,  appeared  since 
the  publication  of  those  sections :  these  have  been  listed  below. 
The  student  should  not  neglect  to  consult  works  on  metric,  for 
often  he  will  find  in  them  invaluable  matter,  both  historical  and 
theoretical.  The  treatises  on  the  distinctive  prosody  of  various 
national  literatures  are  often  rich  in  information.  These  remarks, 


42  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

moreover,  apply  more  particularly  to  the  study  of  the  lyric,  with 
its  great  variety  of  verse  technique,  than  to  any  other  type. 

ALDEN,  R.  M.  An  Introduction  to  Poetry  for  Students  of  English 

Literature.    N.  Y. :   1909. 

A  very  well-arranged  and  scholarly  presentation  of  the  principles 
of  poetry  in  general,  of  the  distinctive  qualities  of  the  major  types 
and  their  variations,  and  of  English  metres,  rhyme,  and  stanzaic 
forms.  The  value  of  the  author's  conclusions  is  enhanced  by  his 
indication  of  the  readily  available  materials  for  inductive  study 
and  his  quotation  of  the  views  of  the  principal  authorities  concern- 
ing the  questions  involved.  For  the  lyric,  see  pp.  55-73. 

ALEXANDER,   H.   B.     The  .  English   Lyric :    A  Study  in   Psycho- 
genesis.    In   University  Studies;  University  of  Nebraska^  IX, 
4;  Oct.  1909. 
An  attempt  to  read  ethnic  character  —  especially  the  English  — 

in  lyric  expression. 

AMBROS,  W.  A.    The  Boundaries  of  Music  and  Poetry.    Trans. 

from  the  German  by  J.  H.  Cornell.  N.  Y. :  1893. 
Other  references  on  the  problem  of  the  relations  of  music  to 
poetry  are :  J.  Combarieu,  Les  rapports  de  la  musique  et  de  la 
poe'sie  (Paris:  1894);  E.  Gurney  and  L.  Lanier,  as  noted  below. 
See  also  the  references  given  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  Lit.  Grit, 
jjp.  451-452,  to  Ruskin,  Schmidt,  Helmholtz,  Weber,  Schubert, 
Hauptmann,  Bahr,  etc. ;  a  longer  list  of  treatises  on  music  may 
be  found  in  Gayley  and  Scott's  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Aes- 
thetics (Berkeley :  1890),  pp.  70-72.  References  on  the  origin  of 
music  will  be  found  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  181. 

ARISTOTLE.   Poetics. 

i,  2,  10 ;  11,4;  iv,  7, -i  2-1 3;  vi,  4,  7-8,  19;  xn,  1-2;  xvin,  7. 

The  term  '  lyric  poetry  '  was  not  used  by  Aristotle.  The  Greeks 
generally  used  the  term  /u^'Ar/,  in  contradistinction  to  ITTT;  and 
8/aa/iaru.  Aristotle  speaks  of  dithyrambic  and  gnomic  poetry  — 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  43 

both  lyrical  modes,  the  one  enthusiastic  and  Bacchic,  the  other 
quiet  and  earnest  —  but  has  nothing  to  say  of  them  beyond  assign- 
ing their  places  roughly  in  his  scheme  of  imitation.  Cf.  J.  A. 
Hartung  (pp.  cit.  §  8),  pp.  3-6.  Aristotle  mentions  also  the  Chorus 
as  a  part  of  drama,  but  without  theorizing.  For  this  silence  regard- 
ing the  lyric,  see  S.  H.  Butcher,  Harvard  Lectures  on  Greek 
Subjects  (Boston:  1904),  p.  198;  and  E.  S.  Bouchier,  Aristotle's 
Poetics  (Oxford:  1908),  p.  i,  Note.  For  the  use  by  the  Greeks 
of  the  terms  '  melic,'  '  lyric,'  '  ode,'  etc.,  see  H.  W.  Smyth  (pp.  cit. 
infra,  §  5),  pp.  xvii  ff.,  and  E.  D.  Perry  (pp.  cit.  §  5).  "  It  has 
long  been  a  commonplace  of  Greek  literary  history  that  until 
late  Alexandrian  times  the  Greeks  used  no  satisfactory  compre- 
hensive term  for  what  has  ever  since  then  been  styled  '  lyric ' 
poetry  "  (Perry,  p.  62).  The  Greek  term  '  lyric  '  was  first  applied 
to  poetry  about  100  B.C.,  in  the  Ars  Gramm.  (p.  6,  1.  10  Uhlig) 
of  Dionysios  Thrax,  a  pupil  of  Aristarchos,  the  Alexandrian. 

BACON,  FRANCIS.    Works.    Ed.  by  Spedding  and  others.    15  vols. 
N.Y.:   1869. 

Vol.  I,  p.  517.    De  Augmentis,  ii,  13. 

Bacon's  "  classification  of  the  lyric  with  philosophy  and  rhetoric 
explains  the  impersonal  and  imitative  forms  of  lyric  poetry  at  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  looks  forward  to  the  more  com- 
plicated forms  of  the  '  metaphysical  school ' ;  it  is  significant  that 
his  theory  distinguishes  verse  of  this  sort  from  imaginative  poetry, 
and  equally  significant  that  it  recognizes  no  place  for  the  lyric 
which  reflects  the  inner  life  through  the  imagination  "  (Spingarn, 
J.  E.,  Critical  Essays  of  the  i;th  Century,  I,  xii-xiii). 

BALDWIN,  J.  M.  Thought  and  Things.  3  vols.  Lond. :  1906-11. 

The  "Aesthetic  Object"  (object  =  psychic  object)  is  defined  as 
"an  object  of  higher  Semblance  in  which  the  dualism  of  inner 
and  outer  controls  is  annulled  in  a  state  of  immediate  contempla- 
tion." Is  this  definition  especially  applicable  to  the  lyric  "  object  "  ? 
(Cf.  above,  §  i,  n,  B,  i, 


44  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

BATTEUX,  CHARLES,  ABBE.  Les  quatre  poetiques,  etc.  2  vols. 
Paris:  1771. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  205-210,  227-239;  Vol.  II,  Pt.  iv,  p.  75. 

BATTEUX,  CHARLES,  ABBE.  Einleitung  in  die  schonen  Wissen- 
schaften,  etc.  Trans,  by  K.  W.  Ramler.  2d  ed.  4  Bde. 
Leipz. :  1762-1763. 

For  the  French  original,  see  Principes  de  la  litterature, 
5th  ed.  6  vols.  Paris:  1774-1788,  which  contains  the 
Cours  de  Belles- Lettres.  Cf.  Gummere,  Poetics,  pp.  41-42. 

BAYNE,  P.  Two  Great  Englishwomen  .  .  .  with  an  Essay  on 
Poetry.  Lond.:  1881. 

See  Gayley  and  Scott,  Lit.  Crit.,  §  20. 

BAYNE,  T.  Prater's  Magazine,  N.  S.   22:  627-639.   Three  Phases 

of  Lyric  Poetry. 

A  genial  but  not  very  profound  discussion  of  the  features  of  the 
verse  of  Gosse,  Lang,  and  Hake,  as  representing  respectively  the 
sentimental,  the  artificial,  and  the  philosophical  phases  of  the  lyric. 

BEECHING,.H.  C.    The  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare.    Boston:  1904. 
Introduction. 

BERNHARDY,  G.  Grundriss  der  griechischen  Litteratur.  Th.  2. 
Halle:  1845.  3~S  ed-  1877-92. 

Th.  2,  Abt.  I  Epos,  Elegie,  lamben,  Melik. 

An  exhaustive  survey,  critical  and  historical,  of  the  various 
poetic  genres  of  Greece  so  far  as  they  were  understood  at  the 
time  this  work  was  written.  The  arrangement  by  genres  and  the 
insertion  of  annotated  bibliographies  of  critical  and  historical 
works  under  each  division  of  each  type  combine  to  make  this 
work  a  most  valuable  aid. 

BERNHARDY,  G.  Grundriss  der  romischen  Litteratur.  5th  ed.  1872. 

BIESE,  A.  Griechische  Lyriker  in  Auswahl  fur  den  Schulgebrauch 
herausgegeben.  2  Pts.  2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1902-05. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  45 

The  second  part  contains  a  very  convenient  introduction  (pp.  i- 
30),  theoretical  and  historical,  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  lyric, 
including  elegy  and  epigram. 

BIESE,  A.  Das  Metaphorische  in  der  dichterischen  Phantasie.  In 
Zeitschrift  fiir  vergleichende  Litteraturgeschichte,  N.  F.  2. 

BIESE,  A.    Metaphorisch  und  Rhetorisch.    Eine  polemische  Studie 

zu  Aesthetik  des  lyrischen  Liedes.  Id.,  Bd.  6. 
These  two  essays,  together  with  the  criticism  provoked  by  them, 
which  is  referred  to  by  the  author,  are  an  important  contribution 
to  the  theory  of  the  lyric.  Biese  holds  that  the  metaphor  represents 
a  primary,  fundamental  form  of  human  thought.  The  essays 
should  be  read  in  their  entirety  for  fruitful  suggestions  that  cannot 
be  detailed  here.  For  other  essays  by  Biese  see  below,  .§  3,  vi,  c. 

BLAIR,  H.  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres.  3  vols. 
Edinb.  :  1813. 

Vol.  Ill,  pp.  128-136. 

BLANKENBURG,  F.  VON. 

See  below,  under  J.  G.  Sulzer.    An  old  but  very  important 
bibliographical  aid. 

BOCKEL,  O.    Psychologic  der  Volksdichtung.    Leipz. :   1906. 

The  chapters  on  origin,  nature,  and  development  are  too  short 
to  be  satisfactory.  Those  on  theory  are  readable,  but  not  very 
profound  or  convincing.  The  larger  part  of  the  book  is  taken  up 
with  description  of  various  features  of  folk  song. 

BOECKH,  A.    Encyclopadie  und  Methodologie  der  philologischen 
Wissenschaf  ten . 
See  below,  §  5. 

BROWNING,  R.  On  the  Poet,  Objective  and  Subjective  ...  on 
Shelley  as  Man  and  Poet.  2d  ed.  (^Browning  Soc.  Papers, 
Pt.  I)  Lond. :  1881. 

Pp.  5-19;  see  also  Gayley  and  Scott,  Lit.  Crit,  §  20. 


46  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§2 

"  The  subjective  poet  is  impelled  to  embody  the  thing  that  he 
receives,  not  with  reference  so  much  to  the  many  below,  as  to  the 
One  above  him."  The  following  theses  should  be  considered  : 
(i)  that  the  lyric  poet  seeks  the  primal  elements  of  humanity  in 
his" own  soul  as  the  nearest  reflex  of  the  Absolute  Mind ;  (2)  that 
he  is  a  seer  rather  than  a  fashioner ;  (3)  his  poetry  an  effluence 
rather  than  a  work  ;  (4)  this  effluence  not  to  be  judged  apart  from 
his  personality ;  (5)  that  history  shows  us  and  always  must  show 
us  a  successive  alternation  of  subjective  and  objective  poets ; 
(6)  that  the  highest  poet  combines  subjective  and  objective  faculties 
of  vision  and  creation. 

BRUCHMANN,  K.   Poetik.  Naturlehre  der  Dichtung.    Berlin:  1898. 

Pp.  103-122;  also,  58-64.   See  below,  §  5. 

Scientific  in  method ;  but  the  author  is  perhaps  somewhat  too 
cautious  in  drawing  or  suggesting  conclusions. 

fBRUNETiERE,  F.    L'fivolution  de  la  poesie 'lyrique  en  France  au 

ige  siecle.    2  vols.    2d  ed.    Paris:   1895. 

An  important  work.  The  author  defines  the  lyric  as  follows : 
"  Lyric  poetry  is  the  expression  of  the  personal  feelings  of  the 
poet  translated  into  rhythms  analogous  to  the  nature  of  his  emo- 
tion "  (vol.  I,  p.  154).  Upon  this  passage  Professor  Beers  writes 
(Points  at  Issue  and  Some  Other  Points,  N.'Y. :  1904,  p.  184): 

The  last  clause  may  deserve  our  attention  for  a  moment :  "  rhythms 
analogous  to  the  nature  of  the  emotion  " ;  i.e.  the  verse  is  or  should  be 
flexible,  sensitive  in  its  response  to  the  poet's  changing  moods.  The 
critic  goes  on  to  declare  that  this  conformity  of  the  rhythmic  movement 
to  the  emotion  is  in  itself  enough  to  make  a  poem  truly  lyrical,  and  that 
this  "  supple,  ductile,  and  infinitely  undulating  character  "  of  the  verse  is 
the  musical  element  in  lyric  poetry,  the  part  still  subsisting  in  it  of 
the  song,  the  survival  or  the  memory  in  it  of  its  origin. 

The  second  volume  contains  lectures  on  Vigny,  T.  Gautier, 
Hugo,  The  Renascence  of  Naturalism,  Leconte  de  Lisle,  Heredia, 
Sully-Prudhomme,  Coppe'e,  The  Symbolists,  The  Future  of  Poetry, 
and  Brunetiere's  own  method  of  criticism. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  47 

BRUNETIERE,  F.    Involution  litteraire  de  Victor  Hugo.    In  Rev. 

d.  Deux  Mondes,  1902  (vol.  VIII)  :  201-215. 
Brunetiere  refutes  Sainte-Beuve's  observation  on  the  anomaly 
of  the  mute  character  of  the  modern  printed  lyric  by  asserting  the 
important  doctrine  of  the  chant  interieur.    Cf.  Erskine,  p.  4. 

CAINE,  T.  HALL.    Sonnets  of  Three  Centuries.    Lond. :   1882. 

See  the  introduction ;  note  the  author's  attempt  to  show  that 
the  English  sonnet  is  an  indigenous  growth. 

CARRIERS,  M.    Die  Poesie.    Ihr  Wesen  und  ihre  Formen.    2d  ed. 
Leipz. :   1884.    ist  ed.  1854. 

Chap.  VII  Volks-  und  Kunstpoesie ;  chap.  VIII,  pp.  367-393 
Die  lyrische  Darstellungsweise,  pp.  393-407  Die  lyrischen 
Dichtarten. 

Carriere  is  an  Hegelian,  but  his  comparative  method  renders  him 
less  arbitrary  than  some  of  the  philosophical  critics.  In  Chap.  VII, 
after  explaining  the  rise  of  folk  song  from  communal  conditions, 
Carriere  distinguishes  between  the  folk  lyric  and  the  art  lyric. 
Note  especially  p.  182:--  the  folksong  begins  with  an  "appear- 
ance "  or  picture,  and  then  continues  with  the  emotion  of  the 
singer  which  has  been  symbolized  or  suggested  in  the  picture ; 
but  the  art  lyric  begins  with  the  direct  expression  of  the  feeling 
and  then  adds  picture  and  incident,  thus  reversing  the  former 
process.  Cf.  Woodberry,  Appreciation  of  Literature,  pp.  41-46. 
In  Chap.  VIII  Carriere  descants  upon  the  richness  and  force  of 
lyric  subjectivity,  and  discusses  the  lyric  catharsis  which  lies  in 
the  mere  act  of  harmonizing  in  verse  the  cries  of  the  soul. 

The  lyric  poet's  relation  to  the  period  in  which  he  writes  is 
thus  stated : 

Der  Lyriker  steht  in  der  Gegenwart  und  verewigt  den  Augenblick, 
indem  er  ausspricht  welch  werthvoller  Empfindungsgehalt  in  demselben 
liegt,  und  wenn  er  in  die  Vergangenheit  zuriick  oder  in  die  Zukunft 
vorausschaut,  so  gelten  beide  nicht  um  ihrer  selbst  willen,  sondern  nur 
durch  die  Bedeutung  welche  sie  fur  den  gegenwartigen  Moment  haben 
(P-  373)- 


48  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

Is  the  past  only  a  symbol  in  the  lyric  mood  ?  —  In  the  third 
reference,  above,  the  lyric  is  divided  into  lyrics  "  des  Gefiihls,  der 
Anschauung,  des  Gedankens."  —  Cf .  the  same  author's  Aesthetik 
(2  vols.  Leipz. :  1885),  vol.  II,  pp.  567-579 ;  and  his  Die  Kunst  im 
Zuzammenhang  der  Kulturentwickelung  (5  vols.  Leipz. :  1871-73), 
vol.  I,  pp.  533-547  Spruchdichtung  und  Kunstlyrik ;  vol.  Ill, 
pt.  i,  pp.  281-307  Die  Lyrik  und  Gedankendichtung.  Cf.  refer- 
ences to  Carriere  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  Index. 

COLERIDGE,  S.  T. 

See  below,  §  3,  v,  D. 

COURTHOPE,  W.  J.    Life  in  Poetry :  Law  in  Taste.    Lond.:   1901. 
Pt.  Ill,  Lecture  IX. 

The  lyric  is  regarded  as  the  expression  of  that  self-corisciousness 
which  develops  with  the  advance  of  civilization ;  in  late  times 
poetry  passes  somewhat  from  the  imitation  of  the  universal  in 
nature  to  the  imitation  of  self-consciousness  in  the  soul  of  the  in- 
dividual. Hence  Macaulay's  famous  dictum  concerning  the  decline 
of  poetry  (see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§17,  20)  is  amended  to  read: 
"  that  when  society  reaches  the  stage  at  which  self -consciousness 
is  widely  diffused,  the  epic,  dramatic,  and  it  may  be  added  the 
didactic,  forms  of  poetry  decline,  and  where  poetry  survives  as 
an  art,  men  mainly  seek  to  express  their  ideas  of  Nature  in  the 
lyric  form  (389-390)."  The  recent  success  of  Rostand,  Haupt- 
mann,  and  others  in  poetic  drama  may  lead  one  to  question  the 
amendment  as  well  as  the  dictum. 

In  studying  the  self-conscious  lyric  one  should  notice  "  the 
indirect  influence  of  society  in  imposing  its  own  limitations  and 
character  on  the  ideas  of  the  individual  poet,  and  next  the  nature 
of  the  ideal  form  in  which  the  poet  attempts  to  give  the  appear- 
ance of  universality  to  his  own  self-consciousness"  (391).  The 
rest  of  the  lecture  traces  the  rise  of  self-consciousness  in  Euro- 
pean literature  from  Rousseau  and  the  natural  reaction  against 
eighteenth-century  conformity,  and  enlarges  upon  Byron  and 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  49 

Tennyson  as  typical  respectively  of  those  political  and  personal 
aspects  of  the  movement  that  were  especially  noticeable  in  England. 
On  Courthope,  cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  307,  and  Index. 

CROISET,  A.    La  poe'sie  de  Pindare  et  les  lois  du  lyrisme  grec. 

Paris:   1880. 

The  first  part  of  this  work  furnishes  an  admirable  introduction 
to  the  theory  of  the  Greek  lyric  in  general. 

DENNIS,}.    Studies  in  English  Literature.    Lond. :   1876. 

See  the  essays,  English  Lyrical  Poetry,  The  English  Sonnet. 
These  essays,  in  purpose  both  critical  and  historical,  display 
the  characteristic  attitude  of  the  nineteenth  century  toward  the 
lyric.  "  We  have  learnt,  however,  of  late  years  what  was  not  so 
well  understood  a  century  ago,  that  the  critic's  office  is  to  follow 
the  poet,  not  to  require  that  the  poet  should  follow  him.  ...  Of 
the  lyric  poet  especially  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  the  lack  of 
conventional  restraint,  the  freedom  to  sing  his  own  song  to  his 
own  music,  is  essential  to  success"  (English  Lyrical  Poetry,  p.  289). 

DE  QUINCEY,  THOMAS.  Wordsworth's  Poetry.   In  Taifs  Magazine, 

1845. 

In  his  brief  critical  utterances  De  Quincey  often  displays  a 
fineness  and  subtlety  of  psychological  observation  revelatory  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  analysis  of  a  poet's  ideas  and  emotions 
may  be  conducted.  In  this  essay  occurs  a  penetrative  suggestion 
as  to  lyrical  emotion  and  diction : 

Lyrical  emotion  of  every  kind,  which  (to  merit  the  name  lyrical')  must 
be  in  the  state  of  flux  and  reflux,  or,  generally,  of  agitation,  also  requires 
the  Saxon  element  of  our  language.  .  .  .  And,  universally,  this  may  be 
remarked  —  that,  wherever  the  passion  of  a  poem  is  of  that  sort  which 
uses,  presumes,  or  postulates  the  ideas,  without  seeking  to  extend  them, 
Saxon  will  be  the  '  cocoon  '  .  .  .  which  the  poem  spins  for  itself.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  where  the  motion  of  the  feeling  is  by  and  through 
the  ideas,  where  (as  in  religious  or  meditative  poetry  —  Young's,  for 
instance,  or  Cowper's)  the  sentiment  creeps  and  kindles  underneath  the 
very  tissues  of  thinking,  there  the  Latin  will  predominate. 


50  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

In  the  two  following  paragraphs  is  a  very  clear  and  just  criti- 
cism of  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetic  diction.  As  an  example  of 
acute  observation  of  poetic  habits  note  the  following : 

But  whosoever  looks  searchingly  into  the  characteristic  genius  of 
Wordsworth  will  see  that  he  does  not  willingly  dear  with  a  passion  in 
its  direct  aspect,  or  presenting  an  unmodified  contour,  but  in  forms 
more  complex  and  oblique,  and  when  passing  under  the  shadow  of 
some  secondary  passion. 

i 

See  the  examples  cited  and  compare 'Wordsworth's  saying  that 

poetry  deals  with  remembered  emotions.  De  Quincey's  remark 
is  suggestive  of  a  very  important  method  of  studying  the  lyrical 
content. 

DILTHEY,  W.    Das  Erlebnis  und  die  Dichtung.    Leipz. :    1906. 
4th  ed.    1913. 

Goethe  und  die  dichterische  Phantasie. 

A  large  part  of  the  theory  of  the  lyric  is  concerned  with  the 
essential  character  of  the  poetic  imagination.  This  essay  casts 
light  on  the  general  problem.  It  does  not  treat  of  the  lyric  in 
particular. 

DRINKWATER,  J.    The  Lyric.    Lond.:  n.d.-igi-j. 

A  brief  essay  on  the  theme  that  lyric  and  poetry  are  synony- 
mous terms. 

Du  PREL,  C.    Psychologic  der  Lyrik.    Leipz.:   1880. 

The  author's  method  consists  in  showing  that  lyric  poetry, 
dreams,  and  the  Weltanschauung  of  primitive  man  all  depend, 
psychologically,  upon  a  certain  involuntary  imagination.  By 
the  comparison  of  these  three  results  of  one  mental  condition 
considerable  light  is  thrown  on  the  nature  of  the  lyric. 

EGGER,  E\   Essai  sur  1'histoire  de  la  critique  chez  les  Grecs.   26  ed. 

Paris:   1886. 

A  delightful  and  valuable  introduction  to  the  Greek  aesthetics 
of  literature.  This  work  and  the  first  volume  of  Professor 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  51 

Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  Criticism  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every 
student  who  contemplates  a  study  of  Greek  and  Hellenistic  con- 
tributions to  the  theory  of  the  poetic  types. 

ENGEL,  J.  J.    Schriften.    14  Bde.    Berlin:   1844-1845. 

Vol.  XI  Anfangsgriinde  einer  Theorie  der  Dichtungsarten 
aus  deutschen  Mustern  entwickelt.  Pp.  230-277  Von 
dem  lyrischen  Gedicht.  See  also  Schriften,  1806,  vol.  XI, 
p.  25  ff. 

Engel's  essay  is  based  upon  a  wide  induction  —  many  poems 
are  quoted  —  and  it  deserves  more  notice  than  is  usually  bestowed 
upon  it.  The  author  believed  he  had  discovered  the  essential  law 
underlying  the  spontaneous,  dithyrambic  utterance  of  the  lyric. 
This  law  he  held  to  be  the  association  of  images  and  ideas  by  the 
imagination  alone,  independent  of  any  control  by  real  objects  in 
the  external  world  such  as  is  always  a  curbing  force  in  pragmatic 
and  descriptive  poetry  (compare  M.  Mendelssohn,  op.  cit.  infra., 
vol.  IV,  pt.  II,  p.  431,  on  the  Ordnung  der  begeisterten  Einbil- 
dungskraft  as  giving  the  underlying  law  of  the  lyric).  The  lyric 
speaker,  or  speakers,  as  in  lyric  dialogue,  must  be  entirely  under 
the  dominance  of  •  one  emotion ;  otherwise,  a  conversation,  char- 
acterized by  imaginative  sally  and  progress,  would  be  a  lyric. 
"...  das  Wesen  jedes  lyrischen  Gedichts  iiberhaupt  Phantasie- 
gang  einer  Seele  ist,  die  sich  ganz  dem  Eindruck  eines  Gegen- 
standes  hingiebt  .  •.  .  "  (p.  260).  The  posing  and  answering  of 
the  two  following  questions  are  of  importance:  (i)  "  Denn  wie, 
wenn  es  Stiicke  gabe,  in  denen  zwar  sichtbar  der  Phantasiegang 
herrschte,  die  man  aber  darum  nicht  lyrisch  nennen  konnte "  ? 
(2)  "  Wie,  wenn  es  andere  Stiicke  gabe,  in  denen  man  jenen 
Gang  nicht  fa'nde,  und  die  doch,  nach  aller  Gestandniss,  lyrisch 
waren "  (p.  237)  ?  Various  characteristics  of  the  lyric  are  dis- 
cussed on  pp.  247-256  ;  the  ode,  song,  and  elegy  are  differenti- 
ated, pp.  257-262  ;  cf.  pp.  16-19.  Engel  derived  his  ideas  upon 
the  lyric  in  part  from  M.  Mendelssohn.  The  student  should  com- 
pare Engel's  law  of  the  lyric  with  the  theories  of  Baldwin,  Erskine, 
and  Geiger,  as  noted  above  and  below. 


52  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

ERSKINE,  J.    The  Elizabethan  Lyric.    A  Study.    N.Y. :   1903. 
Chap.  I  Lyrical  Quality  and  Lyric  Form. 

Two  uses  of  '  lyrical '  as  a  term  of  quality  are  noted  :  the  earlier 
use  "  had  in  mind  the  musical  accompaniment  that  the  word  sug- 
gests ;  the  modern  habit  finds  the  characteristic  note  in  subjective 
expression "  (p.  9).  Lyric  form,  understood  as  referring  not  to 
the  stanza  but  to  the  internal  structure,  requires  "  first,  the  unity 
of  emotion  resulting  from  the  lyric  stimulus,  and  secondly,  the 
formative  effect  of  the  stimulus  upon  the  development  of  the 
emotion"  (p.  15).  In  general  the  lyric  procedure  is  described 
as  threefold  :  first,  reproduction  of  the  cause  or  stimulus  of  the 
emotion  ;  second,  development  of  the  emotion  ;  third,  the  solution 
of  the  emotion  in  a  thought  or  mental  attitude. 

FARNELL,  G.  S.    Greek  Lyric  Poetry. 
See  below,  §  5. 

FLACH,  H.    Geschichte  der  griechischen  Lyrik. 
See  below,  §  5. 

FULLER,  H.  de  W.   Lyric  Poetry.   In  The  Nation,  vol.  98,  pp.  232- 
235.    N.Y. :   1914. 

The  inadequacy  of  the  musical  and  subjective  tests  as  differenc- 
ing qualities  of  the  lyric  is  considered  with  reference  to  the  defini- 
tions proposed  by  Reed,  Schelling,  and  Rhys.  After  suggesting 
certain  other  characteristics,  only  to  show  that  they  are  not  peculiar 
to  the  lyric,  the  writer  concludes  that  uthe  lyric,  except  in  Palgrave's 
practical  use  of  the  term,  means  little  more  than  a  poetic  quality. 
It  comes  close  to  signifying  what  is  conveyed  by  the  vague  phrase 
'  pure  poetry.' "  This  idea,  the  student  should  note,  had  already 
been  expressed  by  Jo'uffroy  (1843),  J.  S.  Mill,  and  Gosse  (Encyc. 
Brit),  and  is,  moreover,  suggested  by  the  vague  commonplace  of 
lyric  criticism  to  the  effect  that  the  lyric  is  the  most  '  purely ' 
poetic  of  the  genres.  For  further  discussion  of  this  suggestion, 
see  above,  §  i,  I,  Definitions  of  the  Lyric. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  53 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.  The  Principles  of  Poetry.  In  Gayley  and  Young's 
English  Poetry,  its  Principles  and  Progress.  N.Y. :  1904. 

Pp.  Ixxix-xcii,  a  condensed  account  of  the  larger  units  of 
verse  —  stanzaic  and  structural  forms  —  and  of  the  choral 
beginnings  of  poetry ;  xcvii  ff.,  the  Poetry  of  Song : 
Choral,  Lyric. 

"  The  choral  song  was  the  unpremeditated  outburst  of  com- 
munal emotion.  Its  daughter  far  removed,  the  lyric  of  conscious 
art,  is  the  product  of  individual  feeling  worked  over  in  moments 
of  tranquillity.  In  many  cases  the  modern  lyric  poet  seems  to  be 
singing  to  himself.  .  .  .  [The  lyric  of  art  is  the  literary]  expression 
of  personal  emotion  in  '  singable '  or,  at  any  rate,  tuneful  form.  .  .  . 
The  artistic  lyric  inclines  to  be  somewhat  restrained  and  thoughtful ; 
indeed  on  that  account  some  of  our  noblest  odes,  Wordsworth's 
on  Immortality  and  Duty,  Dryden's,  Tennyson's,  and  Lowell's,  as 
well  as  elegies  such  as  the  Lycidas,  though  they  speak  a  personal 

I  emotion,  have  been  classed  frequently  among  reflective  poems. 
But  they  are  merely  the  lyric  of  a  self-repressive  age.  The  lyric 
does  not  tell  a  story,  it  presents  or  suggests  the  atmosphere  of  a 
story  at  some  crisis  of  its  career:  and  the  career  is  of  the  poet's 

I  mood  "  (pp.  xcvii-xcviii). 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.,  and  SCOTT,  F.  N.  An  Introduction  to  the  Methods 
and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism.  The  Bases  in  Aesthetics 
and  Poetics.  Boston:  1899. 

Cited  throughout  the  present  work  as  Gayley  and  Scott,  Lit. 
Crit.,  or  simply  as  Gayley  and  Scott. 

A  systematic  statement  of  problems,  theoretical  and  historical, 
relating  to  the  Nature  and  Function  of  Literary  Criticism  (Chap.  I), 
Principles  of  Art  (Chap.  II),  Principles  of  Literature  (Chap.  Ill), 
Theory  of  Poetry  (Chap.  IV),  Historical  Study  of  Poetry  and 
Poetics  (Chaps.  V,  VI),  and  Principles  of  Versification  (Chap.  VII). 
These  subjects  are  subdivided  and  analyzed  in  detail,  and  anno- 
tated bibliographies  are  added  to  the  several  sections.  As  already 
suggested  (see  above,  p.  41)  the  student  of  literary  types  should 


54  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

frequently  refer  to  the  more  general  problems  of  art,  literature, 
poetry,  and  criticism  mapped  out  in  this  book.  Dealing  as  it  does 
with  critical  and  aesthetic  bases,  the  book  was  written  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  study  of  literary  types  attempted  in  the  present 
volume  and  that  which  will  follow.- 

GEIGER,  E.    Beitrage  zu  einer  Aesthetik  der  Lyrik.    Halle:  1905. 

Werner's  work  (see  below)  is  adversely  criticised  for  its  falla- 
cious assumption  of  a  similarity  in  the  evolution  of  nature  and  of 
art,  for  putting  forward  a  too  mechanical  and  objective  account 
of  lyric  development,  and  laying  too  great  emphasis  upon  content 
and  experience,  and  for  slighting  the  importance  of  the  creative, 
form-giving  function  of  the  individual  artist  (pp.  v-x).  —  Poetry, 
as  one  of  the  arts,  handles  nature  through  feeling ;  and  the  lyric 
is  distinguished  from  drama  and  epos  by  its  selection  of  the 
feeling  of  a  particular  moment,  whereas  the  other  two  sorts 
deal  with  a  revolution  of  time  and  the  emotions  appropriate 
thereto  (compare  Goethe  and  Schiller  on  PragmatiK).  The  body 
of  the  essay  contains  a  thorough  psychological  analysis  of  the 
lyric  in  its  various  stages  of  progression  from  conception  to  ex- 
pression ;  it  lays  particular  emphasis  on  the  creative  act  of  the 
poet  that  intervenes  between  experience  and  expression  and 
regards  the  latter  as  something  more  than  a  reflex  of  the  former. 
The  student  should  read  the  work  carefully,  bearing  in  mind, 
however,  the  need  of  a  fuller  differentiation  of  the  lyrical  proc- 
esses from  those  of  epic  and  drama  than  is  afforded  by  Geiger. 
An  important  contribution.  Compare  Baldwin,  Engel,  Erskine, 
Jacobowski,  Werner,  etc. 

GINER,  F.    Estudios  de  Literatura  y  Arte.    Madrid:   1876. 

Pp.  47-64   Del   Genera  de    Poesia  mas   Propio   de  nuestro 
Siglo  (the  lyric). 

GLEDITSCH,  H.    Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Romer. 

See  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  23.   A  third  edition  (MUnchcn  :  1901) 
of  this  valuable  work  has  appeared. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  55 

GOSSE,  E.   Elegy.   In  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.   nthed.  Vol.  IX, 

PP-  252-353. 
A  very  brief  notice  of  the  elegy,  critical  and  historical. 

GOSSE,  E.   Lyrical  Poetry.   In  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.    nthed. 

Vol.  XVII,  pp.  180-181. 

/  Lyric  is  defined  as  "  a  general  term  for  all  poetry  which  is,  or 
I  can  be  supposed  to  be,  susceptible  of  being  sung  to  the  accom- 
'-  paniment  of  a  musical  instrument."  Subjective  content  -(cf.  Hegel 
and  others)  is  an  insufficient  differentia.  The  relations  of  epic 
and  of  ancient  and  modern  drama,  of  elegy  and  of  sonnet,  to  this 
singable  character  are  discussed,  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  a  per- 
fect modern  lyric  finds  its  musical  accompaniment  in  complexity 
of  rhythmical  and  stanzaic  form.  But,  after  all,  says  the  author, 
agreeing  with  Jouffroy,  lyric  is  merely  another  name  for  the 
essence  of  poetry.  "  It  includes  all  the  personal  and  enthusiastic 
part  of  what  lives  and  breathes  in  the  art  of  verse,  so  that  the 
divisions  of  pedantic  criticism  are  of  no  real  avail  to  us  in  its 
consideration.  We  recognize  a  narrative  or  epical  poetry ;  we 
recognize  drama ;  in  both  of  these,  when  the  individual  inspiration 
is  strong,  there  is  much  that  trembles  on  the  verge  of  the  lyrical. 
But  outside  what  is  pure  epic  and  pure  drama,  all,  or  almost  all 
[excepting  descriptive  and  didactic  poetry],  is  lyrical." 

GOTTSCHALL,  R.  Poetik.  Die  Dichtkunst  und  ihre  Technik. 
2  vols.  3d  ed.  Breslau :  1873. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  4-96. 

GottschalPs  classification  is  as  follows :  Lyrik  der  Empfindung 
(Lied) ;  Lyrik  der  Begeisterung  (Ode) ;  Lyrik  der  Reflexion 
(Elegie).  The  discussion  cannot  be  said  to  be  particularly  illumi- 
nating; but  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  426-427,  and  compare 
under  Viehoff,  below. 

GOULD,  G:  An  Essay  on  the  Nature  of  Lyric.  Illustrated  from 
the  History  of  English  Poetry.  Quain  Prize  Essay,  University 
College,  London.  Lond, ;  1909. 


56  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

A  somewhat  headlong,  unparagraphed  prize-essay,  with  not  a 
little  '  fine  writing  ' ;  but  suggestive  and  stimulating.  Spontaneity 
of  effect,  rather  than  of  creation,  is  the  essential  quality  both  of 
the  lyric  in  particular  and  of  art  in  general,  says  the  writer,  and 
he  proceeds  to  elaborate  the  well-known  conception  that  the  lyric 
is  the  essential  type  of  poetry.  "  In  fine,  the  lyric  is  the  only  kind 
whose  length  and  nature  admit  of  the  essentially  poetical  effect  of 
suddenness  being  maintained  throughout,  and  all  the  elements  of 
its  effect  being  comprised  in  an  immediate  view."  General  re- 
marks upon  the  nature  of  poetry  —  that  it  is  "  splendid,  single, 
and  wonderful "  —  are  then  loosely  applied  to  the  lyric  and  illus- 
trated by  the  history  of  English  lyrism. ' 

GRAY,  T.  Works  in  Prose  and  Verse.  Ed.  by  E.  Gosse.  4  vols. 
Lond. :  1884. 

Vol.  II,   pp.  304-305    Letters  to  William  Mason;    see  also 
below,  §  3. 

On  the  difference  between  lyric  and  epic  styles;  the  lyric 
superior  to  every  other  style. 

GROOS,  K.  and  I.  NETTO.  Psychologisch-statistische  Untersuchungen 
iiber  die  visuellen  Sinneseindriicke  in  Shakespeares  lyrischen 
und  epischen  Dichtungen.  In  Englische  Studien,  43 :  27.  1910. 

GRUPPE,  O.  F.    Die  romische  Elegie. 
See  below,  §  5. 

GUEST,  E.   A  History  of  English  Rhythms.   2  vols.  London:  1838. 
A  new  edition  by  W.  W.  Skeat.    London  :   1882. 
See  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  23. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.    Handbook  of  Poetics.    3d  ed.    Boston:   1898. 
Pp.  40-57. 

Gummere  regards  the  lyric  as  of  later  growth  than  the  epic. 
This  conclusion  should  not  be  accepted  without  examination.  His 
criterion  for  the  value  of  lyric  poetry  and  the  suggestion  (p.  42) 
of  a  "  Lyric  Catharsis  "  are  worthy  of  development.  Gummere 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  57 

uses  a  twofold  basis  of  classification :  (i)  the  nature  or  quality 
of  the  emotion  aroused  ;  (2)  the  occasion  or  object  of  the  emotion. 
See  also  other  works  by  same  author,  as  noted  below,  §§  5,  n.' 

GURNEY,  E.    The  Power  of  Sound.    Lond. :   1880. 

Also  by  the  same  author,  Tertium  Quid,  2  vols.,  Lond. :  1887. 

For  these  valuable  and  delightful  works,  from  which  may  be 

gleaned  suggestions  bearing  upon  many  problems  of  the  lyric,  see 

the  estimates  given  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  100,  318,  3 19, -468. 

HARTMANN,  E.  VON.    Ausgewahlte  Werke.    2d  ed.    Leipz. :  n.d. 
Bd.  IV,  Zweiter  systemat.  Theil  der  Aesthetik,  pp.  732-744. 
A  very  clever  treatment  of  the  lyric  as  the  expression  of  poetic 
subjectivity.    Note  the  classification  :  epical  lyric,  pure  lyric,  dra- 
matic lyric.    Consider  especially  the  discussion  of  the  pure  lyric. 

HARTMANN,  E.  VON.    Philosophy  of  the  Unconscious.    Trans,  by 
W.  C.  Coupland.    Lond. :   1884. 

Pp.  269-292. 

The  general  discussion  of  the  part  played  by  the  Unconscious 
in  aesthetic  creation  admits  of  ready  and  suggestive  application  to 
lyrical  inspiration. 

HEBBEL,  F.    Sammtliche  Werke.   26  vols.    Ed.  by  R.  M.  Werner. 

Berlin:   1900+. 

The  quickest  way  of  coming  upon  Hebbel's  scattered,  aphoristic 
remarks  upon  the  lyric  is  through  the  index  to  his  Dramaturgic 
(ed.  by  W.  von  Scholz,  Miinchen  und  Leipz.:  1907).  Many 
suggestive  hints  may  be  mined  from  the  Tagebiicher. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Aesthetik.  Werke.   1 8  vols. 
Berlin:   1833-1848. 

Bd.  X,  Abt.  Ill,  pp.  419-466  Die  Lyrische  Poesie. 
A  profound  and  vital  treatment  of  the  subject.    The  topics  of 
discussion  are  as  follows :   pp.  419-420  The  inner  intuition  and 
experience  afforded  by  the  lyric;  421-441  The  general  character 


58  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

of  the  lyric  —  (i)  its  content,  (2)  its  form,  (3)  the  stages  of  con- 
sciousness and  of  culture  necessary  to  produce  the  lyric;  441- 
466  Special  aspects  of  lyric  poetry  —  (i)  the  lyric  poet,  (2)  the 
lyric  masterpiece,  its  unity,  evolution,  and  external  technique, 
(3)  the  several  kinds  of  lyric  —  hymns,  odes,  miscellaneous,  such 
as  folk  songs,  sonnets,  sestinas,  elegies,  epistles.  For  translations, 
see  W.  Hastie's  Hegel  and  Michelet's  Philosophy  of  Art  (Edinb. : 
1886),  Pt  III,  Poetic  Art,  §  n,  pp.  94-100,  Lyric  Poetry;  also, 
Kedney's  Hegel's  Aesthetics,  pp.  282-286,  and  C.  Benard's  La 
Poetique  par  G.  W.  F.  Hegel  (Paris :  1855). —  For  a  highly  tech- 
nical philosophical  view  of  the  religious  hymn,  see  Hegel's  Die 
Phanomenologie  des  Geistes  (1807),  —  English  trans,  by  F.  B.  Baillie 
(2  vols.  Lond. :  19 10),  vol.  II,  p.  yiyff.  For  Hegel's  System  of 
Aesthetics,  see  references  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  Index. 

HEPPLE,  N.  Lyrical  Forms  in  English.  Edited,  with  introduction 
and  notes,  for  the  use  of  schools,  etc.  Cambridge:  1911. 

See  Introduction :  History  and  Characteristics  of  the  English 
Lyric;  also  brief  notes  on  the  characteristics  of  Song, 
Sonnet,  Ode,  Idyl,  and  Elegy. 

HERDER,  J.  G.  VON.  The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  Trans,  by 
James  Marsh.  2  vols.  Burlington:  1833.  For  the  German 
original,  see  Herder's  Werke,  ed.  B.  Suphan,  32  vols.,  Berlin: 
1877-1899,  vols.  XI,  XII. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  22-26.  A  brief  characterization  of  the  Song  as 
the  second  species  of  Hebrew  poetic  art ;  it  is  held  that 
form,  not  content,  determines  the  literary  kind ;  pp.  192- 
199  Music  and  Dancing  United  in  the  Composition  of 
National  Songs ;  pp.  222-304  Discussion  of  the  Psalms. 
See  also  both  vols.  passim  for  interpretation  of  Hebrew 
lyrics.  On  the  significance  of  Herder's  work  see  the 
reference  in  §  1 1 ,  below. 

HERDER,  J.  G.  VON.    Volkslieder.    2  Pts.    Leipz. :   1778-1779. 

Later  gathered  by  J.  Miiller  under  the  title  Stimmen  der 
Volker  in  Liedern,  1807.  Also  to  be  found  in  vol.  XXV 
of  Suphan's  ed.  of  the  Sammtliche  Werke. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  59 

Herder  published  his  translation  of  folk  songs  thirteen  years 
after  the  appearance  of  Percy's  Reliques  (1765),  by  which  it  was 
probably  suggested.  He  thus  aided  the  German  eighteenth-century 
revolt  against  pseudo-classical  frigidity,  and  did  for  Germany  what 
Percy  did  for  England.  He  prepared  the  way  for  the  ballads  of 
Burger,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Uhland.  — Prefaced  to  the  first  part 
of  the  work  are  several  loci  dassici  (from  Montaigne,  Sidney, 
Addison,  etc.)  of  early  recognition  of  the  value  of  popular  poetry. 
In  the  Introduction  to  the  second  part  is  a  very  brief  sketch  of 
the  sources  of  popular  poetry  among  ancients  and  moderns.  For 
further  references,  see  Herder's  letters  and  reviews;  see  also 
below,  §  ii. 

HlLLEBRAND,  J. 

See  below,  §  8. 

HUDSON,  W.  H.    An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Literature. 
2d  ed.    Lond. :   1913. 

Pp.  126-134  Subjective  Poetry. 

A  brief,  practical  introduction  to  the  lyric  and  its  principal 
varieties,  including  ode  and  elegy. 

HUNT,  L.,  and  LEE,  S.  A.   The  Book  of  the  Sonnet.    Boston:  1867. 

Introduction :   The  Sonnet :  its  Origin,  Structure,  and  Place 
.   in  Poetry. 

JACOBOWSKI,  L.     Die   Physik  der  Lyrik.     Ein  Beitrag  zu  einer 
realistischen  Poetik. 

This  is  an  introduction  to  the  author's  Die  Anfange  der  Poesie, 
for  which  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  17,  and  below,  §  n. 

JEVONS,  F.  B.    A  History  of  Greek  Literature. 
See  below,  §  5. 

7oEL,  K.     Der  Ursprung  der  Naturphilosophie  aus  dem  Geiste 
der  Mystik.    Basel:   1903. 
Pp.  23-70. 


60  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

The  essay  raises  the  suggestive  question  of  the  relation  between 
lyrical  and  mystical  enthusiasms.  It  is  held  that  the  pre-Socratic 
philosophy  of  nature,  by  reason  of  its  subjective  and  emotional, 
or  mystical,  view  of  the  world,  was  lyrical  in  character. 

JOHNSON,  C.  F.    Forms  of  English  Poetry.    N.  Y. :  1904. 

Pp.  107-324,  especially  230-231. 
A  book  for  beginners,  covering  briefly  both  theory  and  history. 

JOUFFROY,  T.  S.    Cours  d'Esthe'tique.    1843.    3d  ed.    1875. 

Gosse  (see  above)  points  out  that  Jouffroy  was  the  first  to 
advance  the  opinion  that  lyric  is  only  another  name  for  the 
essence  of  poetry.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  Jouffroy's  attendance 
at  the  .Scottish  shrine  of  "  common  sense  "  (Stewart  and  Reid) 
rendered  him  somewhat  superficial  in  his  easy  dismissal  of  the 
lyric.  Discussion  above,  §  i,  i,  Definitions  of  the  Lyric. 

KALUZA,  M.    A  Short  History  of  English  Versification.    English 

trans,  by  A.  C.  Dunstan.    Lond. :   1911. 

A  convenient,  brief  compilation  for  the  student  who  is  not 
ready  to  use  the  mass  of  materials  in  Schipper's  Englische  Metrik 
or  Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  English  Prosody.  The  sections  on  lyrical 
stanzas  are  especially  helpful  to  the  student  who  is  seeking  defini- 
tions and  examples  of  lyrical  patterns.  See  especially  §§  226-250, 
where  are  given  brief  lists  of  modern  English  examples  of  the 
following  stanzas  :  rhymed  couplets  and  triplets,  poulter's  measure, 
common  metre,  elegiac  stanza,  In  Memoriam  stanza,  Burns'  stanza, 
Venus  and  Adonis,  Chaucerian,  Spenserian,  Epithalamium  stanzas, 
regular  and  irregular  Pindaric  odes,  stanzas  without  rhyme,  sonnet, 
imitations  of  Italian  and  French  stanzas,  etc. 

KEBLE,  J.  Praelectiones  Academicae.  Oxford:  1844.  English 
trans.,  Keble's  Lectures  on  Poetry,  by  E.  K.  Francis,  2  vols., 
Oxford.:  1912. 

Lects.  XXIV-XXVII  Lyric  Poetry  and  Pindar. 
"  Assuredly  they  (lyric  poets)  all  have  this  note  common,  that 
they  are  trying  to  express  the  seething  feelings  of  the  soul  by 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  6 1 

means  of  rhythmical  language,  drawing  their  inspiration  from  the 
circumstances  of  the  moment,  and  not  like  Epic  and  Tragic  or 
'  Didactic '  poets,  always  carrying  in  their  mind  the  scheme 
of  a  poem  already  outlined  long  ago "  (vol.  II,  p.  93,  of  the 
English  trans.).  For  an  appreciation  of  Keble  as  a.  critic  see 
Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit. 

KEDNEY,  J.  S.  Hegel's  Aesthetics.  A  Critical  Exposition.  Chicago: 
1897. 

Pp.  282-286. 

The  poet  draws  to  himself  all  and  sends  it  forth  subjectified; 
but  the  utterances  must  be  the  result  of  poetic  outlook.  Power  is 
from  the  poetic  soul.  Lyric  subjects  are  numberless  and  unlimited 
by  time  or  place.  By  the  charm  of  expression  the  lyric  can  give 
life  and  interest  to  almost  anything.  It  may  be  founded  on  epic 
event,  since  the  poet  seeks  to  arouse  in  the  auditor  his  own  senti- 
ment. Epigram  is  lyric  in  so  far  as  it  expresses  personal  sentiment. 
Lyric  treatment  shows  in  romance  —  as  the  writer  puts  himself 
into  the  characterization.  He  may  marry  the  thinnest  thought  or 
most  vagrant  feeling  to  subtle  and  mysterious  sound,  as  did  Shake- 
speare and  Poe.  Refinements  of  emotion  produce  lyrics  of  na- 
tional, cultured,  and  fashionable  life.  In  the  popular  and  national 
lyric,  as  in  epic,  the  poet  effaces  self  and  expresses  common  senti- 
ment. There  may  be  philosophical  lyrics.  The  popular  lyric  pre- 
cedes prose.  The  artistic  lyric  follows  it.  The  artist  must  be 
cultivated,  and  have  skill  in  execution.  Art  supposes  that  the 
artist  knows  and  wills  what  he  is  to  produce.  The  lyric  must 
have  (i)  unity,  —  the  same  emotional  and  poetic  attitude  must 
be  maintained,  otherwise  the  result  will  be  didactic ;  (2)  swift 
movement,  —  but  it  may  introduce  episodes  which  glide,  like  the 
restful  passages  in  music,  out  of  the  essential  melody  and  return 
to  it.  The  lyric  may  have  any  kind  of  verse-form,  though  the 
hexameter  and  blank  verse  are  not  favorable.  Rhyme  is  an 
assistance.  Hymns,  dithyrambs,  paeans,  psalms,  odes,  are  lyrics. 
Song  is  the  fittest  poetic  utterance.  It  may  proceed  from  any 


62  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

objective  or  subjective  change.  Its  proper  characters  are  naivete, 
involuntariness,  and  simplicity  of  utterance.  In  song  the  poet  may 
indulge  his  abandon.  Sonnet  and  elegy  are  more  restrained.  Lyric 
poetry  displays  better  than  anything  else  national  contemporary 
peculiarities  and  those  of  the  individual  genius.  Lyrics  are  divis- 
ible into  symbolic,  classic,  and  romantic.  The  lyric  of  the  Occident 
is  more  subjective  than  that  of  the  Orient ;  the  Roman  more  so 
than  the  Greek.  In  the  classic  lyric  the  inner  sentiment  is  ex- 
pressed not  with  symbolic  vagueness  but  with  clearness  and  pre- 
cision. On  Kedney  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  8. 

KLEINPAUL,  E.    Poetik.    3  Pts.    Leipz. :   1879-1880. 

Pt.  Ill,  pp.  29-104  Lyrische  Poesie. 

The  essay  as  a  whole  rather  lacks  logical  treatment;  many 
sorts  of  lyric  are  enumerated  and  commented  upon  without  any 
thoroughgoing  principle  of  division. 

LANGE,  K.    Das  Wesen  der.  Kunst.    Grundziige  einer  illusionisti- 

schen  Kunstlehre.  2d  ed.  Berlin:  1907. 
When  Professor  Lange  attempts  to  extend  to  music  and  the 
lyric  his  theory  of  illusion  as  the  basic  function  of  the  arts,  many 
interesting  questions  arise.  Is  there  any  illusion  involved  in  the 
lyric  expression  of  feeling  (pp.  103,  208-215)?  Is  the  lyric  'imi- 
tative' of  the  invisible  (104)?  Is  onomatopoetic  illusion  charac- 
teristic of  the  lyric  (109)?  In  the  sound-illusion  of  the  arts 
(Gerauschillusioii)  does  the  aesthetic  effect  stand  in  inverse  ratio 
to  the  exactness  of  the  imitation  ( 1 09)  ?  Does  not  the  lyric  poet's 
idealization  of  his  emotions  produce  an  illusion,  both  for  himself 
and  for  his  audience  (209)?  Can  lyrics  of  practical  purpose,  such 
as  war-lyrics,  religious  lyrics,  or  political  lyrics,  which  aim  to 
arouse  the  emotions  for  a  particular  use,  be  included  uader  the 
art-lyric ;  and  do  they  possess  the  same  elements  of  illusion 
(209ff.)?  Can  it  be  said  of  lyric  creation  that  "das  Kiinstleri- 
sche  Schaffen  setzt  eine  gewisse  Gefiihlsfreiheit,  ein  Stehen  iiber 
dem  Gefiihl  voraus"  (211)?  See  also,  for  further  statements 
calling  for  discussion,  pp.  520,  605,  618,  622,  655. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  63 

LANIER,  S.    Music  and  Poetry.    N.Y. :   1898. 
Cf.  W.  A.  Ambros,  above. 

LANIER,  S.    The  Science  of  English  Verse.    N.Y. :   1880. 
LEWIS,  C.  M.    The  Principles  of  English  Verse.    N.Y. :   1906. 

LLOYD,  M.    Elegies :  Ancient  and  Modern. 
See  below,  §  5. 

LOCKER-LAMPSON,  F.    Lyra  Elegantiarum.    Lond. :    1867.    Rev. 

ed.    Lond.:   1891.. 

To  this  admirable  collection  of  English  vers  de  societe  is  prefixed 
"  a  discussion  of  the  nature  and  essential  qualities  of  familiar 
verse,  which  remains  to  this  day  the  most  suggestive  and  en- 
lightening essay  on  the  subject"  (Swinburne,  Social  Verse,  in 
Studies  in  Prose  and  Poetry.  N.  Y. :  1894).  Locker-Lampson 
describes  the  type  thus :  "  smoothly  written  verse,  where  a 
boudoir  decorum  is,  or  ought  always  to  be,  preserved;  where 
sentiment  never  surges  into  passion,  where  humour  never  over- 
flows into  boisterous  merriment."  "  Qualities  of  brevity  and 
buoyancy  are  absolutely  essential." 

LOTZE,  H.   Outlines  of  Aesthetics.  Trans,  by  G.  T.  Ladd.   Boston : 
1886. 

Pp.  99-102. 

The  lyric  a  movement  of  fancy  by  which  the  spirit  strives  to 
lift  itself  from  the  limited  to  the  universal  ...  an  effort  to  express 
the  material  of  passion  in  terms  of  real  existence,  etc.  It  is  some- 
what doubtful  whether  the  definitions  on  p.  100  exclude  other 
kinds  of  poetry,  and  whether  the  two  kinds  of  lyric  (p.  101)  are 
correctly  denominated  social  and  expository.  There  is  admirable 
force  in  Lotze's  statement  of  the  "  problem  of  the  lyric " ;  but 
does  not  the  drama  open  to  the  individual  mood  a  similar  per- 
spective ?  Note  the  argument  for  spontaneity  and  occasionality 
of  form. 


64  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  ~   [§  2 

MACK  AIL,  J.  W.    Lectures  on  Greek  Poetry.    Lond. :   1910. 

Pp.  83-138  The  Lyric  Poets. 

Professor  Mackail  happily  classifies  the  lyric,  according  to  the 
degree  of  inspiration  involved,  as  the  lyric  that  arises  out  of  an 
emotion  compelling  lyrical  expression ;  the  lyric  that  arises  out  of 
a  real  emotion  powerful  only  to  suggest,  not  to  compel,  expres- 
sion ;  the  lyric  in  which  the  emotion  is  second-hand,  "  the  emotion 
of  literature  as  it  may  be  called  rather  than  the  emotion  of  life  "  ; 
and  the  false  lyric,  "  not  born  of  emotion  at  all,  but  the  dexterous 
machine-made  product  of  simulated  emotion  "  (pp.  98-99). 

MACKAIL,  J.  W.    Lectures  on  Poetry.    Lond.:   1911. 
See  below,  §  5. 

MACKAIL,  J.  W.     Select  Epigrams  from  the  Greek  Anthology. 

Lond.:   1890. 

The  introduction  gives  a  most  admirable  and  charming  account, 
historical  and  appreciative,  of  the  Greek  Anthology.  For  other 
references  on  the  epigram,  see  above,  §  i,  iv,  H,  and  below, 
§  6,  xxxiv,  B. 

MAHAFFY,  J.  P.    History  of  Classical  Literature. 
See  below,  §  5. 

MARTINON,  PH.    Les  strophes,  etc. 
See  below,  §  5. 

MASQUERAY,    P.     Theorie   des   formes   lyriques   de   la   tragedie 

grecque.    Paris:    1895. 
Valuable  to  the  student  of  the  Greek  lyric. 

MENDELSSOHN,  M.   Gesammelte  Schriften.   7  Bde.   Leipz. :  1843- 
1845. 

Bd.  IV,  Abt.  I,  p.  28  ff.  Von  der  lyrischen  Poesie;  Bd.  IV, 
Abt.  II,  p.  431  ff.  Rezension  von  Karschin ;  ibid., 
p.  537  ff.  Rezension  von  Ramler;  cf.  Braitmaier  (op. 
cit.  §  8),  Pt.  II,  pp.  226-233.  See  also  L.  Goldstein, 
M.  Mendelssohn  und  die  deutsche  Aesthetik  (in  Teu- 
tonia,  No.  3.  1904). 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  65 

Mendelssohn  held  that  lyric  ecstasy  is  incompatible  with  abstract 
ideas  of  physical  causation  and  natural  law ;  that  it  demands 
instead  a  world  completely  and  concretely  animated,  or  at  least 
controlled  by  animated  Beings.  For  this  reason  he  desiderated 
mythology  as  a  proper  and  necessary  subject  for  the  .lyric,  much 
as  Boileau  (A.  P.  Ill,  160  ff.)  had  supported  it  for  the  epic. 
But  does  not  the  lyric  ecstasy  create  its  own  mythology  by  the 
personifying  force  of  an  intense  realization  of  its  material,  and 
should  it  then  be  limited  for  subjects  to  a  commonly  received 
mythology?  Mendelssohn's  attempt  at  discovering  the  psycho- 
logical basis  of  the  lyric  is,  in  spite  of  its  antiquated  terminology, 
worth  serious  attention.  See  Braitmaier  for  a  careful  summary, 
and  compare  J.  J.  Engel,  cited  above,  for  the  working  out  of 
Mendelssohn's  essay,  Von  der  Lyrischen  Poesie. 

MIESSNER,  W.    Ludwig  Tiecks  Lyrik.     In  Litthist.  Forschungen, 

No.  24.    1902. 
A  study  of  motivation,  construction,  etc. 

MILL,  J.  S.    Dissertations  and  Discussions.    5  vols.    N.  Y. :   1874- 

1875- 

Vol.  I,  pp.  89-120  Thoughts  on  Poetry  and  its  Varieties. 

A  masterly  criticism  of  Shelley  and  Wordsworth  as  exponents 
respectively  of  the  spontaneous  and  '  cultivated  '  schools  of  poetry. 
The  distinctions  between  the  unity  of  contemplation  and  the  unity 
of  feeling,  between  logical  sequence  and  emotional  association  of 
ideas,  throw  light  on  the  nature  of  the  lyric.  See  also  Gayley  and 
Scott,  §  20,  p.  332. 

MOORMANN,  F.  W.  Interpretations  of  Nature  in  English  Poetry 
from  Beowulf  to  Shakespeare.  In  Quelkn  und  JFbrsch., 
No.  95.  1905. 

MOULTON,  R.  G.   The  Modern  Study  of  Literature.   An  Introduc- 
tion to  Literary  Theory  and  Interpretation.    Chicago:   1915. 
In  this  very  suggestive  but  somewhat  too  facile  attempt  to 
trace   the   foundations   of   a  methodical  study  of  literature  the 


66  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

ballad-dance  is  regarded  as  the  embryo  from  which  arise  the  six 
elements  of  literary  form :  epic,  lyric,  drama,  history,  philosophy, 
oratory.  By  combinations  and  recombinations  of  these  elements 
the  literary  forms  (Greek  epic,  medieval  epic,  Greek  drama,  dra- 
matic lyric,  idyl,  elegy,  etc.)  develop.  These  forms,  moreover,  are 
_not  static  (cf.  'fallacy  of  kinds '),  but  evolutionary  (pp.  11-74). 
The  author's  association  of  epic,  lyric,  and  drama  with  description, 
reflection,  and  presentation,  respectively,  should  be  scrutinized. 
Does  he  make  sufficiently  plain  the  interrelation  of  these  six 
terms  ?  Is  there  a  common  basis  of  division  for  the  last  three  ? 
—  Lyric  is  shown  to  have  a  close  affinity  for  both  epic  and  drama, 
so  that  "  at  any  moment,  without  ceasing  to  be  lyric,  it  can  dip  on 
one  side  and  become  narrative,  and  dip  on  the  other  side  into  the 
monologue  of  dramatic  presentation"  (p.  44;  cf.  p.  197).  For  an 
attempt  to  mark  out  the  forms  of  lyric  poetry  and  the  forces 
underlying  their  differentiation,  see  pp.  197-218. 

MULLER,  E. 

See  below,  §  8. 

MULLER,  K.  O.    History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece. 
See  below,  §  5. 

MURE,  W.    Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece. 
See  below,  §  5. 

NEILSON,  W.  A.    Essentials  of  Poetry.    Boston:   1912. 

These,  the  Lowell  lectures  of  1911,  present  an  original  and 
very  stimulating  discussion  of  the  principal  tendencies  exhibited 
in  the  history  of  poetry :  Romanticism,  "  the  tendency  character- 
ized by  the  predominance  of  imagination  over  reason  and  the 
sense  of  fact " ;  Classicism,  "  the  tendency  characterized  by  the 
predominance  of  reason  over  imagination  and  the  sense  of  fact  "  ; 
Realism,  "  the  tendency  characterized  by  the  predominance  of 
the  sense  of  fact  over  imagination  and  reason."  The  essay  con- 
siders also  the  minor  qualities  of  sentiment  and  humor.  It  is 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  67 

poetic  as  well  as  critical  in  insight,  and  it  illuminates  with  vivid 
color  many  of  the  by-paths  of  literary  appreciation.  On  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  lyric  in  romantic  periods,  see  pp.  61-62;  on 
Burns  as  a  realist  in  song,  pp.  146-151. 

NOBLE,  J.  A.    The  Sonnet  in  England.    In  Contemp.  Rev.,  1880  ; 

also  in  book  form,  Lond. :   1893. 

The  first  few  pages  deal  briefly  with  the  definition  and  nature 
of  the  sonnet. 

OMOND,  T.  S.   English  Metrists  in  the  Eighteenth  and  Nineteenth 
Centuries.    Oxford:   1907. 

PALGRAVE,  F.  T.    Golden  Treasury  of  the  best  Songs  and  Lyrical 
Poems  in  the  English  Language.    Cambridge:   1861. 

Preface. 

Palgrave  holds  that  the  lyric  turns  "  on  some  single  thought, 
feeling,  or  situation,"  what  might  be  called  the  unity  of  emotion. 
Compare  Posnett,  op.  at.  infra,  pp.  38-39.  Notice  also  the  criti- 
cisms in  Ralgrave's  notes,  the  reading  of  which  Professor  Wood- 
berry  pronounces  "  almost  an  education  in  poetic  taste."  See  Introd. 
to  Henley's  English  Lyrics  for  criticism  of  Palgrave's  definition. 

PATMORE,  C.    Poems.    Lond.:   1897. 

Vol.  II. 

Preface  on  Ode.  For  other  references  on  the  Ode,  see  above, 
§  i,  iv,  c. 

PATTISON,  M.    Essay  on  the  Sonnet.     In  an  ed.  of  "  Milton's 

Sonnets."    1888. 
One  of  the  principal  English  essays  upon  the  sonnet. 

PECHEL,  R.  Christian  Wernickes  Epigramme.  In  Palaestra,  LXXI. 
Berlin:  1909. 

Pp.  3-23  Geschichte  der  Theorie  des  Epigramms  von  Scaliger 

bis  zu  Wernicke. 

The  introduction  contains  an  admirable  review  of  the  principal 
theoretical  discussions  of  the  epigram. 


68  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

PECK,  H.  T.    The  Lyrics  of  Tennyson.    In  Studies  in  Several 

Literatures.    N.Y. :   1909. 

In  this  popular  essay  occurs  a  passage  that  very  clearly  em- 
phasizes the  elemental  and  emotional  character  of  the  lyric  and 
roughly  but  conveniently  summarizes  the  modern  view  of  the 
historical  appearance  and  development  of  the  type.  For  the  con- 
venience of  the  student  we  quote  at  length : 

The  lyric  is  the  most  interesting  form  of  poetry  that  we  have.  It 
affects  more  human  beings  than  any  other  kind.  It  is  elemental.  It  is 
undoubtedly  the  first  form  of  poetry  that  ever  was  evolved,  the  type  out 
of  which  sprang  all  the  others.  For  what  is  the  lyric  when  you  come 
to  analyze  it  ?  It  is  the  simplest  and  most  natural  literary  expression  of 
unmixed  emotion  —  usually  the  emotion  of  an  individual.  It  may  be 
personal,  or  religious,  or  amatory,  or  patriotic ;  but  in  the  beginning 
it  must  have  been  removed  by  only  one  stage  from  cries,  ejaculations, 
shouts  —  primitive  expressions  of  pure  feeling.  Now,  just  as,  all  over 
the  world,  a  cry  of  passion  or  of  pain  is  understood  by  every  human 
being,  so  is  the  lyric  the  nearest  literary  representative  of  an  articulate 
cry.  It  began  probably,  as  soon  as  language  did,  in  simple  lines  and 
with  a  short  refrain.  It  gradually  developed  into  a  longef  and  more 
artificial  kind  of  verse.  But  because  it  represents  feeling  rather  than 
complex  thought,  it  goes  straightest  and  surest  to  the  human  heart. 
Men  and  women  who  care  nothing  for  any  other  sort  of  poetry  instinc- 
tively love  the  lyric  in  many  of  its  forms,  as  the  old  familiar  "  penny- 
royal hymns  "  of  the  New  Englander,  or  the  patriotic  song,  or  the  love 
poem,  or  the  battle  chant  —  all  the  way  up  the  scale  of  genius  from 
Wesley  to  Campbell,  and  from  Campbell  to  Burns  and  Longfellow  and 
Tennyson.  The  lyric  speaks  out  from  the  heart  the  things  which  belong 
to  every  nature ;  and  thus  it  is  the  most  primitive  kind  of  poetry. 

PLESSIS,  F.    Etudes  critiques  sur  Properce  et  ses  ele'gies.    Paris : 

1884. 

An  exhaustive  study  of  the  manuscripts,  text,  and  genius  of 
Propertius.  Pp.  247-306  contain  a  brief  history  of  classical  elegy 
and  a  discussion  of  the  place  of  Propertius  therein.  In  a  discus- 
sion of  the  nature  of  the  elegy  the  author  maintains  that  the  view 
of  the  elegy  as  an  intermediate  form  between  the  epic  and  the 
lyric  is  quite  inadequate.  He  believes  that  the  nature  of  the 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  69 

elegy  should  be  defined  with  relation  to  what  it  was  at  the 
moment  of  its  highest  development,  which  is  represented  by 
the  Roman  elegies  of  Tibullus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid. 

POE,  E.  A.    Complete  Works.    Ed.  by  E.  C.  Stedman  and  G.  E. 
Woodberry.    10  vols.    Chicago:   1894,  etc. 

Vol.  VI,   pp.  3-30   The   Poetic   Principle;    pp.  31-46  The 
Philosophy  of  Composition. 

Is  not  Poe's  doctrine  of  the  short  poem  a  doctrine  of  the  lyric 
rather  than  of  poetry  as  a  whole  ? 

POSNETT,  H.  M.    Comparative  Literature.    N.Y. :   1896. 

On  the  relativity,  or  variety,  of  the  lyric  in  form  and  subject, 
see  pp.  38-41. 

QUADRIO,  F.    Delia  storia  e  della  ragione  d'ogni  poesia.    7  vols. 
Bologna  e  Milano  :   1739-1752. 

Vol.  II  Melic  (Lyric)  Poetry.    Cf.  below,  §  5. 

In  this  vast  treatise,  historical  and  theoretical,  the  student  will 
find  a  myriad  references  and  annotations  relating  to  the  genres 
in  ancient  and  modern  national  literatures.  All  data  must  be 
checked,  and  extraordinary  mistakes  may  be  noted ;  but  even  so 
Quadrio  still  remains  for  the  exhaustive  student  a  storehouse  of 
facts.  He  is  particularly  valuable  for  his  data  on  the  Latin  and 
vernacular  literature  of  the  Renaissance.  Quadrio's  encyclopedia 
should  be  used  in  conjunction  with  that  of  Sulzer-Blankenburg 
(pp.  cit.  infra) :  the  two  constitute  an  indispensable  though  often 
untrustworthy  apparatus. 

QuiLLER-CoucH, 'A.  T.    English  Sonnets.    Lond. :   1910. 
Introduction. 

REED,  E.  B.    English  Lyrical  Poetry.    New  Haven:  1912. 

Pp.  1-13  The  Lyric  Denned. 

"  All  songs ;  all  poems  following  classic  lyric  forms ;  all  short 
Doems  expressing  the  writer's  moods  and  feelings  in  a  rhythm 
that  suggests  music,  are  to  be  considered  lyrics."  For  a  review 


70  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

of  this  book  see  The  Nation  (N.Y.),  vol.  XCV,  p.  261.  It  is  the 
pioneer  in  its  field.  It  contains  much  information,  a  mass  of  com- 
ment on  particular  authors  and  poems,  but  only  the  simplest  of 
generalizations  regarding  the  lyrical  character  of  the  various  ages 
of  English  literary  history. 

RHYS,  E.    Lyric  Poetry.    Lond. :    1913. 

Foreword,  pp.  v-viii. 

To  much  of  appreciation  there  is  joined  in  this  book  a  very 
small  amount  of  theory  or  scientific  research.  In  the  Foreword 
"  lyrical "  is  said  to  imply""  a  form  of  musical  utterance  in  words 
governed  by  overmastering  emotion  and  set  free  by  a  powerfully 
concordant  rhythm."  ""Unless  there  is  a  concurrence  between 
the  contemporary  idioms  and  rhythms  of  a  period,  with  [sic]  the 
individual  idiom  of  the  lyrist,  half  the  expressional  force  of  his 
ideas  will  be  lost.  .  .  .  The  danger  is  that  under  the  modern 
'  bookish  order  the  natural  concert  between  the  mind  of  the 
poet,  and  the  larger  mind  and  rhythm  of  his  time  is  broken " 
(pp.  vi,  vii).  For.  a  review  of  this  book  see  The  Nation  (N.Y.), 
vol.  XCVIII,  p.  232. 

RICHTER,  J.  P.  F.    Vorschule  der  Aesthetik. 

See  the  Werke,  60  Theile,  Berlin  (G.  Hempel) :  n.d.,  Th.  49- 
51,  Abth.  II,  Progr.  XIII,  §  75,  pp.  280-286. 

"  Das  Epos  stellt  die  Begebenheit,  die  sich  aus  der  Vergangen- 
heit  entwickelt,  das  Drama  die  Handlung,  welche  sich  fur  und 
gegen  die  Zukunft  ausdehnt,  die  Lyra  die  Empfindung  dar,  welche 
sich  in  die  Gegenwart  einschliesst  "  (p.  281). 

ROCAFORT,  J.    Les  doctrines  HtteVaires  de  1'Encyclopedie,  ou  le 

romantisme  des  Encyclope'distes.    Paris:   1890. 
A  very  helpful  digest  of   the  literary  criticism  of  the  great 
Encyclopedic.    The  student  may  turn  with  ease  to  summaries  of 
the  criticism  of  the  various  types  and  subtypes. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  C.  A.    Premiers  Lundis,  3  vols. ;   Causeries  du 
Lundi,    1 6   vols.;    Nouveaux    Lundis,    13   vols.;    Portraits 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  71 

Contemporains,  5  vols. ;  Portraits  Litteraires,  3  vols.  Various 
editions  and  dates,  from  1832  on. 

English  translations  of  portions  of  the  above:  E.  J.  Trechmann, 
7  vols.,  Lond.  (New  Universal  Library);  A.  J.  Butler, 
Select  Essays  of  Sainte-Beuve,  Lond. :  n.  d. ;  K.  P. 
Wormeley,  Portraits  of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  2  vols., 
N.Y.  and  Lond.:  1905.;  W.  Matthews,  Monday  Chats, 
Chicago:  1878;  English  Portraits,  by  C.  A.  Sainte- 
Beuve,  N.Y. :  1875. —  On  Sainte-Beuve,  see  L.  Se'che', 
Sainte-Beuve,  2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  Paris:  1904. 

Sainte-Beuve's  essays,  subjective  in  method,  but  based  on  wide 
reading  and  not  a  little  of  systematic  research,  afford  an  intimate, 
critical,  and  running  history  of  French  literature,  particularly  of 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries.  Sainte-Beuve  is  not 
eloquent  upon  general  philosophical  theories  about  literature.  He 
prefers  to  keep  close  to  the  author  under  consideration.  The 
student  of  the  theory  of  types  will,  therefore,  find  in  him  appar- 
ently little  of  direct  value.  But  for  the  integration  of  French 
literature  and  the  spirit  of  the  whole  there  is  no  better  vade 
mecum  than  that  afforded  by  Sainte-Beuve's  criticism. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.  The  Historical  Character  of  the  English  Lyric. 
Read  Oct.,  1912.  In  Proceedings  of  the  British  Academy, 
vol.  V. 

• 

On  the  "  Protean  variety  of  form  "  of  the  English  lyric,  with 
animadversion  on  any  attempt  at  its  classification. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.  A  History  of  Criticism  and  Literary  Taste  in 
Europe  from  the  Earliest  Texts  to  the  Present  Day.  3  vols. 
Lond.:  1900-1904;  2d  and  3d  eds.  1905-08. 

This  monumental  survey  of  the  history  of  criticism,  the  first  of 
its  kind  and  the^Tna^ispehsabre  desk-companion  of  every  student 
of  criticism,  is  based  on  a  conception  of  poetry  that  is  antagonistic 
to  all  criticism  of  poetic  kinds.  But  the  volumes  abound  in  ad- 
mirable summanes  and  other  indications  of'  the*  contents  of  an 
immense  number  of  critical  works,  and  consequently  furnish  the 


72  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

student  not  only  with  the  bibliography  essential  to  an  investigation 
of  the  moot-question  of  literary  types  in  general,  but  with  definite 
clues  to  the  chief  critical  utterances  bearing  upon  the  particular 
subject  of  his  inquiry. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.    A  History  of  English  Prosody  from  the  Twelfth 

Century  to  the  Present  Day.  3  vols.  Lond. :  1906-1910. 
Professor  Saintsbury's  work  is  indispensable  to  a  comprehension 
of  the  development  of  the  technique  of  lyric  verse  and  the  value 
of  its  respective  modes.  Of  the  lyric  he  says  that  perhaps  it  "  is, 
after  all,  the  central,  the  highest,  the  most  natural  and  essential 
form  of  poetry ;  so  that  the  more  poetical  a  time  is  the  better  will 
it  show  in  lyric,  and  the  more  favorable  the  mechanical  aids  and 
circumstances,  the  better  will  lyric  show  in  them  "  (vol.  II,  p.  350 ; 
cf.  Jouffroy,  Gosse,  above).  It  is  only  after  a  study  of  such 
materials  as  are  here  amassed,  adequately  ordered  and  luminously 
discussed,  that  the  student  can  with  any  degree  of  certainty  ven- 
ture even  to  test  the  validity  of  a  dictum  so  vital,  or  of  the  many 
other  pronouncements  of  like  importance  with  which  this  learned 
contribution  to  the  history  and  theory  of  English  poetry  abounds. 

SCHELLING,   F.  E.     English  Literature   during   the   Lifetime  of 
Shakespeare.    N.Y. :   1910. 
Chap.  VIII,  pp.  120-121. 

Dual  nature  of  the  lyric :  song-like  quality ;  subjective  or  per- 
sonal quality.  As  corollaries :  the  lyric  "  must  deal  with  passion 
and  emotion  in  their  simplicity  as  contrasted  with  the  drama 
which  is  busied  with  both  in  their  complexity";  must  be  "  emotion 
clothed  in  beautiful  and  musical  language  " ;  free  from  narration 
and  description  except  as  they  may  furnish  foundation  for  a  mood ; 
free  from  didactic,  expository,  and  argumentative  purposes. 

SCHELLING,  F.  E.    The  English  Lyric.    Boston:   1913. 

Chap.  I,  Definitions. 

The  obvious  -characteristics  of  the  lyric  are  noted  in  a  brief, 
informal  way.  Consider  the  contention  that  misanthropy  and 


§  2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  73 

cynicism  are  repugnant  to  poetry  and  dangerous  to  the  lyric. 
The  author  does  not  say  that  these  emotions  lie  outside  the 
range  of  the  lyric.  Other  works  by  the  same  author  are  noted 
below,  §  5.  This  work  is  reviewed  in  The  Nation  (N.  Y.)  of 
May  8,  1913. 

SCHELLING,  F.  W.  J.  VON.  Sammtliche  Werke.  Stuttgart:  1856-61. 

Abt.  I,  Bd.  V  Philosophic  der  Kunst,  pp.  639-645. 
The  lyric  represents  the  infinite  in  the  finite,  the  universal  in 
the  particular,  with  a  consciousness  of  an  antithesis  between  them. 
In  attaining  this  particularity  of  the  lyric,  the  Greeks  were  objec- 
tive and  realistic,  —  the  moderns  subjective.  The  lyric  arose,  in 
Greece  and  Italy,  in  connection  with  the  establishment  of  re- 
publican principles  of  government.  Compare  the  notice  on 
F.  W.  J.  von  Schelling  below,  §  8. 

SCHIPPER,  J.  Englische  Metrik  in  historischer  und  systematischer 
Entwicklung  dargestellt.  3  vols.  Bonn:  1882-89.  Also  an 
abstract  of  this  work  under  the  title,  Grundriss  der  englischen 
Metrik  (in  Wiener  Beitrage  zur  engl.  Philol.,  Bd.  2.  Vienna  : 
1895),  which  has  been  translated  as  the  History  of  English 
Versification.  (Oxford:  1910.) 
For  comment  on  these  standard  works,  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 

pp.  480-481. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.    The  World  as  Will  and  as  Idea.    Trans,  by 
Haldane  and  Kemp.    3  vols.    Lond. :   1883. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  321-324. 

Schopenhauer  argues  that  the  lyric  is  the  most  subjective  and 
consequently  the  easiest  form  of  poetic  expression.  It  is,  however, 
hardly  sufficient  to  say  that  a  "  lively  perception  of  his  own  state 
at  a  moment  of  emotional  excitement "  is  all  that  the  poet  needs 
in  order  to  produce  a  song.  And  it  may  be  questioned  whether 
Schopenhauer's  examples  of  isolated  love  songs  and  national  songs 
prove  his  point:  that  lyric  poets  are  frequently  not  capable  of 
more  than  one  lyric  or  of  anything  else  but  the  lyric  species. 


74  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

Note,  p.  322,  The  universality  of  the  lyric  emotion  and  expression; 
p.  323,  The  subject  of  the  lyric:  a  desire  satisfied  or  restricted. 
Is  the  lyric  mood  a  vibration  between  the  peace  of  pure  contem- 
plation and  the  unrest  of  desire  ?  Is  youth  the  season  best  adapted 
to  the  production  and  appreciation  of  the  lyric  ? 

SELLAR,  W.  Y.    Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age.    Horace  and 
the  Elegiac  Poets.    Ed.  by  W.  P.  Ker.    Oxford:   1892. 

Chaps.  V,  VI  Horace  as  a  Lyric  Poet.  See  also  the  admirable 
studies,  the  best  in  English,  of  the  elegiac  poets,  Tibullus, 
Propertius,  and  Ovid. 

SELLAR,  W.  Y.  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic.  3ded.  Oxford:  1889. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.    Aspects  of  Poetry.    Boston:   1882. 

Consult  especially  the  entertaining  chapters  (pp.  164-295)  on 
Scottish  Song  and  Burns,  Shelley  as  a  Lyric  Poet,  The  Poetry 
of  the  Scottish  Highlands,  Modern  Gaelic  Bards,  The  Three 
Yarrows.  Consider  the  statement  (p.  65)  that  youth  is  the  time 
of  lyrical  inspiration  and  that  "  most  of  the  great  lyrists  have 
done  their  pipings  before  forty."  Are  lyrics  composed  in  mature 
life  the  "products  of  emotion  remembered  in  tranquillity"? 

SHARP,  W.    English  Odes.    Lond. :   1890. 

The  prefatory  essay,  Great  Odes,  is  reprinted  in  vol.  II  of  the 
Selected  Writings  of  William  Sharp  (1912). 

The  English  ode  is  described  as  follows : 

It  may  be  suggested  that  any  poem  finely  wrought  and  full  of  high 
thinking,  which  is  of  the  nature  of  an  apostrophe  or  of  sustained  intel- 
lectual meditation  on  a  single  theme  of  general  purport,  should  be  classed 
as  an  ode.  .  .  .  Then  it  must  be  impersonal,  in  the  sense  that  it  must 
not  be  a  direct  personal  outcry,  though  in  common  with  all  true  poetry, 
it  must  be  absolutely  individualistic  in  utterance.  .  .  .  The  form  must 
neither  be  narrative  nor  dramatic,  nor,  again,  be  of  an  obtrusively 
choric  nature. 

SHARP,  W.    Sonnets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.    Lond. :   t886. 

See  the  prefatory  essay,  The  Sonnet,  its  History  and  Charac- 
teristics, which  is  reprinted  in  vol.  II  of  the  Selected 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  75 

Writings  of  William  Sharp  (1912).   See  the  same  author's 
Songs  and  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare  (1885),  the  introduc- 
„  tion  to  which  is  also  included  in  vol.  II  of  the  Writings. 

The  appreciative  prefatory  essay  contains  a  critical  and  historical 
account  of  the  sonnet.  Notice  the  summary  of  "  ten  absolutely 
essential  rules  for  a  good  sonnet." 

SHELLEY,  P.  B.    A  Defense  of  Poetry  (1821).    Ed.  by  A.  S.  Cook. 
Boston:   1891. 

Cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20. 

The  passage  beginning  "  Poetry  is  not  like  reasoning  ..." 
(p.  39,  1.  5-p^4i,  1.  21)  describeslihe  lyrTc~geTmiS"  more  adequately 
than  it  does  the  genius  of  poetry  in  general.  Shelley  maintains 
that  the  ancient  bucolic  poets  illustrated  a  decline  of  poetry 
coincident  with  the  degeneration  in  civil  life. 


SHENSTONE,  W.  (A  Prefatory  Essay  on  Elegy.  In  the  Works  in  Verse 
and  Prose  of  William  Shenstone,  Esq.    2  vols.   Lond. :   1764. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  3-1 2. 

One  of  the  few  essays  in  English  upon  the  elegy.  The  full 
variety  of  the  elegy,  historically  considered,  is  not  covered ;  but 
it  is  pointed  out  that  in  general  the  elegy  connotes  "  a  tender  and 
querulous  idea,"  that  it  may  bewail  the  dead,  or  express  the  grief 
of  absent  or  neglected  lovers,  and  that  from  telling  the  grief  of 
lovers  it  expanded  to  celebrate  their  "  spoils,  triumphs,  ovations, 
and  rejoicings."  The  end  of  the  elegy,  according  to  Shenstone,  is 
to  illustrate,  endear,  and  encourage  the  private  virtues,  whereas 
"  epic  and  tragedy  chiefly  recommend  the  public  virtues."  For 
English  elegiac  verse  the  author  prefers  and  uses  the  heroic  metre 
with  alternate  rhyme. 

SMITH,  K.  F.    The  Elegies  of  Albius  Tibullus.    N.  Y. :   1913. 

The  introduction  to  this  edition  of  Tibullus  affords  a  brief 
but  admirable  historical  survey  of  the  elegy  with  copious  cita- 
tion of  recent  authorities.  For  criticism  of  the  art  of  Tibullus, 
see  pp.  65-73,  91-106. 


76  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.  The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry.  Boston : 
1892. 

References  to  the  lyric  may  be  traced  by  means  of  the  index. " 
Valuable  and  profound  suggestions  are  scattered  throughout  the 
book.     "  Careful  distinction  is  made  between  poetry  which  ex- 
presses   the    self-consciousness   of   the   author,    and   that   which 
represents  life  and  thought  apart  from  his  individuality." 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.    Poets  of  America.    Boston  and  N.  Y. :   1886. 

Pp.  1 8-2 1,  etc.  More  chance  for  lyric  than  dramatic  poetry 
in  American  life.  Criticisms  of  American  lyrists :  p.  40, 
Halleck;  p.  58,  Stoddard;  pp.  80-83,  Bryant;  pp.  150- 
171,  Emerson;  pp.  191-192,  Longfellow;  p.  240  ff., 
Poe;  pp.-  315-316,  339,  Lowell;  p.  353,  Whitman; 
p.  440,  Aldrich. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.    The  Victorian  Poets.    Boston:   1879. 

P.  101  The  musical  quality  of  song;  p.  45  Criticism  of 
Lander's  verse;  p.  92  Arnold's  imperfect  rhythm;  p.  302 
Browning's  intervals  of  melody;  pp.  320,  328-329  Dra- 
matic quality  of  Browning's  lyrics;  p.  365  Rossetti's  style; 
p.  394  Swinburne's. 

STEUERWALD,  W.    Lyrisches  in  Shakespere.    Miinchen  :   1881. 
See  Shakespeare  Jahrbuch,  vol.  XVII,  pp.  272-273. 

SULZER,  J.  G.  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schonen  Kiinste.  4  vols. 
and  Register.  2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1782—1799  (ist  ed.  2  vols. 
1771-74). 

See  also  F.  von  Blankenburg,  Litterarische  Zusatze  zu 
J.  G.  Sulzer's  Allgemeiner  Theorie,  etc.  3  vols.  Leipz. : 
1796-98.  In  the  present  work  all  references  noted 
Blankenburg-Sulzer  are  to  these  Zusatze. 

A  veritable  mine  of  older  criticism  and  bibliographical  material. 
The  poetic  types  and  subtypes  are  treated  in  separate  articles.  In 
general  each  article  covers  ancient  (Greek  and  Roman)  literature 
and  the  chief  modern  European  literatures  (Italian,  Spanish,  French, 
English,  German)  up  to  the  closing  years  of  the  i8th  century. 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  77 

The  data  offered  for  each  type  are  arranged  under  national  divisions 
and  consist  of  a  chronological  list  of  the  critical  treatises  on  the 
type  and  a  roster  of  poets  and  their  works.  It  is  at  once  obvious 
that  a  compendium  of  such  scope  is  of  great  value,  in  spite  of 
its  inaccuracies,  for  it  at  least  serves  to  guide  the  student  to  surer 
information.  Cf.  Quadrio,  above.  For  the  lyric,  see  the  articles 
Chor,  Choral,  Dichtkunst  (Poesie,  Poetik),  Dithyramben,  Elegie, 
Epodos,  Gedicht,  Hymne,  Lied,  Lyrisch,  Ode,  Rondeau,  Sinn- 
gedicht,  Sonnet ;  also  under  the  names  of  the  great  lyric  poets. 
On  Sulzer  see  Braitmaier,  Gesch.  d:  poet.  Theorie,  etc.  (1888), 
Pt.  2,  p.  55  ff. 

SUTTERMEISTER,  O.   Leitf  aden  der  Poetik  f  iir  den  Schul-  und  Selbst- 
Unterricht.    2d  ed.    Zurich:   1874. 

Pp-  59-7°,  33  ff- 

A  simple,  appreciative,  and  convenient  compendium  of  the 
usual  remarks  on  the  nature  and  kinds  of  the  lyric.  Note  the 
passage  on  the  translation  of  the  lyric  (pp.  61-62).  Does  not 
the  nature  of  the  lyric  render  the  task  of  translation  especially 
difficult  ? 

SWINBURNE,  A.  C.    William  Blake.    New  ed.    N.  Y. :   1906. 

In  his  enthusiastic  study  of  one  of  the  greatest  of  pure  lyrists 
Mr.  Swinburne  unites  an  ardor  of  description  and  subtlety  of 
interpretation  which  are  possibly  more  creative  than  critical.  At 
any  rate,  the  student  will  find  Chap.  II,  Lyrical  Poems,  refreshing 
and  suggestive,  —  capable  of  awakening  a  keen  perception  of  the 
beauties  of  lyric  poetry  in  general. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     A    Comparison  of    Elizabethan    and  Victorian 
Poetry.    In  Fortn.  Rev.,  51  :  55. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.    Renaissance  in  Italy.    7  vols.    N.Y. :   1879  ff. 

Italian  Literature,  Pt.  I,  Chaps.  I-IV,  VI  Provencal  lyric,  and 
Italian  popular  and  metaphysical  lyrics ;  The  Fine  Arts, 
App.  II,  Michael  Angelo's  Sonnets, 


/8  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.    The  Lyrism  of  the  English  Romantic  Drama. 
\nFottn.  Rev.,  53:  331. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.   Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets.    2  vols.   N.Y. :   1880. 
See  below,  §  5. 

TAYLOR,  H.  O.     The  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
N.Y.:   1901. 

Chap.  IX  Christian  Poetry :  classic  metre  and  Christian  emo- 
tion, Greek  Christian  poetry,  early  Latin  Christian  poetry, 
the  transition  to  medieval  Latin  poetry. 

The  remarks  on  the  elegiac  and  lyric  metres  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  the  lyric  poems  of  early  Greek  and  Latin  Christianity 
are  just  and  illuminating.  For  other  references  on  early  Christian 
lyric,  especially  elegiac,  verse,  see  below,  §  6. 

THOMPSON,  F.     Shelley.     In  The  Dublin  Review.     July,    1908. 

Also  in  book  form,  N.Y. :   1909. 

A  remarkable  estimate  of  Shelley,  with  much  on  the  marvellous 
character  of  Shelley's  lyric  genius. 

THURAU,  G.     Der  Refrain  in  der   franzosischen  Chanson.     In 
Litthist.  Forschungen,  No.  23.    1901. 

TOMLINSON,  C.    The  Sonnet.    Its  Origin,  Structure,  and  Place  in 

Poetry,  etc.    Lond. :   1874. 

An  account  and  comparison  of  Italian  and  English  forms  of  the 
sonnet  with  particular  attention  to  Petrarch.  For  other  references 
on  the  sonnet,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  504-505  ;  also  above, 
§  i,  iv,  D,  and  below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  D. 

ULRICI,  H.    Shakespeare's  Dramatic  Art.    Bonn's  Lib.    Trans.  by- 
Dora  Schmitz.    2  vols.    Lond. :   1876. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  325-326. 

A  general  statement  of  the  relative  conditions  and  functions  of 
epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  poetry.  The  "  subjectivity  of  the  lyric 
must  be  universal " ;  the  lyric  exhibits  not  actions,  but  the  sources 
of  action,  the  mind  in  ferment  of  becoming.  The  form  is  therefore 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  79 

free.  To  what  extent  is  the  lyric  the  poetry  of  future  events  as 
contrasted  with  the  epic,  —  the  poetry  of  past  events  ?  Compare 
the  lyrical  with  the  heroic  (or  epical)  treatment  of  the  divine. 

VERRIER,  M.   Essai  sur  la me'trique anglaise.    3  vols.    Paris:  1909. 

VIEHOFF,  H.    Die  Poetik  auf  der  Grundlage  der  Erfahrungssee- 

lenlehre.    Trier:   1888. 

Pp.  469-494.    See  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  343. 
VIEHOFF,  H.     Ueber  den  innem   Bau  und  den  Abschluss  des 

lyrischen  Gedichtes.  In  Herrig's  Archiv.,  35  :  1-34. 
The  chapter  in  the  Poetik  (1888)  contains  most  of  the  conclu- 
sions arrived  at  in  Herrig  (1865).  The  article  Ueber  den  Bau, 
etc.,  confines  itself  principally  to  modern  German  lyrics,  and  from 
a  study  of  certain  poems  of  Chamisso,  Freiligrath,  Goethe,  Schiller, 
etc.,  reaches  the  induction  that  the  lyric  expresses  the  develop- 
ment of  a  powerful  impulse,  sometimes  selfish,  sometimes  un- 
happy, sometimes  fantastic,  into  a  higher,  nobler  feeling,  an 
appreciation  of  reality.  Consider  carefully  the  systems  of  lyric 
development  suggested,  pp.  20-21,  and  of  lyric  endings,  pp.  32— 
34.  The  theories  of  Gottschall  and  Vischer  are  worthily  combated. 

VILLEMAIN,  M.  Essais  sur  le  genie  de  Pindare  et  sur  la  poesie 
lyrique  dans  ses  rapports  avec  1'elevation  morale  et  religieuse 
des  peuples.  Paris:  1859. 

Villemain,  like  Lowth  (to  whom  he  refers  as  "  dans  son  ad- 
miration un  peu  scolastique  "),  emphasizes  the  sacred  and  oriental 
character  and  origin  of  the  lyric.  Few  works  present  a  finer  or 
fresher  appreciation  of  Greek  and  Latin  lyrics,  and  what  of 
modern  erudition  the  student  misses  in  this  book  is  more  than 
compensated  for  by  the  contagion  of  Villemain's  enthusiasm. 
And,  after  all,  in  a  large  way,  is  not  Villemain  right  as  well  as 
eloquent?  The  work  extends  its  view  to  include  modern  Europe. 

VINCENT,  ABB£  C.    Theorie  des  genres  litteraires.    Paris:   1902. 
A  brief,  popular,  and  superficial  account  of  the  literary  kinds. 


80  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

VISCHER,   F.  T.     Aesthetik,   etc.     3   vols.     Reutlingen-Stuttgart : 
1846-57. 

Bd.  Ill,  Thl.  3,  Abschn.  2,  Hft.  5,  pp.  1322-1374. 
Vischer,  an  Hegelian,  expatiates  upon  the  nature  of  the  lyric 
(1322-1342).  "Die  dichtende  Phantasie  stellt  sich  auf  den 
Standpunkt  der  Empfindenden."  This  stage,  according  to  Vischer, 
succeeds  the  epic.  In  the  epic,  u  das  Subject  unterordnet  sich 
dem  Objecte."  In  the  lyric  we  have  reached  "  eine  weitere  Stufe 
auf  welche  die  Welt  in  das  Subject  eingeht,  und  von  ihm  durch- 
drungen  wird,  so  dass  alles  Objective  als  dessen  inneres  Leben 
erscheint,  u.  s.  w."  Note  especially  §  886  on  the  volume  of  a 
poet's  work  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  his  individuality ; 
and  §  887  :  "  (i)  Eine  Lyrik  des  Aufschwungs  zum  Gegenstande, 

(2)  eine  andere  des  reinen  Aufgehens  des  letzteren  im  Subjecte, 

(3)  und  eine  dritte  der  beginnenden  und  wachsenden  Ablosung 
aus  ihm  —  oder  der  Betrachtung."    In  §§  890-894  these  three 
kinds   of   the   lyric,    and   their   subkinds,    are   briefly   discussed : 
§890  hymn,  dithyramb,  ode;    891-893  song,  ballad,  romance; 
894  elegy,  oriental  lyric,  sonnet,  epigram,  etc. 

WACKERNAGEL,  W.   Poetik,  Rhetorik  und  Stilistik.   Ed.,  L.  Sieber. 
3d  ed.    Halle  a.  S. :   1906. 

Pp.  156-225. 

A  suggestive  but  somewhat  too  schematic  account.  The  lyric 
is  distinguished  as  at  once  egoistic  and  cosmopolitan  (rather  than 
national,  as  is  the  epic),  as  individual,  subjective,  and  emotional  in 
character.  But  does  not  this  apply  to  a  comparatively  late  stage 
of  the  lyric,  rather  than  to  the  lyric  as  a  whole?  What  of  the 
earlier,  objective,  communal  lyric?  Of  it  Wackernagel  has  little 
to  say.  He  derives  the  lyric  as  he  has  defined  it  not  from  an 
early  communal  and  choral  poetry,  but  from  the  lyrical  handling 
of  epic  material  ('  lyrical  epic  ' ;  cf.  p.  120  ff.).  From  this  the  lyric 
passes  through  stages  denominated  as  epical  lyric  and  didactic 
lyric  to  the  pure  or  lyrical  lyric.  Under  the  epical  lyric  are 
discussed  the  Heroides  of  Ovid,  the  elegy  (an  extensive  and 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  8 1 

valuable  contribution),  the  epigram  of  feeling,  lyrical  occasional 
verse,  the  lay  (LeicJi),  church  song,  ode,  etc. ;  under  the  didactic 
lyric  are  grouped  lyric-didactic,  gnomic,  proverbial,  and  descriptive 
poetry,  the  lampoons  of  Archilochus,  the  epistle,  the  epigram  of 
learning  and  wit,  the  riddle,  etc. ;  under  lyrical  lyric,  Greek  melic 
verse  and  the  German  Lied  are  briefly  noted.  From  this  classifi- 
cation it  is  evident  that  Wackernagel  disposes  of  didactic  verse 
in  part  under  the  lyric.  Another  part  he  places  under  the  epic 
('didactic  epic,'  p.  131).  Justify  this  division.  Which  is  the  pri- 
mary trait,  didactic  or  lyric  ?  Can  it  be  shown  that  Wackernagel's 
classification  of  subkinds  under  the  didactic  lyric  is  substantially 
in  accordance  with  actual  historical  development  ? 

WATTS-DUNTON,  W.  T.    Poetry.    In  Encyc.  Brit,    nth  ed. 

This  article  and  the  author's  Renascence  of  Wonder  are 
reprinted,  with  certain  additions,  in  book  form :  Poetry 
and  the  Renascence  of  Wonder.  Ed.,  Thomas  Hake 
(Lond.  and  N.Y.:  n.d.). 

Two  kinds  of  vision,  absolute  and  relative.  Of  relative  vision, 
also  two  kinds :  semi-lyric  (semi-dramatic),  and  purely  lyric  or 
egoistic.  How  does  the  division  apply  to  lyric  poets  ?  Are  there 
no  lyrics  of  absolute  vision  or  imagination  ?  For  criticism  of  Watts' 
theory  of  imagination,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20.  Under  the 
comparative  study  of  lyrics,  notice  the  following  statements :  the 
great  lyric  is  Hebrew ;  it  must  be  religious ;  its  elements  are  un- 
consciousness, power,  and  grace.  In  connection  with  the  peculiari- 
ties of  the  Ode,  one  may  ask  whether  the  Pindaric  arrangement 
can  be  successfully  modernized ;  and  what  is  the  relation  of  metre 
to  thought  in  the  ode.  Under  Song :  Are  its  characteristics  hearti- 
ness and  melody  ?  Elegy  and  Sonnet,  and  the  improvisatorial  peasant 
poetry  of  Italy —  rispetti  and  stornelli —  are  briefly  mentioned.  See 
Gayley  and  Scott,  §  23,  for  references  on  versification  of  sonnet,  etc. 

WATTS-DUNTON,  W.  T.    Sonnet.    In  Encyc.  Brit,    nth  ed. 

An  admirable  short  review  of  the  nature,  function,  and  varieties 
of  the  sonnet.  The  author's  chief  contribution  to  the  theory  of  the 


82  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

sonnet  is  the  "  wave  theory,"  which  likens  the  metrical  movement 
of  the  sonnet  (particularly  the  Petrarchan  variety)  to  the  rise  and 
subsidence  of  a  wave.  This  theory  was  first  formulated  in  the 
author's  Sonnet  on  the  Sonnet. 

WENDELL,  B.    A  Literary  History  of  America.    N.  Y. :   1901. 

P.  216  Poe's  lyric  conception;    p.  485  ff.  Lyrical  quality  in 
Southern  poetry. 

WERNER,  R.  M.  Lyrik  und  Lyriker.  Eine  Untersuchung.  Ham- 
burg: 1890.  (In  Lipps  and  Werner's  Beitrage,  etc.) 
The  most  considerable  work  yet  undertaken  on  the  theory  of 
the  lyric.  It  is  to  the  author's  credit  that  instead  of  spinning  from 
his  consciousness  a  web  of  theory  he  has  experimented  upon  the 
lyric  itself.  As  a  result,  he  has  produced  a  rich  and  methodical 
study,  somewhat  similar  in  style  to  Viehoff's  article  in  Herrig  (see 
above).  Professor  Werner  first  investigates  the  feelings,  emotions, 
and  reflections  properly  called  lyrical  and  then  divides  the  poetry 
in  which  they  are  expressed  into  the  lyric  of  the  emotions  and  the 
lyric  of  contemplation.  He  discriminates  the  characteristics  of  the 
lyric  fToTrrthose  of  other  literary  types ;  then,  tracing  by  practical 
induction  the  inner  evolution  of  the  lyric,  he  finds  the  following 
stages:  Erlebniss,  Stimmung,  Befruchtung,  Keim,  inneres  Wachs- 
tum,  ausseres  Wachstum.  The  student  will  stand  aghast  before 
the  two  hundred  and  fifty  and  more  possibilities  evolved,  but  he 
will  perhaps  forgive  the  author  in  consideration  of  his  other 
services.  For  reviews,  see:  Literarisches  Centralblatt,  1891, 
No.  22 ;  Jahresbericht  fiir  neuere  deutsche  Litteraturgeschichte, 
Bd.  I, -iter  Halbbd.,  pp.  22-24;  ibid.  II,  i,  32,  note,  and  34,  note; 
see  also  below,  §  4,  iv,  A,  for  an  account  of  Werner's  classification 
of  the  lyric. 

WHITE,   G.     Ballades   and   Rondeaus,   Chants   Royal,    Sestinas, 
Villanelles,   etc.,   Selected  by  G.  W.    Lond.   (Walter  Scott 
Pub.  Co.):  n.d. 
To  this  collection  of  English  imitations  of  Old  French  lyric 

metres  is  prefaced  an  account  of  the  early  French  and  Provencal 


§2]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  83 

use  of  these  forms,  and  rules  for  their  construction.  For  further 
references  on  these  charming  measures,  see  below,  §  6,  vn,  B— F, 
and  below,  §  5,  H.  L.  Cohen. 

WINCHESTER,   C.   T.      Some    Principles    of    Literary    Criticism. 

N.Y. :   1899. 

The  lyric  cannot  be  the  immediate  and  spontaneous  utterance 
of  the  poet's  passion,  for  if  it  were  it  could  not  be  given  a  \ 
measure'd  and  calculated  expression.  The  lyric  results  from 
a  genuine  emotional  experience  regarded  as  a  subject  and  as 
representative  of  the  passions  of  humanity  in  general  (165-166). 
Since  the  utterance  oFTeeling  may  be  as  manifold  and  varied  as 
the  infinite  possibilities  of  personality,  the  lyric  is  the  most  uni- 
versal form  of  poetry  (275).  The  student  will  do  well  to  test 
the  validity  of  the  concealed  major  premises  in  some  of  Professor 
Winchester's  arguments. 

WOLFF,  E.   Poetik.   Die  Gesetze  der  Poesie  in  ihrer  geschichtlichen 
Entwicklung.    Oldenburg  und  Leipz. :   1899. 

Pp.  119-177;  cf.  below,  §  5. 

In  this  admirable  little  work,  undertaken  with  an  aim  to  estab- 
lish inductively  the  laws  of  the  poetry  of  the  past  (not  the  rules 
for  the  poetry  of  the  future),  a  careful  survey  of  Oriental,  Greek, 
Provencal,  and  German  lyric  poetry  results  in  this  definition : 
"  Die  Lyrik  ist  Kundgabe  und  Vermittlung  lebhafter  Empfin- 
dungen  iiber  einen  dargestellten,  allgemeiner  Teilnahme  wiirdigen 
Gegenstand"  (p.  177).  Should  not  the  singable  quality  be  noted? 

WOLFF,  E.     Prolegomena   der   litterar-evolutionistischen    Poetik. 
Kiel  und  Leipz. :    1890. 

See  pp.  9-10,  and  §  8,  below. 

The  effect  of  the  lyric  is  defined  as  "  die  ja  als  unmittelbarer 
Ausdruck  von  Empfindungen  auch  unmittelbarer  ahnliohe  be- 
stimmte  Empfindungen  in  uns  wachruft :  etwa  '  Ent'j.dung  von 
eignen,  in  uns  schlummernden  Empfindungen  durch  Darstellung 
der  Empfindungen  anderer'"  (p.  24). 


84  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  2 

WOODBERRY,  G.  E.   The  Appreciation  of  Literature.    N.Y. :   1907. 

Chap.  II  Lyrical  Poetry. 

"  It  remains  true,  however,  that  the  substance  of  the  lyric,  the 
essential  experience  which  it  contains,  is  the  emotion,  and  not  the 
image  set  forth  in  words  which  indeed  exists  only  to  suggest  or 
discharge  the  emotion.  .  .  .  Lyrics  .  .  .  are  symbols  of  universal 
emotion  which  is  conveyed  or  roused  by  the  imagery.  .  .  .  The 
lyric  defines  and  releases  this  vague  emotion  which  is  forever 
arising  in  experience ;  this  is  its  function,  its  ground  of  being 
in  art,  its  use  to  the  world."  The  catharsis  of  the  lyric  lies  "in 
the  exhaustion  rather  than  the  satisfaction  of  the  emotion.  On 
the  scale  of  longer  [lyric]  poetry,  this  repose  is  obtained  by  a 
prophetic  touch."  The  essay  has  much  to  say  concerning  the 
methods  of  gaining  an  appreciation  of  lyric  poetry,  and  is  very 
valuable  to  beginners  on  this  account. 

WORDSWORTH,  W.    Prose  Works.    Ed.  by  A.  B.  Grosart.    3  vols. 
Lond. :   1876. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  79-100 ;  101-105;  106-130;  131-143. 
Especially  in  the  Preface  to  the  Lyrical  Ballads  and  in  the 
Preface  to  the  Poems  of  1815  Wordsworth  develops  his  theory 
of  poetry.  As  a  writer  of  presentative  poetry  his  theories  apply 
more  pertinently  to  lyric,  idyllic,  and  didactic  types  than  to  the 
dramatic  or  epic.  His  description  of  the  poet's  mind  and  function 
(Preface  to  Lyrical  Ballads)  and  his  analysis  of  the  powers  pre- 
dominant in  the  production  of  poetry  (Preface  of  1815)  are  matter 
for  serious  and  repeated  consideration.  In  his  theory  of  poetry 
and  in  his  theory  of  criticism  (Appendix  to  Poems  of  1815) 
Wordsworth  has  laid  the  foundation  for  many  of  the  literary 
opinions  for  which  the  world  gives  credit  to  critics  who  have 
followed  him.  See  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20. 

YOUNG,- E.    Works.    3  vols.    Lond.:   1798. 

V  >1.  Ill,  pp.  219-223  On  Lyric  Poetry. 

On  the  surlime  and  "  imrrethodical "  nature  of  the  Ode.  "  But 
then  in  ode,  there  is  this  difference  from  other  kinds  of  poetry: 


§3,1]  ANCIENT  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  85 

that,  there,  the  imagination,  like  a  very  beautiful  mistress,  is 
indulged  in  the  appearance  of  domineering;  though  the  judg- 
ment, like  an  artful  lover,  in  reality  carries  its  point."  Young's 
influence  upon  Germany  (and  Spain)  should  be  noted. 

ZIMMERMANN,  F.    Ueber  den  Begriff  des  Epos.   Darmstadt:  1848. 
On  the  subjective  tendency  in  the  objective  or  dramatic  lyric, 
see  the  Note,  p.  2  : 

Diejenige  Lyrik,  welche  zu  erzahlen  oder  dramatisch  darzustellen 
scheint,  geniesst  doch  in  der  Erzahlung  nur  ihre  eigene  Bewegung, 
gleichviel  ob  in  Form  objective  Lyrik,  wie  Pindar's  Siegeslieder,  oder  in 
der  Form  lyrischer,  oft  in  dramatischen  Absatzen  auseinander  springen- 
der  Erzahlung,  wie  die  Ballade. 


SECTION  3.    OUTLINES  OF  THEORY  BY  NATIONALITIES  : 
SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

In  tracing  in  historical  order  the  minor  references  to  the  theory 
of  the  lyric,  the  student  will  find  it  convenient  to  refer  to  Gayley 
and  Scott,  Methods  and  Materials  of  Lit.  Crit.,  Chap.  VI,  where 
the  history  of  poetics  in  general  is  outlined.  To  be  sure,  no 
study  is  made  there  of  particular  types;  but  the  list  of  the  chief 
ancient  and  modern  Poetics  will  be  of  considerable  aid. 

The  following  notes  are  in  aim  representative  rather  than  ex- 
haustive. In  making  use  of  them  the  student  should  bear  in  mind 
that  the  most  important  references,  already  cited  in  §  2,  are  seldom 
repeated. 

General  critical  apparatus  for  the  study  of  the  various  centuries 
of  national  literary  history  will  be  found  under  the  Historical 
Study  by  Nationalities,  §  6,  below. 

I.  Ancient  (Greek  and  Roman)  Theory  of  the  Lyric. 

For  introductions  to  the  history  of  Greek  poetical  theory  in  general 
see  E.  Egger's  Essai  sur  1'histoire  de  la  critique  chez  les  Grecs  (2d  ed. 
Piris:  1886);  Saintsbury's  Hist.  Crit.,  Vol.  I,  Bk.  i.  W.  von  Christ's 
C  esch.  der  griech.  Litt.  (5th  ed.,  noted  below,  §  5)  should  also  be  con- 
5  Ited  both  for  historical  information  and  for  bibliography.  Bernhardy's 


86  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

Grundriss  (noted  above,  §  2)  contains  much  valuable  material,  especially 
for  the  Alexandrian  period.  The  Hist,  of  Classical  Scholarship  (Vol.  I, 
2d  ed.  1906)  by  J.  E.  Sandys  includes  a  review  of  Greek  scholarship 
that  is  most  helpful  in  exploring  the  difficult  fields  of  Hellenistic  textual, 
grammatical,  and  rhetorical  criticism.  For  a  condensed  account  see  the 
same  author's  article  "Classics"  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.  An 
excellent  brief  review  of  the  Greek  rhetoricians  is  contained  in  the 
Introduction  to  W.  R.  Roberts'  Demetrius  on  Style  (Cambridge : 
1902).  For  an  account  of  Greek  aesthetic  theory,  of  particular  value 
in  dealing  with  post-Aristotelian  philosophical  criticism,  see  Bernard 
Bosanquet's  Hist,  of  Aesthetic  (Lond. :  1 892). 

Introductions  to  the  history  of  Roman  poetical  theory  are  Saints- 
bury's  Hist.  Crit.,  Vol.  I,  Bk.  ii;  H.  Nettleship's  Lit.  Crit.  in  Latin 
Antiquity  (in  Journal  of  Philol.  18:  225.  1890);  cf.  W.  R.  Hardiev 
Lit.  Crit.  at  Rome,  Chap.  VIII  in  Lects.  on  Classical  Subjects  (Lond.-. 
1903).  The  histories  of  Teuffel  and  Schanz  (noted  below,  §  5),  the 
Roman  Grundriss  of  Bernhardy  (noted  above,  §  2),  and  Sandys  and 
Bosanquet  as  noted  in  the  previous  paragraph,  should  also  be  consulted. 

Ancient  criticism  had  but  little  to  say  of  the  lyric.  The  slight 
notice  taken  of  this  type  by  Aristotle  (see  above,  §  2)  was  in  part 
responsible  for  this  neglect ;  still  more  so,  the  universal  habit  of 
regarding  the  lyric  as  indissolubly  united  with  music.  No  doubt, 
too,  the  difficulty  of  theorizing  about  a  poetic  type  so  spontaneous 
and  evanescent  was  felt  then  as  now.  Plato  regards  the  effect  of 
the  lyric  as  musical  in  character,  —  capable  under  proper  super- 
vision of  great  ethical  influence ;  but  he  admits  that  when  the  lyre 
is  used  without  words  "  it  is  difficult  to  recognize  the  meaning  of 
the  harmony  and  rhythm  "  (Laws  VII  812,  11669;  Protag-  326). 
The  problem,  at  this  point,  calls  for  a  consideration taf  the  Greek 
conception  of  music  as  a  species  of  imitation  (see  FTlcher,  Aris- 
totle's Theory,  etc.,  Chap.  II,  and  cf.  D.  B.  Monro,rneli,-  Modes 
of  Ancient  Greek  Music,  Oxford:  1894;  see  also  F  accorr,  Greek 
Lyric  Poets,  Article  V,  for  a  brief  account  of  musica  above,  «pani- 
ment).  —  For  the  Greek  classification  of  the  lyric,  set  referer§  2, 
under  Aristotle,  and  below,  §  6,  i ;  the  chief  ancieProclus  (hce 
bearing  upon  this  classification  is  the  X/orjoT-o/xaflta  ol  canon  n  ;n 
Photius,  Biblioth.  p.  521  ff.).  For. the  Alexandria  f 


I]  ANCIENT  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  87 

elegiac  and  lyric  poets,  see  article  "  Classics "  in  Encyc.  Brit., 
nth  ed. —  Late  writers  in  Greek  are  prone  to  cite  the  stylistic 
virtues  of  the  Greek  lyrists,  but  the  citations  are  brief,  and  usually 
subordinated  to  some  pedantic  interest  (see,  e.g.,  Plutarch's  re- 
marks on  Sappho,  in  his  Eroticus  763  and  Vit.  Demetr.  907  B; 
the  remarks  on  Sappho  in  the  De  Elocutione,  §§  140-143,  attrib- 
uted to  Demetrius  Phalereus  —  Ed.  by  W.  R.  Roberts,  Demetrius 
on  Style,  Cambridge:  1902  ;  and  further  on  Sappho  by  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus,  De  Comp.  Verb.  §  23,  and  by  Longinus,  De 
Sublimitate  §§  10,  33). 

Roman  critics  are  equally  negligible.  Horace  (Ars  Poetica, 
11.  75-85  ;  see  Kurd's  notes)  remarks,  in  passing,  on  the  fitness 
of  certain  metres  to  certain  subjects,  complains  of  servile  imitators 
(Epist.  I,  xix),  and  gives  his  reasons  for  abandoning  lyric  poetry 
(Epist.  II,  ii).  Quintilian's  brief  appraisals  of  the  Greek  lyrists 
will  be  found  in  the  Institutes  X,  i,  61-64;  °f  Horace  he  speaks 
in  X,  i,  97  :  these  notices  are  among  the  best  of  the  many  criti- 
cal '  tags '  that  may  be  found  throughout  classical  criticism  (for 
other  notices  see  the  works  of  Cicero,-  Ovid,  Petronius,  Seneca 
Rhetor,  Seneca  the  Younger,  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial,  Pliny  the 
Younger,  Aulus  Gellius,  Macrobius,  Ausonius,  etc.).  For  summa- 
ries of  such  notices  from  both  Greek  and  Roman  authors  see  the 
various  sections  devoted  to  melic  poetry  in  Bernhardy's  Grundriss 
and  the  proper  articles  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Real-Encyclopadie  (see, 
for  example,  Crusius'  article  Elegie,  cited  below,  §  5) ;  see  also 
Nettleship's  Lit.  Crit.  in  Latin  Antiquity  (Journ.  Philol.,  18  :  230) 
and  F.  Barta's  Ueber  die  auf  d.  Dichtkunst  beziiglichen  Ausdriicke 
bei  den  romischen  Dichtern,  i  Dichten  und  Dichtern  (Prog.,  Linz 
a.  D.:  1889),  2  Gedicht  (1890).  J.  A.  Hartung's  little  work  (cited 
in  §  8)  is  less  helpful  on  the  lyric  than  on  other  types.  On  Aulus 
Gellius  see  B.  Romano;  La  critica  letteraria  in  A.  Gellio,  pp.  107- 
113  (Torino:  1902). 

The  technical  school-grammars,  even  from  their  beginning  in 
the  works  of  Dionysius  Thrax  (80  B.C.),  professed  in  general  to 
include  some  sort  of  literary  criticism  in  their  conspectus  (cf . 


88  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

T.  Davidson,  The  Grammar  of  Dionysius  Thrax,  St.  Louis: 
1874,  p.  3),  — a  promise  often  observed  in  the  breach  except  for 
brief  and  inadequate  definitions  of  metres  and  kinds.  For  the 
Latin  grammars  see  Keil's  Grammatici  Latini.  On  Greek  gram- 
marians and  Latin  and  Greek  rhetoricians,  see  Saintsbury,  Sandys, 
and  Roberts,  as  noted  above. 

Editions  and  Translations.    See  below,  §  9,  i,  1 1 . 

II.  The  Dark  Ages. 

A  brief  introduction  to  the  general  criticism  of  this  period  will  be 
found  in  Saintsbury's  Hist.  Crit.,  vol.  I,  pp.  371-415  (2d  ed.).  In 
H.  O.  Taylor's  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  (N.Y. :  1901), 
see  Chaps.  IV  (Christian  attitude  toward  literature  and  philosophy)  and 
VIII  (early  Christian  prose  and  apologetics),  and  bibliographical  appen- 
dixes. The  second  volume  of  E.  Norden's  standard  work,  Die  antike 
Kunstprosa  (2  vols.  Leipz.;  1898),  contains  matter  relating  to  the 
critical  attitude  of^the  period.  Guidance  toward  critical  materials  may 
also  be  had  from  the  literary  histories  that  cover  parts  or  the  whole  of 
the  period  (see  Ebert,  Manitius,  Grober,  Paul,  and  Ker,  as  noted  below, 
§  5,  and  the  references  given  below,  §  1 2,  iv.  For  editions  of  texts  see 
Ebert  and  Manitius). 

Upon  lyric  theory,  in  any  broad  sense  of  the  term,  patristic  and 
pre-medieval  Latin  literature  has  practically  nothing  to  say.  The 
disapprobation  with  which  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  regarded 
all  profane  literature  is  noted  below,  §  9,  m.  For  notices  of 
Horace,  Pindar,  and  other  lyrists  in  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers, 
see  the  General  Index  in  vol.  X  of  the  American  edition  of  the 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers ;  similar  notices  may  be  found  in  Schaff 's 
Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers.  Negligible  asides  on  the  lyric 
may  also  be  discovered  in  the  encyclopedias  and  grammatical 
works  of  the  time.  Isidore  of  Seville's  remarks  (see  below,  §  9, 
in),  may  be  taken  as  representative.  He  barely  mentions  lyric 
poetry  (Etymologiae,  viii,  7,  4),  says  that  David  was  the  first  to 
compose  hymns  in  praise  of  God,  and  gives  brief,  inadequate 
definitions  of  epithalamium,  threnos,  elegy,  bucolic,  epitaph,  epi- 
gram, and  epode  (ibid.,  i,  39).  In  general  it  is  maintained  that 


II]  THE  DARK  AGES  89 

the  Hebrews  first  developed  these  arts.  The  student  who  de- 
sires to  extend  his  knowledge  of  this  arid  field  may  do  so  by 
consulting  the  sources  of  Isidore's  Etymologise  (bibliography  below, 
§  9,  in). 

With  regard  to  the  prosody  of  the  church  hymns,  it  should  be 
noted  that  we  have  several  references  bearing  upon  the  substitu- 
tion of  accentual  rhythms  for  the  classical  quantitative  measures. 
Hymns  which  employed  the  substitution  were  called  "  rhythmical." 
For  examples  of  such  references  see  Apollinaris  Sidonius,  Ep.  ii, 
10,  and  Bede,  De  Arte  Metrica,  Cap.  24:  in  Cap.  21  is  Bede's 
explanation  of  the  prosody  of  the  Ambrosian  hymn.  For  further 
notes  on  this  subject  see  Archbishop  Trench's  Sacred  Latin 
Poetry,  Introd. 

For  the  rest  it  may  be  noted  that  scattered  remarks  upon  lyric 
quality  and,  particularly,  lyric  metres  are  to  be  found  in  Isidore 
of  Seville's  remarks  on  metrics  (see  Lib.  I  of  his  Etymologiae), 
and  in  the  various  treatises  on  versification  mentioned  by  Pro- 
fessor Saintsbury  in  his  Hist.  Grit,  I,  407-415.  For  the  texts 
see  P.  Leyser,  Historia  poetarum  et  poematum  medii  aevi  (Halle : 
1721);  T.  Wright  and  J.  O.  Halliwell,  Reliquiae  antiquae  (2  vols. 
Lond. :  1845);  G.  Mari,  I  trattati  medievali  di  ritmica  latina 
(Milan:  1899). 

III.  Italian. 

A  history  of  Italian  criticism  of  the  lyric  is  a  great  desideratum.  In 
the  absence  of  such  a  manual  the  student  must  endeavor  to  sift  the 
various  "  Poetics  "  of  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies (for  a  list,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  445-448 ;  see  also  the 
chapters  devoted  to  criticism  in  the  very  valuable  series  known  as 
Storia  letteraria  d'  Italia  scritta  da  una  societa  di  professori ;  Saints- 
bury,  Hist.  Crit. ;  Quadrio  and  Blankenburg,  as  noted  above,  §  2).  To 
this  task  must  be  added  that  of  gleaning  from  the  historical  works  and 
monographs  of  the  nineteenth  century  (many  of  which  are  mentioned 
below,  §  6,  vin)  stray  comments  or  interpretations  that  have  a  theoretical 
bearing.  The  student's  labor  will  be  lightened  if  he  first  makes  himself 
familiar  with  the  principal  guides  to  the  history  of  the  Italian  lyric 
(see  below,  §  6,  vm). 


90  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

A.   The  Renaissance. 

For  apparatus  for  studying  the  general  critical  trend  of  this  period 
use  the  references  given  just  above,  and  add  :  Spingarn,  Lit.  Crit.  in  the 
Renaissance  (the  best  introductory  survey);  K.  Vossler,  Poetische  Theo- 
rien  in  der  italienischen  Friihrenaissance  (in  Litterarhist.  Forschuugen, 
XII.  1900);  the  chapters  devoted  to  criticism  in  V.  Rossi's  II  Quattro- 
cento and  F.  Flamini's  II  Cinquecento ;  C.  Berardi,  Per  una  storia  della 
poetica  nel  cinque  e  nel  seicento  (in  Rassegna  critica  della  letteratura 
italiana,  16:  33-56.  1911).  For  editions,  monographs,  etc.,  see  Rossi 
and  Flamini. 

Italian  Renaissance  criticism  devoted  most  of  its  attention  to 
the  epic  and  drama.  Dealing  with  the  trend  as  a  whole  Professor 
Spingarn,  in  a  passage  we  have  already  quoted,  has  only  this  to 
say  of  the  criticism  of  the  lyric : 

.  .  .  during  the  Renaissance  there  was  no  systematic  lyric  theory. 
'•  Those  who  discussed  it  at  all  gave  most  of  their  attention  to  its  formal 
structure,  its  style,  and  especially  the  conceit  it  contained.  The  model 
of  all  lyrical  poetry  was  Petrarch,  and  it  was  in  accordance  with  the 
lyrical  poet's  agreement  or  disagreement  with  the  Petrarchan  method 
that  he  was  regarded  as  a  success  or  a  failure  (Lit.  Crit.  in  the  Renais- 
sance, p.  58). 

For  this  neglect  one  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  paucity  of  ancient 
theory  concerning  the  type.  Moreover,  when  the  Italian  critic  of 
the  Renaissance  does  pay  attention  to  the  nature  of  the  lyric  he 
at  once  feels  himself  the  victim  of  an  inherited  dilemma :  How, 
he  asks,  can  the  nature  of  the  type  be  reconciled  with  the  defini- 
tion of  poetry  as  an  imitation  of  "  men  in  action "  (Aristotle, 
Poetics,  II,  i)  ?  For  the  most  part  he  ignores  what  Plato  has  said 
(see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  139-144)  about  Love  as  a  creator, 
a  maker  of  poets ;  the  object  of  love  as  birth  in  beauty,  hence 
immortality ;  the  truly  initiated  lover  as  the  ideal  poet ;  imitation 
as  a  productive  or  creative  art ;  words  as  imitating  the  essence  of 
things ;  the  function  of  music  and  the  relation  of  poetry  to  music. 
He  also  ignores  what  Aristotle  has  said  or  implied  (see  Gayley 
and  Scott,  pp.  145-156)  concerning  art  as  an  imitation  of  nature, 
—  that  imitation  is  not  a  mere  reproduction  of  nature  as  an 


Ill,  A]  ITALIAN  91 

object,  but  furthers  the  purposes  of  nature  and  the  satisfaction 
of  man's  desires  by  adopting  the  methods  and  processes  of  nature 
as  a  productive  principle ;  he  ignores,  also,  what  Aristotle  has 
said  of  the  dithyramb  and  melody  as  imitations,  and  of  the  power 
of  passionate  melodies  to  relieve  the  feelings. 

A  collection  of  the  various  solutions  of  the  problem  of  poetry 
as  an  imitation  of  human  action  that  have  been  offered  by  Euro- 
pean critics  from  the  Renaissance  on  would  afford  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  history  of  the  criticism  of  the  lyric.  Below  are 
cited  only  a  few  representative  authors ;  for  others,  see  the  list 
of  Italian  "  Poetics  "  referred  to  above. 

G.  G.  Trissino  treats  of  the  sonnet,  ballata,  and  canzone  (Opere, 
2  vols.  Verona:  1729;  see  vol.  II,  pp.  137-139,  4th  division.  First 
ed.,  Pts.  i-iv,  1529;  v-vi,  1563).  M.  Equicola,  Instituzioni  all'com- 
porre  in  ogni  sorte  di  rima  (Milano :  1541),  —  a  prosodical  manual, 
with  which  may  be  compared  C.  Tolomei's  Versi  e  regole  della  nuova 
poesia  toscana  (Roma :  1 539),  G.  Ruscelli's  Trattato  del  modo  di  com- 
porre  in  versi  italiani  (Ven. :  1559),  L.  Dolce's  Osservazioni  della  volgar 
lingua,  Lib.  IV  Delia  volgar  poesia,  e  del  modo  ed  ordine  di  comporre 
diverse  maniere  di  rime  (Ven.:  1563).  To  F.  Robortelli's  In  librum 
Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica  explicationes  (Firenze :  1 548)  is  added  a 
paraphrase  of  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,  in  which  occur  remarks  on  the 
elegy ;  the  same  volume  contains  essays  on  the  epigram  and  the  elegy. 
Girol.  Muzio,  Arte  poetica  (Vinegia:  1551).  I.  Anton.  Viperanus, 
De  poetica  lib.  III.  (Antv.:  1558;  Opera,  Napoli :  1606);  full  contents 
in  Blankenburg,  I  387:  lyric  poetry  is  treated  very  briefly  in  Lib.  Ill, 
Cap.  IX-XII ;  Cap.  X  considers  the  question  whether  or  not  the  lyric 
can  be  called  poetry  if  the  latter  is  "  an  imitation  of  human  actions." 
Blankenburg  calls  the  whole  affair  slight  and  superficial,  —  a  commen- 
tary on  Horace.  The  chapters  are  indeed  short  and  slight,  but  the 
author  has  added  much  to  Horace,  of  whose  lack  of  system  and  defini- 
tion he  complains  in  the  preface.  Minturno  (i.  e.  Antonio  Sebastiano), 
De  poeta  (i  559),  Lib.  V  ;  by  the  same,  L'  Arte  poetica  (Venetia :  1 564), 
Lib.  I,  III,  or  see  index  under  Elegia,  Lirica  Poesia,  Madrigalia,  Melica, 
Canzone,  Sestina,  Sonetto.  J.  C.  Scaliger  (1561.  op.  cit.  §  8.  See 
Lib.  I,  Cap.  XLIV-LVII ;  Lib.  Ill,  Cap.  C-CXXVI ;  Lib.  VI.).  In 
Lib.  VII,  Cap.  II  Scaliger  draws  from  the  nature  of  the  lyric  an  argu- 
ment against  Aristotle's  theory  of  the  imitative  end  of  poetry,  as  did 
also,  much  later,  Moses  Mendelssohn  and  J.  A.  Schlegel.  For  Scaliger's 


92  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

ranking  of  the  lyric  as  the  excellent  kind  of  poetry,  see  Lib.  I,  Cap.  Ill 
(translated  by  F.  M.  Padelford,  op.  cit.  §  8  under  Scaliger,  pp.  19-20). 
For  the  Pastoral,  see  Lib.  I,  Cap.  IV;  other  types  elsewhere.  T.  Tasso, 
Del  poema  eroico  (op.  cit.  ,§  8) ;  see  pp.  204,  242 :  lyric  and  epic  styles 
compared.  Giov.  Andrea  Gilio  da  Fabriano's  Topica  poetica,  etc. 
(Venetia :  1 580)  deals  with  poetic  writing  in  general  ('  topics,'  figures, 
'  examples,'  etc.) ;  quotes  from  lyrics  not  a  little,  and  affords  a  fair  con- 
ception of  the  pedantic  attitude  toward  poetry.  J.  Denores,  Poetica 
(1588).  V.  Toraldo  da  Arragonia,  La  Veronica,  ovvero  del  sonetto 
dialog.  (Geneva:  1589).  Blankenburg  gives  several  Latin  treatises 
on  the  elegy,  under  the  article  Elegie. 

B.   The  Seventeenth  Century. 

On  the  poetical  treatises  of  this  century  see  the  references  at  the 
head  of  these  notes  on  the  Italian  lyric,  and  add :  F.  Foffano,  Saggio 
su  la  critica  letteraria  nel  secolo  decimosettimo  (in  Ricerche  letterarie, 
Livorno :  1897,  pp.  135-312;  cf.  Giornale  storico,  31:  369-383); 
A.  Belloni,  II  Seicento,  Chap.  XI,  and  Bibliog.  Appendix ;  C.  Berardi, 
as  noted  above,  under  A ;  and  the  larger  histories  of  Italian  literature, 
especially  Tiraboschi. 

This  century  is  still  less  prolific  in  criticism  of  the  lyric.  What 
occurs  is  philological,  formal,  and  pedantic,  —  editions,  annotations, 
"  proginnasmi,"  etc.  A.  Tassoni,  in  his  Considerazioni,  etc.  (Mo- 
dena:  1609),  treats  Petrarch  and  his  sonnets  "as  cavalierly  as  he 
was  to  treat  the  sacred  Heroic  Poem  in  the  Secchia  "  (Saintsbury, 
Hist.  Crit.  II  326).  For  his  Pensieri  diversi  (1612),  in  which 
he  maintained  the  supremacy  of  the  Italian  lyric  above  that  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  see  below,  §  9,  v,  B.  See  also,  in  the  same 
place,  the  reference  to  Boccalini.  Quattromani's  (Sertorio) 
Rime  di  Mons.  Gio.  della  Casa  (Napoli:  1616)  is  an  example  of 
pedantic  annotation  and  criticism  of  sonnets.  Cf.  Horatio  Marta's 
Paralello  tra  Petrarca  e  Monsign.  Gio.  della  Casa  (in  Marta's 
Rime  et  prose,  Napoli :  1 6 1 6).  See  also  G.  B.  Basile,  Osserva- 
tioni  intorno  alle  rime  del  Bembo,  e  del  Caso,  con  la  tavola  delle 
desinenze  delle  rime,  et  con  la  varieta  de'  testi  nelle  rime  del  Bembo 
(Napoli:  1618).  Udeno  Nisieli  (i.e.  Benedetto  Fioretti),  Pro- 
ginnasmi poetici  (5  vols.  Firenze:  1620-39):  through  the  mass 


Ill,  B]  ITALIAN  93 

of  short  dissertations  the  student  must  hunt  for  what  concerns 
him.  He  will  find  some  guidance  in  the  indexes  and  in  Blanken- 
burg.  The  essays  are  full  of  quotations,  and  for  this  reason  are 
often  helpful  as  a  guide  to  other  renaissance  critics.  We  have 
not  been  able  to  find  V.  Galli's  De  lyric,  poem,  syntagma,  etc. 
(Mediol. :  1626;  see  Blankenburg  2:  318),  or  F.  Menini's  II 
ritratto  del  sonetto,  e  della  canzone,  discorsi  (Napoli:  1677;  cf. 
Idea  del  sonetto,  Ven. :  1670;  see  Blankenburg,  Index,  and 
Guardian,  No.  16).  F.  Querengo,  Trattato  della  poesia  (Pa- 
dova :  1644).  G.  Batista,  Poetica  (Ven. :  1676).  B.  Menzini, 
Dell' Arte  poetica  (Firenze:  1688),  Lib.  Ill,  IV,  Dithyrambic  and 
Sacred  Poetry.  See  also  the  treatises  on  versification  by  Zuccolo 
(1623),  Pietro  della  Valle  (1634),  Stigliani  (1658),  Salvador! 
(1691),  and  L.  Mattei  (1695),  all  mentioned  by  Blankenburg 
under  the  article  Vers.  For  other  Poetics  of  the  century  see 
Gayley  and  Scott  as  already  indicated. 

C.   The  Eighteenth  Century. 

On  the  general  character  of  the  Poetics  of  this  century  see  C.  Berardi, 
Per  una  storia  della  poetica  nel  settecento  (in  Rassegna  critica  della 
letteratura  italiana,  15:  1-18.  1910).  Note  particularly  what  the 
author  has  to  say  of  religious  poetry  in  the  Settecento.  See  also 
T.  Concari,  II  Settecento,  Chaps.  IV,  V,  IX ;  M.  Landau,  Gesch.  der 
ital.  Litt.  im  1 8ten  Jahrh.  (Berlin :  1 899),  Pt.  I ;  Vernon  Lee,  Studies 
of  the  1 8th  Cent,  in  Italy  (Lond. :  1880);  L.  Collison-Morley,  Modern 
Ital.  Lit.  (Lond.:  1911),  Chap.  V.  Blankenburg,  Gayley  and  Scott, 
and  Saintsbury  should  be  consulted  as  noted  above. 

Crescimbeni  and  Quadrio,  both  inclining  to  the  historical  method, 
and  Baretti  are  the  chief  critics  of  this  age.  Crescimbeni's  scattered 
utterances  upon  the  lyric  should  be  looked  for  in  his  Della  bellezza 
della  volgar  poesia  (Rome:  1700);  Istor.  della  volgar  poesia 
(ist  ed.  Rome:  1698  ;  see  vol.  VI  of  the  Venetian  ed.  of  1730), 
which  contains  notices  of  ancient  and  contemporary  Italian  poets ; 
Vite  degl' Arcadi  Illustri  (4  vols.  Roma:  1708—27);  and  L' Arcadia 
(1711).  Quadrio's  remarkable  Delia  storia  e  della  ragione  d'  ogni 
poesia  (1739)  has  been  noted  above  (§  2).  Vol.  II  of  this  work 


94  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

forms  the  most  ambitious  of  Italian  works  on  the  lyric.  All  of 
Lib.  I,  which  forms  the  larger  part  of  the  volume  (800  pp.),  con- 
sists of  brief  notices  of  lyric  authors  of  all  ages  and  peoples 
(Distinzione  I)  and  an  account  of  hymnody  and  of  the  musical 
accompaniments  of  the  ancients.  In  Lib.  II  (440  pp.)  are  long 
accounts  of  a  great  variety  of  lyric  subtypes,  ancient,  medieval,  and 
modern,  with  which,  and  the  little  concluding  chapter  on  the  gen- 
eral character  of  the  lyric,  the  student  of  poetics  will  be  especially 
concerned.  M.  G.  Baretti's  criticism  is  largely  directed  against 
the  false  poetic  ideals  of  the  Arcadians  (see  below,  §  6,  vm,  H). 
Indeed  the  storm-centre  of  the  criticism  of  the  century  is  this 
Arcadian  Academy.  Baretti's  chief  critical  work  is  contained  in  his 
Fruta  letteraria.  L.  A.  Muratori's  Delia  perfetta  poesia  italiana, 
spiegata  e  dimostrata  (Modena:  1706)  —  pseudo-classical  and 
Arcadian,  relying  on  Aristotle  and  Horace,  preferring  didactic 
moralizing  to  lyrics  of  love  —  is  typical  of  the  critical  temper  of  the 
1 8th  century.  G.  Gravina,  Delia  ragion  poetica  (Roma:  1708, 
or  1704?);  see  Lib.  I,  Cap.  xiii.  P.  J.  Martelli,  Delia  poetica,  in 
Rime  e  prose  (Roma:  1710).  Scip.  Maffei,  Discours  sur  1'histoire 
et  le  genie  des  poe'tes  italiens  (in  Bibl.  italique,  i  :  223-278,  2  : 
176-324.  Gen.:  1728).  G.  C.  Becelli,  Delia  novella  poesia 
cioe  del  vero  genere  e  particolari  bellezze  della  poesia  italiana 
libri  tre  (Verona:  1732),  —  an  attempt  to  expound  the  nature  of 
original  Italian  poetry  as  distinguished  from  Italian  imitations  of 
the  ancients  ;  in  Lib.  II  the  pure  Italian  lyric  is  differentiated  from 
Greek  and  Latin  lyrics  (cf.  Lib.  I) ;  the  Pastoral  is  treated  as  a 
modern  invention.  F.  Palesi,  Della  poetica  libri  tre  (Palermo : 
1734).  G.  Salio,  Esame  critico  intorno  a  varie  sentenze  d'alcuni 
scrittori  di  cose  poetiche  (Pad.:  1738).  S.  Bettinelli's  attacks 
on  the  Arcadian  fashions  of  the  day,  and,  indeed,  upon  all  the 
ancient  Italian  poets,  are  contained  in  his  Lettere  dieci  di  Virgilio 
agli  Arcadi  (1757)  and  his  Lettere  inglesi;  see  also  his  Risorgi- 
mento  negli  studi,  nelle  arti  e  ne'costumi  dopo  il  mille  (1775- 
1786),  in  which  is  a  sketch  of  the  literary  history  of  Italy.  Bet- 
tinelli's Discorso  sopra  il  sonetto  (in  Opere,  vol.  VI.  Ven. :  1782) 


Ill,  D]  ITALIAN  95 

is  a  short  preface  to  his  own  Sonetti,  describing  the  genius  of  the 
type ;  see  also  the  charming  Delle  lodi  del  Petrarca  (Bassano : 
1786).  C.  Denina,  Saggio  sopra  la  letteratura  italiana  (Tor.: 
1762).  F.  M.  Zanotti,  Dell'Arte  poetica,  ragionamenti  cinque, 
5th  Rag.  (Bologna:  1768).  G.  Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  lettera- 
tura italiana  (Mod. :  1771-82),  with  which  monumental  work  we 
reach  the  historical  school,  though  of  course  only  the  infancy  of 
that  school.  Tiraboschi  is  a  lumber-room  of  erudition ;  you  often 
look  in  vain  for  independent  criticism  and  historical  generalization. 
G.  de  Coureil,  Epist.  sopra  i  poeti  (in  Opere.  Firenze:  1790). 
G.  B.  Baldelli,  Del  Petrarca  e  delle  sue  opere  (1797).  Still 
other  Poetics  are  cited  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  447-448.  On 
the  Letters  of  Clementine  Vannetti,  especially  the  one  bearing  on 
Klopstock's  Pindarics,  see  Concari,  pp.  379-380.  The  literary 
periodicals  of  this  age,  modelled  after  The  Spectator,  should  also  be 
sifted  for  criticism  (see  Concari,  Chap.  V;  Collison-Morley,  80-82). 

D.   The  Nineteenth  Century. 

G.  A.  Borgese's  Storia  della  critica  romantica  in  Italia  (Napoli : 
1905)  deals  in  a  general  way  with  the  nature  of  Italian  romantic  criti- 
cism, and  is  valuable  as  a  guide  to  the  philosophical  bases  of  this 
criticism.  Saintsbury  offers  little  aid,  since  he  discusses  one  critic  only, 
De  Sanctis  (Hist.  Crit,  3:  588-591).  L.  Morandi's  Antologia  della 
nostra  critica  letteraria  moderna  (l8th  ed.  Cittk  di  Castello :  1905)  is 
useful  principally  as  suggesting  the  chief  critical  works  of  the  century, 
for  the  selections  contain  but  little  bearing  upon  the  lyric.  See  also 
F.  Flamini,  Antologia  della  critica  e  dell'  erudizione  coordinate  allo 
studio  della  storia  letteraria  ital.  (Napoli:  1912),  a  most  helpful  work. 
Brief  notices  will  also  be  found  in  Flamini's  Compendio  di  storia  della 
letteratura  italiana  (i2th  ed.  Livorno :  1914),  pp.  322-326,  392,  and 
in  Collison-Morley's  Modern  Italian  Lit.  (Lond. :  1911),  Chaps.  IX, 
XIII.  For  'other  aid  the  student  must  consult  the  histories  of  Italian 
literature,  especially  G.  Mazzoni's  L'  Ottocento  (Storia  lett.  d'  Italia 
scritta  da  una  soc.  di  professori).  See  Chaps.  Ill,  V,  VI,  VII,  VIII, 
IX  of  this  invaluable  work  and  the  corresponding  sections  of  the 
bibliographical  notes. 

The  poetics  of  Italian  Romanticism  is  to  be  found  in  the  four 
Sermoni  sulla  poesia  (1818)  of  Giovanni  Torti  (1774-1852) 


96  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

printed  in  the  Conciliators,  the  organ  of  the  Romanticists.  Com- 
pare Giovanni  Berchet's  Sul  cacciatore  feroce  e  sulla  Leonora 
di  Goffredo  Augusto  Burger,  Lettera  semiseria  di  Grisostonio ; 
Carlo  Porta's  II  romanticismo ;  and  Vincenzo  Monti's  defense 
of  classicism  in  his  Sulla  mitologia  (1825).  The  romantic  move- 
ment in  Italy  was  primarily  of  a  political  character ;  th6  origi- 
nal tendenz  of  the  Milanese  Biblioteca  Italiana  (first  number, 
Jan.  1816),  which  was  the  first  organ  of  Italian  romanticism, 
was  the  creation  in  Lombardy  of  a  pro- Austrian  and  pro-German 
sentiment.  It  was  in  this  periodical  that  Madame  de  Stael  sounded 
what  was  the  clarion  of  Italian  literary  romanticism,  the  call  to  the 
Italians  to  desert  phrase-making  and  classical  pedantry  and  to  turn 
to  the  study  of  modern  ideas  and  contemporary  foreign  literature. 
And  so  it  was  that  Torti  and  Berchet  contended  for  a  new  poetry, 
of  sincere  and  contemporary  appeal,  popular  rather  than  classical, 
national  rather  than  antique  and  pagan.  Already  the  Germans 
had  attained  such  a  literature:  let  the  Italians  learn  of  them.  Such 
ideas  could  never  vitally  affect  a  race  with  the  classical  heritage 
and  instinct  of  the  Italians.  The  chief  romantic  poet  of  Italy  is 

\    Manzoni,  and  in  his  critical  utterances  (seeThe  letter,  Sul  romanti- 
\  s 

cismo,  to  Marchese  Cesare  d'Azeglio,  written  in  1823,  and  various 

fragments  and  passages  in  the  Opere  varie  di  Manzoni,  2d  ed. 
Milano:  1870)  the  student  will  find  much  that  is  typical  of  the 
romantic  trend.  Indeed,  from  the  general  character  of  these  and 
of  the  other  references  given  above  (see  also  Foscolo's  essays), 
and  from  the  actual  practice  of  the  Italian  romanticists  (see  below, 
§  6,  vni,  i),  the  student  must  deduce  the  temper  of  the  lyric 
criticism  of  this  school. 

But  the  greater  part  of  the  criticism  of  this  century  was  in  Italy, 
as  elsewhere,  primarily  psychological  or  historical.  The  more 
psychological  such  criticism  has  been,  the  more  speculative  and 
theoretical  has  been  its  coloring:  as  such  it  is  the  characteristic 
form  of  nineteenth-century  speculative  criticism.  Historical  criti- 
cism, on  the  other  hand,  eschews  theory,  and  therefore  is  discussed 
under  another  heading  (see  below,  §§  4,  5,  6).  As  a  matter  of 


IV,  A]  FRENCH  97 

fact  the  historical  and  psychological  methods  constantly  overlap  in 
practice.  Therefore  the  student  of  theory  must  examine  all  the 
criticism  of  the  century,  both  that  which  aims  at  history  proper 
and  also  that  which  does  not,  with  a  view  to  separating  the  trea- 
tises and  fragments  of  treatises  that  may  properly  be  denominated 
'  theoretical.'  This  is  a  long  and  arduous  task,  not  yet  undertaken 
to  any  great  extent.  The  most  that  can  be  done  here  is  to  offer 
the  following  suggestive  list  of  the  chief  critics  (for  further  notices 
of  many  of  them  see  §§2,  5,  6;  trace  by  Index):  Tommaseo, 
Mazzini,  Settembrini,  De  Sanctis  (important;  see  his  Petrarca, 
1869,  Leopardi,  1885,  and  the  two  series  of  critical  essays), 
Villari,  Ardito  (especially  his  A.  Poerio  e  le  sue  poesie.  Napoli : 
1878),  Bartoli,  Chiarini,  .Carducci  (very  important),  Giovanni 
Mestica,  Zumbini,  De  Gubernatis,  Monaci,  De  Amicis,  Graf, 
D'  Ovidio,  Torraca,  B.  Croce  (important),  Flamini,  etc.  The 
Giornale  storico  della  letteratura  italiana  will  give  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  historical  method  as  pursued  by  Italian  critics. 

IV.  French. 

A.  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  Centuries. 

On  this  period  see  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit./vol.  II,  Book  IV,  Chap.  IV, 
pp.  109-1 10  ;  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  428-429 ;  Petit  de  Julleville,  II,  392. 
The  chief  studies  of  early  French  criticism  have  been  made  by  E.  Lang- 
lois :  see  his  De  artibus  rhetoricae  rhythmicae,  sive  de  artibus  poeticis 
in  Francia  ante  litterarum  renovationem  editis,  etc.  (Paris:  1890),  and 
the  introduction  and  notes  to  his  Recueil  d'arts  de  seconde  rhe"torique 
(Collection  de  documents  inedits  sur  1'histoire  de  France  publics  par 
les  soins  du  Ministre  de  1'instruction  publique.  Paris:  1902). 

The  beginnings  of  French  criticism  in  the  vernacular  consist 
of  a  number  of  treatises  devoted  primarily  to  the  versification  of 
early  fixed  and  complicated  forms  of  the  lyric,  such  as  ballade, 
virelai,  rondeau,  chant  royal,  sirvente,  etc.  Little  attempt  is  made 
to  discuss  the  nature  of  poetry  and  its  kinds :  sometimes  the 
author  definitely  points  out  that  he  is  only  imparting  rules  for 
the  external  forms  of  poetry,  whereas  the  originating  poetic  power 
is  a  gift  of  nature  that  cannot  be  handed  down  by  precept  and 


98  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

measure  (see  Langlois,  Recueil,  vii  ff .).  These  treatises  are  usually 
subsumed  under  the  head  of  Rhetoric,  and  are  often  said  to 
belong  to  the  Seconde  Rhetorique  because  the  "  first  deals  with 
prose."  Eustache  Deschamps  heads  the  list  with  his  L'Art  de 
dictrer  et  de  fere  chansons,  balades,  virelais  et  rondeaulx,  etc., 
1392  (in  vol.  VII  of  the  CEuvres  completes,  ed.  Queux  de  Saint 
Hilaire  et  G.  Raynaud,  n  vols.,  Paris:  1878—1900,  Soc.  des  anc. 
textes  franc.ais;  on  possible  sources,  see  vol.  XI,  p.  155).  It  is 
noticeable  that  he  places  his  work  under  music  rather  than 
rhetoric.  Cf.  E.  Hoeppner,  Eust!  Deschamps  (Strassburg:  1904). 
The  first  five  of  the  works  edited  by  Langlois  (Recueil,  etc.) 
belong  to  the  fifteenth  century.  The  title  of  the  second,  by  an 
anonymous  writer,  is  descriptive  of  all  :•  "  Les  regies  de  la  seconde 
rhe'torique,  c'est  assavoir  des  choses  rime'es,  lesquelles  sont  de 
pluseurs  tailles  et  de  pluseurs  fachons,  «y  comme  lais,  chans 
royaux,  diz,  serventois,  amoureuses,  balades,  rondeaux,  virelais, 
rotuenges,  sotes  chansons,  etc."  —  The  study  of  these  works  should 
be  supplemented  by  a  view  of  contemporary  Latin  treatises  on 
versification.  What  interrelation  can  be  discovered  ?  See  G.  Mari, 
I  trattati  medievali  di  ritmica  latina  (Milan  :  1899). 

For  an  example  of  a  troubadour's  comment  on  his  own  (Pro- 
ven£al)  art,  see  the  i3th  century  Las  rasos  de  trobar  of  the  Cata- 
lonian  Raimon  Vidal  of  Besadun  (F.  Guessard,  Grammaires 
proven c.ales,  Paris:  1858;  E.  Stengel,  Die  beiden  altesten  prov. 
Gram.,  Marburg:  1878  ;  Chaytor,  The  Troubadours,  p.  122). 

B.  Sixteenth  Century, 

For  the  general  trend  of  criticism  in  this  period  see  Gayley  and 
Scott,  pp.  429-432;  Spingarn,  Lit.  Crit.  in  Renaissance,  Part  Second; 
Brunetiere,  L'Evolution  des  genres,  etc.,  vol.  I  L'Evolution  de  la  critique 
depuis  la  Renaissance  jusqu'a  nos  jours,  Chap.  I  (3d  ed.  Paris :  1 898)  — 
see  the  admirable  summary  of  French  criticism  on  pp.  14-18,  which 
has  been  translated  by  Professor  Cook  (The  Art  of  Poetry,  p.  li  ff.) ; 
Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  vol.  II,  Book  IV,  Chap.  IV.  For  critical  appa- 
ratus concerning  the  earlier  rhetorics  see  above  under  A,  to  which 
should  be  added  H.  Zschalig,  Die  Verslehren  von  Fabri,  du  Pont 
und  Sibilet  (Diss.  inaug.  Heidelberg.  Leipz. :  1884).  On  the  criticism 


IV,  B]  FRENCH  99 

of  the  Ple"iade  see  the  general  references  just  mentioned  and  the 
following:  Brunetiere,  La  Pleiade  franchise  (in  Rev.  des  Deux  Man des, 
Dec.  15,  1900,  Jan.  I  and  Feb.  i,  1901);  Darmesteter  et  Hatzfeld, 
Le  seizieme  siecle  en  France,  Paris:  1878;  E.  Egger,  L'Helle"nisme 
en  France  (2  vols.,  Paris:  1869),  XVI Ie  Lecon,  L'£pope"e  franc.aise  au 
1 6e  siecle;  E.  Langlois,  DeArtibus  Rhetoricae  Rythmicae  (Paris:  1890); 
Marty-Laveaux,  La  Ple"iade  franchise  (ed.  of  works,  with  biographies, 
etc.) ;  G.  Pellissier,  De  Sexti  Decimi  Saeculi  in  Francia  Artibus  Poeticis 
(Paris:  1883);  by  the  same,  the  Introduction  to  his  ed.  of  L'Art 
Poetique  of  Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye  (Paris:  1885);  L.  Petit  de 
Julleville,  Hist,  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litt.  fr.  (Paris:  1896),  vol.11,, 
p.  392 ;  A.  Rosenbauer,  Die  poet.  Theorien  d.  Plejade  nach  Ronsard, 
etc.  (in  Miinchener  Beitr.  z.  roman.  u.  engl.  Philol.,  N.  10,  1895); 
T.  Riicktaschl,  Einige  Arts  poe"tiques  aus  der  Zeit  Ronsards  und 
Malherbe  (Leipz. :  1889);  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve,  Tableau  historique  et 
critique  de  la  poesie  frangaise  au  1 6e  siecle  (Paris :  1 828) ;  J.  B.  Fletcher, 
Areopagus  and  Pleiade  (jn  Journal  of  Germanic  Philology,  1899,  vol.  II). 
For  the  Ple"iade's  renovation  of  the  lyric,  epic,  and  drama,  see  Pellissier's 
Vauquelin,  Introd.,  Ivii-lxix,  and  compare  xxvii.  Riicktaschl  gives  (p.  5) 
a  bibliography  of  works  treating  of  the  poetics  of  this  period,  and  (pp.  5-7) 
a  bibliography  of  the  poetics  themselves.  See  also  E.  Faguet,  Seizieme 
siecle.  Etudes  litteraires  (1894). 

Blankenburg  and  Quadrio,  as  noted  above,  §  2,  are  extremely  useful 
in  supplying  bibliography  of  the  criticism  of  the  r6th-i8th  centuries. 

During  the  first  half  of  this  century  the  rhetorical  treatises  on 
old  French  lyric  versification  continue,  and  are  then  succeeded 
by  the  classical  influence  of  the  Pleiade,  while  Sibilet's  Art  poe'tique 
(1548)  makes  the  transition  from  the  one  to  the  other.  To  the 
works  on  prosody  belong  the  last  two  anonymous  treatises  edited 
by  Langlois  (Recueil,  etc.)  ;  the  Instructif  de  la  seconde  rhetorique, 
or  Jardin  de  plaisancy,  of  the  anonymous  Infortune'  (i5ooc.); 
Pierre  Fabri's  Grand  et  vrai  art  de  pleine  rhetorique  (1521.  Ed. 
with  introd.  by  A.  He'ron.  3  vols.,  Rouen:  1889-90,  Soc.  des 
Bibliophiles  Normands) ;  Gratien  du  Pont's  Art  et  science  de 
rhetorique  metrifie'e  (1539);  and  others  mentioned  in  Langlois' 
De  Artibus  Rhet.  (op.  cit.  supra.}.  See  also  Geoffrey  Tory's 
Champfleury  (1529)  and  Marot's  introductory  remarks  to  his  edi- 
tion of  Villon  (1533)  :  cf.  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit.,  II,  p.  no,  Note  4. 


100  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

Sibilet's  Art  po^tique,  written  the  year  before  Du  Bellay  started 
the  classical  reaction  (see  below),  is  noteworthy  because  although  it 
gives  the  usual  rules  for  the  older  French  forms  it  makes  mention 
also  of  epigram,  sonnet,  ode,  elegy,  and  eclogue,  and  takes  into 
view  the  medieval  morality  and  farce.  Thus  it  is  a  connecting 
link  between  the  old  Seconde  Rhetorique  and  the  Renaissance 
criticism  of  the  Pleiade.  Sibilet  anticipates  many  of  the  ideas 
of  the  Pleiade,  but  he  still  holds  to  Clement  Marot  and  the 
latter's  followers  as  poetic  models. 

The  student  will  find  that  much  of  the  discussion  aroused  by 
the  Pleiade,  and  by  the  followers  of  Malherbe,  turns  upon  the 
episseries  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Following  Scaliger,  the  poets  of 
the  Ple'iade  praised  the  ode  at  the  expense  of  the  old  French 
lyric  forms,  such  as  the  "  rondeaux,  ballades,  vyrelaiz,  chants 
royaux,  chansons  et  autres  telles  episseries  qui  cormmpent  le 
goust  de  notre  langue "  (Du  Bellay).  Much  also  is  made  of 
the  sonnet  as  a  desirable  lyric  form.  The  question  of  propriety 
in  poetic  diction  was  also  a  major  topic  with  the  new  school. 
Though  this  consideration  underlies  of  course  the  study  of  all 
poetic  kinds,  it  may  be  conveniently  developed  in  connection 
with  the  lyric.  Concerning  lyric  theory  proper  there  is  nothing 
in  this  century;  only  a  very  few  titles  of  contemporary  works 
lay  any  emphasis  upon  the  lyric.  See  T.  Riicktaschl,  pp.  17-28  ; 
G.  Pellissier,  L'Art  podtique  de  Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye,  pp.  XV- 
XVI,  XXVI,  L  ff.,  and  by  the  same  author,  De  Sexti  Decimi 
Saeculi  in  Francia  Artibus  Poeticis,  pp.  34-36,  72-88,  etc.; 
A.  Rosenbauer,  Chap.  Ill ;  and  P.  Villey,  Les  sources  italiennes 
de  la  "  Defense  et  illustration  de  la  langue  franchise  "  (vol.  IX 
of  the  Bibliotheque  de  la  Renaissance,  ed.  P.  De  Nolhac  and 
L.  Dorez,  Paris:  1909).  In  studying  the  criticism  of  this  school 
the  student  should  note  the  influence  of  Aristotle,  Vida,  Minturno, 
and  Scaliger,  but  especially  that  of  Horace. 

J.  Du  Bellay,  one  of  the  chief  spokesmen  of  the  Ple'iade, 
bears  witness  to  the  general  eagerness  to  substitute  imitations 
of  the  classics  for  the  old  native  forms.  The  poet,  according 


IV,  B]  FRENCH  IOI 

to  Du  Bellay's  rules,  should  cultivate  the  epic,  the  Sophoclean 
tragedy,  Horatian  satire,  the  epigram  of  Martial,  the  elegies  of 
Ovid,  Tibullus,  and%  Propertius,  and  the  Italian  sonnet  (Prefaces 
to  the  Vers  lyriques,  and  to  the  first  and  second  editions  of 
L'Olive,  1549-50;  La  defense  et  illustration  de  la  langue  fran- 
c,oise,  1549,  Chap.  IV).  For  a  reply  to  Du  Bellay,  a  defense  of 
Villon  and  the  old  lyric  forms,  and  a  witless  attack  on  sonnet 
and  elegy,  see  Aneau's  Le  Quintil  Horatien  (Saintsbury,  Hist. 
Grit,  II,  116-117).  Du  Bellay's  attacks  upon  Sibilet  and  the 
school  of  Marot  were  answered  by  Sibilet  in  the  preface  to 
his  translation  (1549)  of  the  Iphigenia  of  Euripides  and  by 
Guillaume  des  Autels  in  his  Re'plique  aux  furieuses  defenses 
de  Louis  Meigret  (Lyons :  1550).  Du  Bellay's  reply  consists 
of  the  preface  to  the  second  edition  (1550)  of  his  Olive  and  of 
two  satirical  poems  (Musagnaeomachie  and  Contre  les  envieux 
poetes)  published  along  with  the  Olive  sonnets.  J.  Pelletier's 
Art  poetique,  breathing  the  new  spirit,  appeared  in  1555.  See 
L.  M.  Gay,.  Sources  of  the  Academic  de  1'Art  Poetique  of  Pierre 
de  Deimier:  Pelletier  du  Mans  (Pub.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  XXVII, 
1912).  Ronsard,  the  head  of  the  Pleiade,  was  interested,  like 
his  followers,  in  the  musical,  or  lyrical,  effects  of  verse.  He  made 
much  of  the  Pindaric  ode,  which  he  (erroneously)  said  he  had 
introduced  into  France,  and  the  true  nature  of  which  he  under- 
stood as  little  as  did  the  other  Pindaric  innovators  of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries.  For  references,  see  below,  §  6,  vn,  G  ; 
and  add  the  important  work  by  P.  Laumonier,  Ronsard,  Poete 
lyrique  (Paris:  1909),  where  will  be  found  an  extended  discus- 
sion of  Ronsard's  Odes,  and  of  his  relation  to  the  lyric  poets 
of  his  own  time  as  well  as  to  the  French  lyric  in  general ;  see 
also  H.  Chamard,  L'Invention  de  1'ode  et  le  differend  de  Ronsard 
et  Du  Bellay  (in  Rev.  cfhist.  Hit.  de  la  fr.,  1889,  pp.  21-54)  ;  and, 
in  general,  works  on  Ronsard  and  Du  Bellay.  The  student 
may  also  consider  Laudun  d'Aigaliers  (L'Art  poe'tique  fran9ais, 
1598),  who  commented  on  ode,  virelay,  lay,  cantique,  sonnet, 
etc.,  and  invented  a  demi-sonnet.  The  final  Poetics  of  the 


102  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

Pleiade  was  written  by  Vauquelin  de  -la  Fresnaye  (Art  poetique, 
1605,  ed.  G.  Pellissier,  as  noted  above;  see  Index  under  e'kfgie, 
ode,  sonnet,  etc.):  see  the 'first  book  for  opposition  to  the  tyisseries 
and  for  praise  of  the  sonnet;  the  second  book  for  notices  of 
French  lyric  poets  and  further  praise  of  classic  forms ;  the  third 
book  for  pastoral  and  minor  kinds. 

On  the  influence  of  Francois  de  Malherbe,  1558-1628,  who 
led  the  reaction  against  the  uncritical  innovations  of  the  Pleiade, 
and  gave  an  impress  to  the  Classical  Period  of  French  poetics 
by  means  of  his  formalistic  example,  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  431—434  and  the  references  there  cited.  He  devoted  himself 
to  the  further  elaboration  of  the  lyric,  but  he  rationalized  "feeling" 
out  of  it  and  substituted  the  oratory  of  the  ode.  May  Malherbe's 
criticism  be  regarded  as  descending  from  older  writers,  especially 
Pelletier  du  Mans?  See  F.  Brunot,  La  doctrine  de  Malherbe 
(Paris:  1891),  and  the  article  by  L.  M.  Gay,  noted  above. 

C.  Seventeenth  Century. 

On  the  general  trend  of  poetics  in  this  period  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  431-436 ;  Brunetiere,  L'Evolution  des  genres,  etc.,  vol.  I  L'Evolution 
de  la  critique  depuis  la  Renaissance  jusqu'a  nos  jours,  pp.  14-16  and 
Chaps.  II-IV  (3d  ed.  Paris:  1898);  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  vol.  II, 
Bk.  V,  Chap.  I ;  A.  Bourgoin,  Les  maitres  de  la  critique  au  XVIIe 
siecle  (Paris  :  1 889 ;  Chapelain,  Saint-Evremond,  Boileau,  La  Bruyere, 
Fdnelon) ;  F.  Vial  and  L.  Denise,  Ide'es  et  doctrines  litte'raires .  du 
XVI Ie  siecle  (Paris:  1906).  Quadrio  and  Blankenburg  have  been 
mentioned  above.  On  the  "  Ancient  and  Modern  Quarrel "  see  Gayley 
and  Scott,  405-406,  435  ;  Rigault,  as  mentioned  below,  §  8  ;  Brunetiere, 
op.  tit.,  Chap.  IV. 

All  seventeenth-century,  and  most  eighteenth-century,  criticism 
of  the  lyric  is  dominated  by  attention  to  the  pseudo-classical 
ode,  and,  in  less  degree,  the  sonnet.  The  nature  of  this  pre- 
occupation is  of  the  narrow,  rule-giving  sort,  and  the  rules  are 
in  themselves  conventionally  superficial  and  trite.  Boileau's 
criticism  is  of  course  typical.  In  his  Art  poetique  (1674) 
and  his  Discours  sur  1'ode  (1693)  he  rings  the  changes  on 


IV,  D]  FRENCH  103 

the  striking,  impetuous,  sublime  character  and  beau  desordre 
of  the  ode,  and  upon  the  inspired  nature  of  the  Pindaric  poet, 
who  is  guided  more  by  the  demon  of  poetry  than  by  reason.  But 
beyond  a  few  glowing  phrases  in  commendation  of  the  form,  and 
a  few  manly  expostulations  with  the  smooth  imitators  of  Tibullus, 
there  is  little  to  guide  the  historian  save  detailed  analyses  and 
appreciations  of  diction,  figures,  and  the  like, — which  apply  to 
poetry  in  general  and  tell  nothing  of  the  inner  nature  of  the 
lyric  as  a  distinctive  type.  Cf.  S.  J.  Delaporte,  L'Art  poetique 
de  Boileau  commente  par  ses  contemporains  (Lille :  1888) ;  for 
references  on  Boileau  see  below,  §  8.  This  is  the  century 
of  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Quarrel,  and  of  course  the  lyric 
was  occasionally  mentioned  in  this  battle  of  books.  In  Boileau's 
Reflexions  critiques  sur  .  .  .  Longin  will  be  found  a  defense  of 
Pindar  against  the  assaults  of  the  modern,  Perrault,  along  with 
Perrault's  answer  (CEuvres  de  Boileau,  4  vols.  Amsterdam:  1735. 
Vol.  III).  But  the  main  business  of  seventeenth-century  criticism 
was  with  the  epic  and  drama.  The  position  of  the  lyric  may  well 
be  inferred  from  the  small  place  given  to  it  by  Fontenelle  in  his 
Description  de  1'empire  de  la  poe'sie  (1678).  La  Fontaine,  in 
his  £pitre  a  Huet,  1687,  observes  :  "  L'ode  qui  baisse  un  peu  / 
Veut  de  la  patience,  et  nos  gens  ont  du  feu."  The  student 
should  also  consider  the  preciosity-quarrel  begun  by  Voiture's 
sonnet  to  Uranie ;  in  which  connection  see  Balzac,  Remarques 
su>r  les  deux  sonnets  d'Uranie  et  de  Job  (CEuvres.  1665.  Vol.  II). 
Other  typical  material  may  be  found  in  A.  Dacier's  Remarques 
critiques  sur  les  ceuvres  d'Horace,  avec  une  nouvelle  traduction 
(7  vols.  Paris:  1683-1697).  See  also  Madame  Dacier's  trans- 
lation of  Anacreon  and  Sappho  (1681). 

D.  Eighteenth  Century. 

On  the  general  trend  of  criticism  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  436-439 ; 
Brunetiere,  L'fivolution  des  genres,  etc.,  vol.  I  L'fivolution  de  la  critique 
depuis  la  Renaissance  jusqu'a  nos  jours,  Chap.  V  (3d  ed.  Paris  :  1 898) ; 
Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  vol.11,  Bk.  V,  Chap.  I,,  and  Bk.  VI,  Chap.  II, 
and  vol.  Ill,  Bk.  VII,  Chap.  IV;  £.  Faguet,  Dix-huitieme  siecle,  etc. 


104  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

(7th  ed.  Paris:  1890);  E.  Egger,  L'Hellenisme  en  France  (2  vols. 
Paris :  1 869) ;  Quadrio  and  Blankenburg,  as  noted  above,  §  2.  From 
the  last  two,  especially  the  latter,  may  be  exhumed  the  titles  of  treatises 
all  but  forgotten.  Another  useful  guide  is  Vial  et  Denise,  I  dees  et 
doctrines  litteraires  du  XVIII6  siecle  (Paris:  1909). 

Boileau's  estimate  of  the  ode  persists  with  but  slight  modifica- 
tion. The  critics  of  the  century  are  almost  a  unit  in  their  praise 
of  the  ode  as  specifically  the  poem  of  genius  and  inspiration,  and 
in  meticulously  insisting  that  the  inspirational  enthusiasm  must 
after  all  be  a  reasonable  enthusiasm.  The  beau  desordre  must  in 
itself  be  the  effect  of  a  hidden  plan.  Houdar  de  Lamotte  finds 
inspiration  a  sufficient  definition  of  lyric  enthusiasm.  It  remained 
for  another  century  to  inaugurate  a  new  epoch  of  lyric  criticism 
by  regarding  this  rather  mythical  '  inspiration '  more  wisely  and 
analyzing  it  as  a  subjective  phenomenon.  Lamotte  expatiates 
upon  the  sublimity  of  diction  and  subject  necessary  to  the  ode ; 
of  the  beau  desordre  he  writes :  "  J'entends  par  ce  beau  desordre, 
une  suite  de  pense'es  liees  entre  elles  par  un  rapport  commun  k 
la  meme  matiere,  mais  affranchies  des  liaisons  grammaticales  et 
de  ces  transitions  scrupuleuses  qui  enerventr  la  poe'sie  lyrique 
et  lui  font  perdre  meme  toute  sa  grice  "  (Discours  sur  la  poesie  en 
general  et  sur  1'ode  en  particulier,  in  Les  Odes,  1707 ;  this  Discours 
and  the  Reponse  k  M.  Despreaux  may  be  found  in  B.  Jullien,  Les 
Paradoxes  litteraires  de  Lamotte,  etc.,  Paris:  1859,  pp.  78-120; 
see  also  the  Odes  et  autres  ouvrages,  1711,  —  L'Enthousiasn\e, 
vol.  II ;  also,  L'Ode  de  M.  de  la  Faille  mise  en  prose,  in  CEuvres 
de  theatre,  vol.  II,  1730  ;  cf.  below,  §  9,  vi,  c).  J.  B.  Rousseau 
regards  the  ode  as  "  le  ve'ritable  champ  du  sublime  et  du  pathetique, 
qui  sont  les  deux  grands  ressorts  de  la  poesie,"  and  cites  the 
Psalms  of  David  as  the  noblest  examples  of  this  sublimity  (CEuvres 
Diverses.  1712.  Pre'face).  Montesquieu,  the  literary  noncon- 
formist, is  unique  in  his  scorn  of  the  lyric  as  "  une  harmbnieuse 
extravagance  "  (cf.  below,  §  9,  vi,  c,  Dargan,  p.  107).  E.  Lebrun 
insists  upon  the  necessity  of  genius  (Reflexions  sur  le  gdnie  de  1'ode. 
1 736).  See  also  Antoine  Godeau  on  the  Ode  (in  the  Bibliotheque 


iv,  D]  'FRENCH  105 

Poetique,  etc.,  Ed.,  A.  C.  Lefort  de  la  Mariniere,  4  vols.  1745). 
L.  J.  B.  Mancini-Mazarini,  due  de  Nivernais,  in  1743  wrote  a 
dissertation  on  the  elegy  (Ed.,  Didot,  II,  259-290),  discussing 
Boileau's  definition  of  this  genre,  limiting  the  elegy  to  erotic 
subjects,  inveighing  against  funereal  subjects,  recognizing  the 
elegiacal  in  the  troubadours,  and  preferring  Tibullus  to  Ovid. 
Compare  the  article  on  Tibullus  by  Lebrun-Pindare,  1763  (CEuv. 
Comp.  IV,  394-395),  and  an  Essai  sur  la  poesie  erotique,  pub- 
lished in  1780,  with  the  Les  Amours,  fileg.  en  III  livres  of  Flies 
des  Oliviers.  Vauvenargues  calls  the  ode  "  une  espece  de  delire  " 
(CEuvres,  Ed.,  D.  L.  Gilbert,  1857,  pp.  279-280  ;  cf.  Gilbert's  note, 
p.  157).  Le  Franc  de  Pompignan  has  something  to  say  on  the. 
beauty  of  rhyme  and  harmony  in  the  ode,  —  rhyme  being  an  adorn- 
ment to  the  ode  commonly  insisted  upon  at  this  time  (Discours 
prononce  dans  1'Academie  de  Montauban,  le  25  aout,  1747). 
D'Alembert  is  not  satisfied  with  the  ordinary  "  rules "  for  the 
ode,  —  the  usual  desiderata,  such  as  inspiration  and  sublimity. 
There  are  successful  odes  of  many  and  even  opposite  kinds,  he 
says :  the  one  great  rule,  "  c'est  de  n'etre  ni  froids  ni  ennuyeux  " 
(Reflexions  sur  la  poesie,  1760,  and  Reflexions  sur  1'ode,  1762, 
—  both  in  the  CEuvres  philosophiques,'  historiques  et  litteraires, 
18  vols.,  Paris:  1805,  vol.  IV).  J.  B.  Gossart's  Discours  sur 
la  poesie  lyrique,  avec  les  modeles  du  genre,  tires  de  Pindare, 
d'Anacreon,  de  Sappho,  etc.,  was  published  in  1761.  The  author 
would  lay  down  the  rules  of  the  Pindaric  ode,  not  in  order  to 
make  poets  but  to  show  young  people  how  the  great  writers 
of  odes  have  gone  to  work.  Two  sorts  of  odes  are  noted,  the 
anacreontic  and  the  philosophical.  Without  genius,  no  Pindarics! 
But  this  genius  must  be  regulated  by  art,  and  this  regulation 
pertains  to  the*  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  the  ode,  and  to  the 
nature  and  rendering  of  thought  and  feeling.  The  work  is  a  good 
example  of  formal  criticism.  In  1763  appeared  M.  A.  Bouchard's 
Essai  sur  la  poesie  rhythmique.  Voltaire  regards  the  ode  as 
consecrated  to  Exageration.  Consider  his  statement :  "  Aussi 
plus  une  nation  devient  philosophe,  plus  les  odes  a  enthousiasme, 


106  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

et  qui  n'apprennent  rien  aux  hommes,  perdent  de  leur  prix " 
(Dictionnaire  Philosophique,  1764,  Art.  Exageration ;  see  also 
the  articles  on  art,  poetry,  literature,  song,  enthusiasm,  and  allied 
topics).  F.  J.  de  Chastellux's  Essai  sur  1'union  de  la  poe'sie  et 
de  la  musique  belongs  to  the  year  1765  ;  see  p.  161  ff.  for  an 
example  of  the  confusion  of  poetry  and  music.  In  vol.  XII, 
1765,  of  the  Encyclopedic  will  be  found  an  article  on  the  Poeme 
Lyrique ;  the  articles  dealing  with  the  Ode  are  in  vols.  IX  and 
XI,  1765  ;  and  in  the  Suppl.  vol.  IV,  1777.  See  J.  Rocafort,  Des 
doctrines  litteraires  de  1' Encyclopedic,  p.  154  ff.,  chiefly  on  the  ode 
(Paris:  1890).  Diderot's  Re'flexions  sur  1'ode  belong  to  1770. 
,The  author  explains  that  the  ode  is  a  rare  form  because  it  pre- 
supposes in  the  poet  two  almost  incompatible  qualities :  "  un 
profond  jugement  dans  Fordonnance,  et  une  muse  violente  dans 
1'execution."  Cf.  J.  M.  B.  Cle'ment's  Lettres  k  M.  de  Voltaire 
(4  vols.,  1773-76).  Marmontel  has  little  theory  in  his  article 
Lyrique,  but  a  comparatively  full  account  of  the  ode  will  be 
found  in  the  article  devoted  to  it ;  see  also  Hymne  and 
Chanson  (filaments  de  litterature,  6  vols.,  1787,  —  a  reprint  of 
earlier  articles  contributed  to  the  Encyclopedic).  See  also  an 
essay  by  J.  F.  de  La  Harpe,  De  la  poesie  lyrique  des  Anciens 
et  des  Mbdernes  (in  Mercure,  April,  1772,  and  vol.  IV  of  the 
author's  CEuvres,  6  vols.,  Paris  :  1779).  To  this  century  belongs 
also  the .  Poeme  de  PInvention  of  Andre  de  Chenier,  though  it 
was  not  published  till  later ;  its  text  is  in  the  verse  "  Sur  de  pensers 
nouveaux  faisons  des  vers  antiques."  Other  essays  on  the  ode 
by  Charl.  Roy,  Remond  de  St.  Hard,  Sabatier,  Val.  de  Rehengac, 
and  Domairon,  mentioned  by  Blankenburg  2  :  430,  we  have  not 

been  able  to  consult. 

• 
E.   The  Nineteenth  Century.- 

On  the  general  critical  trend  of  the  period  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  439-445.  See  especially  Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  Crit.,  vol.  Ill;  Bab- 
bitt's Masters  of  Modern  French  Criticism  (Boston  and  N.Y. :  1912); 
Brunetiere's  L'Evolution  de  la  critique,  etc. :  and  Pellissier's  Lit.  Move- 
ment in  France  during  the  igth  Century  (Eng.  trans.,  N.Y.  and  Lond. : 


IV,  E]  FRENCH  IO/ 

1897).  A.  F.  Michiels'  Hist,  des  ide"es  litt.  en  France  au  XIXe  siecle, 
etc.  (3d  ed.  2  vols.  Bruxelles :  1 848)  is  a  very  readable  work,  distin- 
guished by  the  breadth  and  inspiration  of  the  author's  view  of  literary 
development.  For  lists  of  critics  of  the  period  s£e  p.  395  ff.  of  Babbitt's 
work  just  mentioned ;  the  bibliographical  sections  of  A.  van  Bever  and 
P.  Le"autaud,  Poetes  d'aujourd'hui  1880-1900  (igth  ed.  2  vols.  Paris: 
igpS),  and  G.  Walch,  Anthologie  des  poetes  frangais  contemporains 
1866-1906  (3  vols.  Paris:  1906-07);  the  footnotes  in  Brunetiere's 
L'Evolution  de  la  poe"sie  lyrique  en  France  au  ige  siecle  (2d  ed.  2  vols. 
Paris :  1 895).  Further  aid  in  constructing  such  lists  is  offered  by  the 
works  cited  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  77-78,  439-445.  In  general,  the 
student  will  naturally  turn  to  works  and  articles  dealing  with  the  chief 
lyrists  of  the  time,  such  as  Andre*  Chdnier,  Lamartine,  Hugo,  Alfred  de 
Musset,  Alfred  de  Vigny,  Gautier,  Leconte  de  Lisle,  Heredia,  Prudhomme, 
Coppe"e,  Henri  de  Regnier,  Paul  Verlaine,  and  others. 

The  development  of  French  criticism  in  general  during  this 
century  is  characterized  by  a  liberation  from  the  negative  '  rules ' 
of  the  previous  age,  due  to  the  romantic  fecundation  of  mind  and 
emotion ;  and  by  the  advent  of  the  scientific-historical  method. 

Rousseau,  Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  and  Chateaubriand,  in  the 
previous  century  and  the  beginning  of  this,  were  largely  responsible 
for  the  spirit  of  liberation  that  eventually  broke  down  the  '  rule ' 
system  of  poetics ;  but  Madame  de  Stael  expressed  with  no  less 
force  and  with  a  deeper  realization  of  the  relativity  of  literature 
to  history,  environment,  and  race,  the  protest  against  the  former 
negative  system.  In  her  De  PAllemagne  (see  below)  she  makes 
this  protest  in  the  name  of  the  northern  literatures.  The  student 
should  study  her  utterances  to  determine  their  affinity  with  lyric 
idealism  as  well  as  their  actual  contribution  to  the  theory  of  a  free 
and  natural  lyricism.  Under  the  romanticists  the  personal  character 
of  the  lyric  is  developed  in  practice  and  is  critically  recognized  as 
a  distinguishing  feature  of  the  type ;  henceforth  the  term  '  lyric ' 
is  almost  synonymous  with  poetic  inspiration,  with  spontaneity 
of  emotional  and  imaginative  genius  (cf.  Jouffroy,  above,  §  2). 
La  Harpe  has  been  called  a  precursor  of  the  historical  method  of 
criticism, — of  criticism  that  seeks  to  relate  an  author's  work  to  his 
environment,  to  find  a  key  to  his  work  in  the  movements  of  his 


108  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

time,  to  study  the  individual  author  in  his  social  relations.  But 
La  Harpe  was  much  of  a  formalist.  In  this  century,  however, 
Villemain,  Sainte-Beuve,  Taine,  Brunetiere,  and  a  host  of  others 
undertook  this  species  of  evaluation ;  and  by  far  the  greater 
amount  of  the  criticism  —  learned  and  other  —  of  the  present 
day  is  of  this  sort.  Such  studies  must  be  considered  in  later 
sections,  under  the  history  of  the  lyric  (§§  4-6).  Incidental,  how- 
ever, to  the  general  historical  aim  there  occur,  of  course,  many 
statements  of  a  theoretical  nature,  to  be  gathered  from  the  mass 
of  historical  essays,  —  a  task  by  no  means  light,  and,  once  per- 
formed, redundant  with  results  fragmentary  and  unsystematic 
in  character.  Below  are  suggested  a  few  of  the  more  general 
treatises  available  for  this  purpose.  In  §  6,  vn,  j  the  student 
will  find  a  list  of  works  dealing  primarily  with  particular  lyric 
poets  of  this  age.  The  scarcity  of  works  devoted  wholly  to  the 
theory  of  the  lyric  is  noteworthy,  and  stands  in  contrast  to  the 
fullness  of  the  lyric  expression  of  the  century.  Such  works  have 
already  been  noted  (§2). 

But  while  the  scientific-historical  movement  has  dominated  the 
poetics  of  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  and  the  opening  years 
of  the  twentieth  century,  it  has  had  many  ramifications  and  kinds; 
and  each  succeeding  wave  of  literary  fashion  has  been  represented 
by  new  variations  in  criticism.  The  influence  of  the  Parnassians 
and  Naturalists,  the  classical  reactionaries,  the  Symbolists  and 
Decadents,  upon  lyric  theory  yet  remains  to  be  assayed  (compare 
Brunetiere,  Involution  de  la  poe'sie  lyrique,  etc.,  vol.  I,  Chaps,  i, 
iv,  viii ;  II,  xii,  xv).  The  turning  of  criticism  into  literary  psy- 
chology (see,  e.g.,  Bourget  and  Faguet)  is  a  particularly  interest- 
ing departure,  and  one  that  may  throw  much  light  on  the  nature 
of  the  lyric.  The  pseudo-scientific  theories  of  Hennequin,  Texte's 
"  revival  of  the  comparative  or  cosmopolitan  idea  advocated  by 
Rousseau,  and  adopted  by  Madame  de  Stae'l,"  Tarde's  expansion 
of  the  laws  of  imitation,  and  many  other  more  or  less  scientific 
and  historical  methods  deserve  careful  consideration  with  a  view 
to  their  applicability  to  the  study  of  the  lyric.  In  many  cases  the 


IV,  E]  FRENCH  109 

student  will  have  to  make  the  application  for  himself,  since  there 
has  often  been  a  failure  to  substantiate  theory  by  analysis  and 
illustration  in  the  concrete.  Indeed,  in  some  of  the  more  general 
works  listed  below  there  is  but  slight  reference  to  the  lyric,  and 
occasionally  nothing  that  would  at  first  blush  appear  to  bear 
specifically  upon  the  poetics  of  the  type. 

The  following  references  are  by  no  means  exhaustive.  —  Madame  de 
Stael,  De  la  litte'rature,  etc.  (2  vols.  1800),  De  PAllemagne  (1810, 
1813),  — -passim,  and  II  Chap.  X  in  the  latter.  V.  Hugo,  prefaces 
to  the  various  editions  of  Odes  et  Ballades  (1822,  '24,  '26,  '28,  '53). 
C.  H.  Millevoye,  in  a  Discours  sur  1'ele'gie  which  was  first  printed  by 
his  editors  in  1822,  submits  the  opinion  that  the  elegy  corresponds 
to  a  universal  human  need,  viz.,  melancholy,  solitude,  tendresse,  and 
so  is  always  found  to  exist;  but  what  constitutes  its  essence  is  not 
always  found  in  so-called  '  elegies,'  and,  on  the  other  hand,  its  essence 
is  not  seldom  present  in  poems  that  are  not  classed  as  elegies.  J.  J. 
Ampere,  De  1'hist.  de  la  poe'sie  (1830),  and  many  other  historical  works. 
Mgr.  Cruice,  Etudes  litt.  sur  1'apologue,  la  poe'sie  lyrique,  la  poesie 
dpique  chez  les  Franijais,  les  Anglais,  les  Allemands,  les  Italiens  et 
les  Espagnols,  et  sur  la  poe'sie  he"bra'ique  et  la  poesie  orientale  (Paris : 
1840).  A.  Lamartine,  Des  destinees  de  la  poe'sie  (1834),  Cours  fa- 
milier  de  litt.  (28  vols.  1856-69).  P.  B.  de  Barante,  Melanges  (3  vols. 
1835),  Etudes  (1858).  G.  Planche,  Portraits  litteraires  (2  vols.  1836), 
Nouveaux  portraits  litt.  (2  vols.  1854),  etc.  D.  Nisard,  Hist,  de  la 
litt.  franchise  (4  vols.  1 844-6 1 ),  Etudes  sur  la  renaissance  (1855),  Etudes 
de  critique  littdraire  (1858),  Etudes  d'histoire  et  de  litt.  (1859),  Nouvelles 
e"tudes,  etc.  (1864),  Melanges,  etc.  (1868),  Nouveaux  melanges,  etc. 
(1886),  Portraits  et  etudes  d'hist.  litt.  (1874),  Essais  sur  1'dcole  roman- 
tique  (1891).  Nisard  represents  a  reaction  against  the  liberal  movement: 
he  is  "  idealistic  and  didactic  "  in  method.  H.  Blaze  de  Bury,  Les 
e"crivains  et  poetes  modernes  de  I'Allemagne  (2  vols.  1846),  Les  dcri- 
vains  modernes  de  1'Allemagne  (1868).  V.  de  Laprade,  Le  genie 
litte'raire  de  la  France  (1848),  Hist,  du  sentiment  de  la  nature  (1883), 
etc.  A.  R.  Vinet,  Etudes  sur  la  litt.  fr.  au  xixe  siecle  (3  vols.  1 849), 
etc.  A.  A.  Cuvellier-Fleury,  various  studies.  A.  de  Pontmartin, 
Causeries  litte'raires  (i  854),  and  a  long  list  of  Causeries  litt.  and  Semaines 
litt.  J.  Janin,  Critiques,  portraits  et  caracteres  contemporains  (1859), 
CEuvres  Diverses  (12  vols.  1876-78),  etc.  A.  F.  Villemain,  Essais 
sur  le  ge'nie  de  Pindare  et  sur  la  poe'sie  lyrique  (1859)  —  see  also 


110  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§3 

incidental  references  to  lyric  in  his  Cours  de  litt.  fr.  (6  vols.  1 840-46),  and 
in  other  works.  J.  A.  Barbey  D'Aurevilly,  Les  oeuvres  et  les  hommes 
du  xixe  siecle  (i  7  vols.  1861-99).  A.  F.  Nettement,  Poetes  et  artistes 
contemporains  (1862).  H.  A.  Taine,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  anglaise  (5  vols. 
1 863-67).  E.  H.  A.  Scherer,  Etudes  critiques  sur  la  litt.  contemporaine 
(10  vols.  1863-95),  Etudes  sur  la  litt.  au  xviiie  siecle  (i  891).  P.  Albert, 
La  Poe'sie  (Paris:  1869;  ne  ed.,  1907),  p.  147  ff.,  —  a  popular  and 
superficial  account  of  the  chief  lyric  periods  and  poets ;  other  works 
by  the  same  author.  P.  Gaudin,  Du  Rondeau,  du  Triolet,  du  Sonnet 
(Paris:  1870).  E.  M.  Caro,  articles  on  the  relation  of  modern  science 
and  philosophy  to  poetry  (Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  \  874,  1878).  T.  Gautier, 
Portraits  et  souvenirs  litte"raires  (1875),  Hist,  du  romantisme  (1874), 
Portraits  contemporains  (1874).  R.  G.  E.  Taillandier,  Les  destinies 
de  la  nouvelle  poesie  provengale  (1876).  A.  Croiset,  La  poe'sie  de 
Pindare  et  les  lois  du  lyrisme  Grec  (1880).  F.  Brunetiere,  Etudes 
critiques  (8  vols.  1880-1907),  Histoire  et  litterature  (3  vols.  1884-86), 
Questions  de  critique  (1889),  Nouvelles  questions  de  critique  (1890), 
L'Evolution  des  genres,  Involution  de  la  critique  (1890),  L'E volution 
de  la  poe'sie  lyrique  en  France  au  xixe  siecle  (2  vols.  1894),  Essais  sur 
la  litt.  contemporaine  (1892),  Nouveaux  essais  (1895),  Manuel  de  1'hist. 
de  la  litt.  fr.  (1897),  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  classique  (2  vols.  1905). 
P.  Bourget,  Essais  de  psychologic  contemporaine  (1883),  Nouveaux 
essais  (1885);  Etudes  et  portraits  (2  vols.  1888,  3d  vol.,  1906),  Pages 
de  critique  et  de  doctrine  (1912).  E.  Monte"gut,  Nos  morts  contem- 
porains (2  vols.  1883-84),  and  various  works  on  contemporary  French 
literature.  E.  Faguet,  Les  grands  maitres  au  xviie  siecle  (1885),  Etudes 
litt.  du  xixe  siecle  (1887),  Etudes  litt.  du  xviie  siecle  (1890),  Etudes  litt. 
du  xvie  siecle  (1893).  J.  Lemaitre,  Les  Contemporains  (7  vols.  1885- 
99).  E.  Eire,  Portraits  litt.  (1888),  Causeries  litt.  (1889),  etc.,  etc.,  in- 
cluding works  on  Victor  Hugo,  as  noted  below,  §  6,  vn,  j.  A.  France, 
La  vie  litteraire  (4  vols.  1888-94),  etc.  E.  Rod,  Etudes  sur  le  xixe 
siecle  (1888),  etc.  G.  Renard,  Les  princes  de  la  jeune  critique  (1890), 
Critique  de  combat  (3  vols.  1894-97),  etc.  G.  Pellissier,  Le  mouve- 
ment  litteraire  au  xixe  siecle  (1889),  Essais  de  litt.  contemporaine  (1893), 
Nouveajux  essais,  etc.  (1895),  Etudes  de  litt.  contemp.  (1898),  Le 
mouvement  litt.  contemp.  (1901),  Etudes  de  litt.  et  de  morale  contemp. 
(1905),  Le  re*alisme  du  romantisme  (191  2).  J.  Combarieu,  Theories 
du  rythme,  etc.  (Paris:  1897),  with  which  compare  the  same  author's 
Les  rapports  de  la  musique  et  de  la  poe'sie,  etc.  (Paris :  ,  1 894). 
R.  Doumic,  La  Podtique  nouvelle,  in  Les  Jeunes  (Paris:  1896), — 
idealism  and  dreams  at  the  base  of  the  new  poetics,  in  a  word, 


V,  A]  ENGLISH  1 1 1 

symbolism.  J.  Texte,  Etudes  de  litt.  europe"enne  (Paris :  1898).  R.  de 
Sousa,  La  poe'sie  populaire  et  le  lyrisme  sentimental  (2d  ed.  Paris :  1 899), 
a  rather  feverish  defense  of  present-day  French  lyric  poetry  (Lyrisme 
sentimental);  the  author  maintains  that  this  poetry  is  thoroughly  natural 
in  its  impulse  and  expression,  and  that  therein  it  is  similar  to  popular 
•poetry.  Sully  Prudhomme,  Testament  poetique  (Paris:  1901),  a  col- 
lection of  utterances  of  various  dates,  giving  expression  to  a  present-day 
conception  of  the  nature  and  function  of  poetry,  with  many  statements 
bearing  upon  .the  lyric.  R.  Doumic,  Hommes  et  ide"es  du'xixe  siecle 
(1903).  See  also  the  French  critics  of  this  period  as  cited  above,  §  2, 
and  below,  §§  5,  6. 

V.  English. 

For  general  reviews  of  English  criticism  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  383-422 ;  Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  Crit.  (3  vols.),  Hist,  of  English 
Criticism  (Lond.:  1911)  —  a  separate  reprint  of  the  chapters  on  English 
criticism  in  the  larger  Hist,  of  Crit. ;  Vaughan's  English  Literary  Criticism 
(Lond. :  1 896) ;  L.  J.  Wylie's  Studies  in  the  Evolution  of  English  Criti- 
cism (Boston:  1894);  R.  P.  Cowl,  The  Theory  of  Poetry  in  England, 
i6th  to  i  gth  centuries  (Lond.:  1914);  G.  M.  Miller,  The  Historical 
Point  of  View  in  English  Literary  Criticism  from  1570-1770  (in 
Anglistische  Forschungen,  No.  35.  1913).  . 

A.  Sixteenth  Century. 

For  Renaissance  and  Elizabethan  criticism  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
p.  383  ff.,  496  ff. ;  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  vol.  II,  Bk.  IV,  Chap.  V; 
J.  F.  Spingarn,  Hist.  Lit.  Crit.  in  Renaissance  (N.Y. :  1899),  p.  253  ff. ; 
F.  E.  Schelling,  Poetic  and  Verse  Criticism  of  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth 
(Philadelphia :  1891) ;  G.  A.  Thompson,  Elizabethan  Criticism  of  Poetry 
(Diss.,  Univ.  of  Chicago,  Menasha,  Wis. :  1914);  J.  Routh,  The  Clas- 
sical Rule  of  Law  in  Eng.  Crit.  of  the  i6th  and  1 7th  Cents,  (in  Jr.  Eng. 
and  Germ.  Phil.,  12  :  612.  1913);  P.  Sheavyn,  The  Literary  Profession 
in  the  Elizabethan  Age  (Manchester:  1909).  See  also  Blankenburg,  as 
noted  above,  §  2.  —  Many  of  the  texts  may  be  found  in  :  J.  Haslewood's 
Ancient  Critical  Essays  upon  English  Poets  and  Poesy  (2  vols.  Lond. : 
1811-15);  G.  G.  Smith's  Elizabethan  Critical  Essays  (2  vols.  Oxford: 
1 904) ;  Arber's  Reprints ;  Egerton  Brydges'  Censuria  Literaria. 

Elizabethan  usage  of  the  term  '  lyric '  always  connotes  musical 
quality  or  accompaniment,  not  subjective  quality.  Notices  of  the 
type  are  few,  naive,  and  mostly  abusive  or  defensive.  Ascham 


112  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§3 

(The  Schoolmaster,  1570;  see  Smith,  Elizabethan  Critical  Essays, 
vol.  I,  p.  23)  notes  melic  poetry  as  the  fourth  kind  of  poetry. 
George  Gascoigne  (Certaine  Notes  of  Instruction,  in  the  Posies 
of  George  Gascoigne,  etc.,  1575  ;  see  Smith,  vol.  I)  has  some 
brief  notes  on  rhyme  royal,  ballade,  sonnet,  etc. ;  cf.  Schelling's 
essay  on  Gascoigne,  mentioned  elsewhere.  The  Letters  of 
Spenser  and  Gabriel  Harvey  on  Reformed  Versifying,  etc.,  1579— 
80,  are  reprinted  by  Smith.  For  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  see  below,  §  4. 
William  Webbe  criticizes  severely  makers  of  ballads,  ale-house 
songs,  sonnets,  and  "  potticall "  poets  in  general  (A  Discourse  of 
English  Poetrie,  1586);  and  similar  to  this  abuse  of  the  popular 
lyric  is  a  passage  by  Thomas  Nash  on  songs,  sonnets,  and  the 
"  rednose  Fidler "  (see  the  abstract  from  The  Anatomic  of 
Absurdity,  1589,  in  Smith,  I,  321  ff.).  The  student  should  notice 
the  confusion  in  these  extracts  of  the  sonnet  with  ale-house  songs  ; 
it  is  a  part  of  the  critical  confusion  of  the  time.  Puttenham 
mentions  the  lyric  as  a  song  intended  to  be  sung  with  musical 
accompaniment,  and  believes  that  "  hymnes  to  the  gods  was  the 
first  forme  of  Boesie  and  the  highest  and  the  statliest,  and  they 
were  sung  by  the  Poets  as  priests,  and  by  the  people  or  whole 
congregation,  as  we  sing  in  our  Churches  the  Psalmes  of  Dauid, 
but  they  did  it  commonly  in  some  shadie  groues  of  tall  tymber 
trees  "  (The  Arte  of  English  Poesie,  1589,  Lib.  I,  Chaps.  XI-XII; 
see  Smith,  II,  26-31).  Throughout  the  three  books  of  the  Arte 
are  scattered  brief  references  to  "  odes,  songs,  elegies,  ballads, 
sonets  and  other  ditties,"  to  encomia,  epithalamies,  genethliaca, 
epitaphs,  epigrams,  etc.  (see  especially  the  enumeration  of  kinds 
in  the  last  sixteen  chapters  of  Lib.  I) ;  the  note  on  Ronsard's  Pin- 
darics and  the  English  translation  of  them  (Lib.  Ill,  Chap.  XXII) 
is  of  historical  interest.  Bishop  Joseph  Hall  satirizes  "  the  false 
and  foolish  compliments  of  the  sonnet  writer "  (Virgidemiarum, 
1597-98  ;  see  Bk.  I,  No.  vii).  Meres,  1598,  informs  us  (Smith, 
II,  319)  that  the  best  English  lyric  poets  are  said  to  be  Spenser, 
Daniel,  Drayton,  Shakespeare,  Breton.  The  critical  notices  are  as 
meagre  as  the  poetry  is  plentiful  1 


V,  B]  ENGLISH  113 

B.  Seventeenth  Century. 

On  1 7th  century  criticism  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  392  ff. ;  Saintsbury, 
Hist.  Crit.,  vol.  Ill,  Bk.  VII,  Chap.  Ill ;  J.  E.  Spingarn,  Critical  Essays 
of  the  1 7th  Century  (3  vols.  Oxford:  1908-1909;  see  the  Introd.  to 
vol.1);  P.  Hamelius,  Die  Kritik  in  der  englischen  Lit.  d.  17.  u.  18. 
Jahrhs.  (Leipz..:  1897);  Routh,  Wylie,  Vaughan,  and  Blankenburg  as 
noted  above.  —  The  texts  will  be  found  for  the  most  part  in  Spingarn's 
work,  as  just  noted. 

In  view  of  the  richness  of  the  lyric  production  of  this  century, 
the  paucity  of  lyric  criticism  is  noticeable.  The  greatest  critic  of 
the  period,  Dryden,  has  very  little  to  say  concerning  the  type,  and 
that  of  no  moment  (see  Works,  Ed.  by  Malone,  II,  46-50,  and 
cf.  F.  E.  Schelling,  Seventeenth  Century  Lyrics,  pp.  xxv— xxvi).  In 
critical  estimation  the  lyric  is  always  subordinated  to  the  other 
kinds ;  indeed,  it  is  hardly  recognized  as  a  sort  to  be  taken 
account  of  in  distinction  from  epic  and  drama.  Personal  sub- 
jectivity is  not  yet  realized  as  a  lyric  trait,  and  what  distinction 
there  is,  is  made  according  to  subject  matter.  Scaliger  affords  the 
critical  bases,  and  Horace  is  regarded  as  the  lyrist  par  excellence. 
All  notices  are  very  brief.  Thomas  Campion  indites  the  follow- 
ing :  "  Ditties  or  Odes ;  which  we  may  call  Lyricall,  because  thay 
are  apt  to  be  sung  to  an  instrument,  if  they  were  adorn'd  with 
convenient  notes  "  (Observations  in  the  Art  of  English  Poesie, 
1602,  Chaps.  VII,  IX;  Smith,  II,  346  ff.).  Peacham  mentions 
the  lyric  in  passing,  assigning  its  subject  as  natural  and  moral 
philosophy  !  Horace  he  holds  highest  of  Greek  and  Latin  lyrists. 
Following  Scaliger  he  believes  that  the  style  of  Horace  is  more 
accurate  and  sententious  than  that  of  Pindar  (The  Compleat 
Gentleman,  1622  ;  see  Spingarn,  Critical  Essays  of  the  i7th 
Century,  vol.  I,  pp.  117,  127).  Hobbes,  like  Bacon  (see  above, 
§  2),  assigns  no  independent  category  to  lyrics,  which  he  regards 
as  "  but  essayes  and  parts  of  an  entire  poem  "  (for  Hobbes,  see 
below,  §  8).  Cowley,  creator  of  the  pseudo-Pindaric  ode  (but 
see  Ronsard's  Pindaric  experiments,  a  century  earlier),  holds  that 
the  ode  is  the  boldest  and  most  irregular  form  of  the  lyric  (Preface 


114  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

to  Poems,  1656;  Spingarn,  II,  86;  see  also  Cowley's  Ode,  The 
Resurrection).  Sprat,  in  his  Life  and  Writings  of  Cowley  (1668), 
defends  the  irregularities  of  the  Cowleyan  ode  on  the  ground  of 
its  near  affinity  with  prose :  "  The  practice  of.  it  will  only  exalt, 
not  corrupt  our  Prose"  (see  Spingarn,  II,  131-132).  Edward 
Phillips  notices  the  subject  of  the  lyric  as  "  Love,'  or  other  the 
most  soft  and  delightfull  subject,  in  verse  most  apt  for  Musical 
Composition"  (see  Spingarn,  II,  267).  The  Earl  of  Mulgrave 
treats  lightly  of  song,  elegy,  and  ode,  recommending  chiefly  ease 
of  expression  and  high  fancy  (Essay  on  Poetry,  1682  ;  see  the 
Works,  2  vols.-,  1723,  I,  133-136).  Sir  William  Temple  (Of 
Poetry,  1690)  assigns  love,  and  often  praise,  as  the  subjects 
of  the  lyric ;  calls  Horace  the  first  and  last  of  "  true  Lyrick  Poets 
among  the  Latins  " ;  and  is  at  pains  to  inform  us  that  grief  is 
the  subject  of  the  elegy.  See  also  B.  Kennet,  The  Lives  and 
Characters  of  the  Ancient  Grecian  Poets  (2  Pts.  Lond. :  1697). 

C.  Eighteenth  Century. 

On  1 8th  century  criticism  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  406  ff . ;  Saints- 
bury,  Hist.  Crit,  vol.  Ill,  Bk.  VII,  Chaps.  Ill,  V,  VI ;  W.  H.  Durham, 
Critical  Essays  of  the  i8th  Century  (Yale  Univ.  Press,  1915;  see  the 
Introd.) ;  Hamelius,  Vaughan,  and  Blankenburg,  as  noted  above. 

In  this  age  of  lyric  decline,  both  poets  and  critics  valued  the 
lyric  lightly.  The  greater  poets  condescended  to  the  lyric,  and  it 
became,  in  part,  a  trifle  of  the  "  wits,"  a  vers  de  societe.  The  ode, 
however,  of  all  lyric  kinds  the  furthest  in  spirit  from  a  poetry  of 
wit,  was  a  favorite  form  during  the  period,  —  the  form  to  which 
most  of  the  criticism  of  the  lyric  attached  itself.  Critics  were  not 
unaware  of  the  thinness  of  contemporary  lyric  performance.  While 
they  complained  of  the  conceits  of  lyric  verse,  they  tried  to  better 
matters  by  severer  regulations  of  poetic  genius,  especially  in  the 
writing  of  odes.  In  general  the  attitude  of  literary  opinion  regard- 
ing the  type  under  consideration  was  best  indicated  by  what  critics 
did  not  say,  — by  the  comparative  dearth  of  reference  or  appraisal. 
A  case  of  lucus  a  non  lucendo. 


V,  C]  ENGLISH  115 

The  age  of  wit  decried  "  enthusiasm,"  especially  that  of  the 
religious  sort,  as  a  species  of  insanity.  See,  for  example,  Shaftes- 
bury's  Letter  Concerning  Enthusiasm,  1708,  in  which  he  argues 
for  a  less  vituperative  use  of  the  term ;  see  also  his  Moralists, 
Pt.  Ill,  §  2,  and  his  Miscellaneous  Reflections,  Misc.  II,  Chap.  I ; 
and  compare  Locke,  Essay  Concerning  Human  Understanding, 
1690,  Bk.  IV,  Chap.  XIX,  §  7,  and  Henry  More's  Enthusiasmus 
Triumphatus,  in  his  Philosophical  Writings,  1662.  See  also  The 
Spectator ;  No.  201,  1711,  and  John  Byrom's  Enthusiasm,  A  Po- 
etical Essay,  1751,  in  Chalmers'  Eng.  Poets,  vol.  XV,  pp.  248-252. 
Sir  Leslie  Stephen  refers  to  the  subject  in  his  Hist,  'of  Eng. 
Thought  in  the  i8th  Century  (2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  Lond. :  1902, 
vol.  II,  p.  370).  In  connection  with  these  utterances  concerning 
"  enthusiasm "  should  be  studied  various  essays  and  poems  on 
the  "  imagination  "  published  during  the  century  (see  the  refer- 
ences to  Addison,  Akenside,  etc.,  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  407  ff.). 

Since  this  was  an  age  of  periodicals,  the  student  should  not 
forget  that  scattered  references  to  the  lyric  may  be  found  in  such 
publications  as  The  Monthly  *Review,  The  Gentleman 's  Magazine, 
The  Literary  Magazine,  The  British  Magazine,  The  Lady's  Maga- 
zine, The  Critical  Review,  and  The  Piiblic  Ledger.  See  also  the 
collection  in  Chalmers'  British  Essayists,  —  Tatler,  Spectator, 
Guardian,  Rambler,  Adventiirer,  World,  Connoisseur,  Idler, 
Mirror,  Lounger,  Observer,  Looker- On. 

The  second  half  of  the  century  witnessed  a  revival  of  lyric 
development,  furthered  by  the  romantic  revolt  which  had  been 
gathering  force  since  1739-40  (Thomson  and  Joseph  Warton). 
With  the  success  of  the  revolt  came  a  broader  view  of  lyric  mean- 
ing and  a  fitter  appreciation  of  lyric  genius.  The  movement  against 
the  conventions  of  the  age  of  Pope,  especially  in  relation  to 
diction  and  the  attitude  toward  nature  and  the  natural,  expressed 
itself  directly  in  lyric  numbers  (Lyrical  Ballads,  1798);  but  the 
critical  argument  and  justification  fell  mainly  in  the  next  century 
(Gayley,  Lit.  Studies  in  the  igth  Century,  in  Proc.  of  St.  Louis 
Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Boston  :  1906,  vol.  Ill,  p.  332  ff.). 


Il6  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3^ 

The  following  references  are  typical :  E.  Bysshe's  Art  of  English 
Poetry  (1700?),  Chap.  Ill  Of  Rules  for  Making  Verses.  Congreve, 
in  his  Discourse  of  the  Pindaric  Ode  (1705  ;  see  Chalmers'  Eng.  Poets, 
vol.  X),  reproaches  the  English  Pindarics  of  his  age  with  their  lack  of 
regularity,  and  expounds  the  general  structure  of  Pindar's  odes.  Was 
Congreve  the  first,  in  England,  to  understand  the  real  nature  of  Pindar's 
odes?  Cf.  Gray,  below,  and  see  Cowley,  above.  Material  on  the 
lyric  is  contained  in  J.  Barnes'  Anacreon  .  .  .  emendatus  (Lond. :  1705). 
M.  Prior's  Preface  to  his  Ode  ...  to  the  Queen,  on  the  Glorious  Suc- 
cess of  her'Majesty's  Arms  (1706).  I.  Watts  is  concerned,  of  course, 
with  the  "  divine  "  uses  of  poetry :  see  the  Preface  to  his  Horae  Lyricae 
(1709).  Addison,  in  No.  223  of  the  Spectator  (Nov.  15,  1711  ;  cf. 
No.  229),  complains  of  those  "  little  points,  conceits,  and  turns  of  wit, 
with  which  many  of  our  modern  lyrics  are  so  miserably  infected." 
L.  Welsted,  Trans,  of  Longinus  and  Remarks  on  Eng.  Poets  (1712). 
Steele's  references  to  the  lyric  are  usually  flippant,  but  see  the  essay 
On  Songs  and  Song  Writing,  in  No.  16  of  the  Guardian  (1713). 
J.  Trapp,  Praelectiones  Poeticae  (1716;  3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Lond.:  1736, 
vol.  II,  pp.  1-105),  short  chapters  on  epigram,  elegy,  pastoral,  and 
lyric.  C.  Gildon's  The  Complete  Art  of  Poetry  (2  vols.,  1718,  vol.  I, 
pp.  172-186)  contains  a  weak  discussion  of  the  lyric  (which  is  traced 
back  to  the  songs  of  Moses  and  Miriafci),  consisting  of  almost  nothing 
more  than  flattering  quotations  of  Buckingham.  E.  Young's  Discourse 
on  Odes  (1725)  and  his  famous  Essay  on  Original  Composition  breathe 
a  vital  air.  The  Essay  upon  Unnatural  Flights  in  Poetry,  by  Lord 
Lansdowne  (George  Granville),  is  not  addressed  to  the  lyrists  in  particu- 
lar, but  it  is  a  good  example  of  distrust  of  poetic  enthusiasm  (see  the 
Works,  1732).  J.  Hughes,  in  the  Preface  to  Six  Cantatas,  or  Poems 
for  Music  (see  Chalmers,  vol.  XIII),  remarks  on  the  relation  of  lyric 
poetry  to  music,  and  quotes  Waller's  verse :  "  Soft  words,  with  nothing 
in  them,  make  a  song  " ;  see  also  the  verses  on  songs  and  on  odes  in 
the  same  author's  Essay  on  Poetry.  Joseph  Warton's  The  Enthusiast, 
or  the  Love  of  Nature  (1740)  is  an  appeal  for  a  return  to  sincerity  of 
observation  and  sanity  of  description ;  his  Preface  to  Odes  on  Several 
Subjects  (1746)  launches  poetry  fairly  on  the  romantic  stream.  See 
also  his  Essay  on  Pope  (1756-82),  Sect.  II  Of  Windsor  Forest,  and 
Lyric  Pieces.  T.  Gray,  Letters  (Ed.  Gosse),  Nos.  44,  1.19,  142 
(1742-58):  though  the  criticism  qontained  in  these  letters  is  of  a  slight 
and  epistolary  sort,  the  student  may  gather  somewhat  of  vital  signifi- 
cance, —  such,  for  instance,  as  the  suggestion  (No.  44)  that  "  the 
language  of  the  age  is  never  the  language  of  poetry,  except  among 


V,  C]  ENGLISH  117 

the  French,"  or  the  statement  concerning  the  beauty  of  the  lyric 
(No.  142),  or  the  disquisition  on  epic  and  lyric  style  (No.  119).  Cf. 
Gray  (E.  M.  L.),  by  E.  Gosse  (N.Y.:  1882),  Chap.  VI,  The  Pindaric 
Odes.  M.  Akenside,  Ode  XIII,  On  Lyric  Poetry,  in  Odes  on  Several 
Subjects,  Bk.  I  (1745).  G.  West,  Preface  to  the  Odes  of  Pindar 
( 1 749) :  another  protest  against  the  incoherence  and  metrical  irregu- 
larity of  Cowley  and  his  followers ;  see  also  the  Dissertations,  which 
are  added  to  the  translation,  and  Joseph  Warton's  Ode  Occasioned  by 
Reading  Mr.  West's  Translation  of  Pindar,  which  is  prefixed  to  the 
translation.  In  R.  Lowth's  De  Sacra  Poesi  Hebraeorum  Praelec- 
tiones  Academicae,  etc.  (Oxonii :  1753.  Translation  by  G.  Gregory, 
New  Ed.  by  C.  E.  Stowe,  Andover:  1829),  see  Chaps.  XXII-XXXIV, 
especially  XXV-XXVIII.  Bishop  Kurd's  remarks  on  the  relation 
of  genius  to  rule-criticism  are  especially  applicable  to  lyric  poetry  (see 
the  Notes,  1.  404,  appended  to  his  edition  of  Horace's  Epistola  ad 
Pisones,  and  the  corresponding  passage  in  the  commentary.  1757). 
O.  Goldsmith,  Essay  on  the  Origin  of  Poetry  (Essays,  1758-65):  the 
origin  of  lyric  poetry  in  primitive  religious  enthusiasm.  J.  Newberry, 
The  Art  of  Poetry  on  a  New  Plan,  etc.  (2  vols.  1761-62):  a  weak, 
good-natured,  unoriginal  thing,  intended  for  the  young.  J.  Ogilvie, 
Poems  on  Various  Subjects,  To  which  is  prefix'd  an  Essay  on  the  Lyric 
Poetry  of  the  Ancients,  etc.  (Lond. :  1 762 ;  cf .  below,  §  9,  vn,  c). 
Dr.  J.  Brown's  A  Dissertation  on  the  Rise,  Union  and  Power,  the  Pro- 
gressions, Separations,  and  Corruptions  of  Poetry  and  Music,  etc.  (Lond. : 
1 763)  was  a  famous  book  in  its  day.  Compare  Some  Observations  on 
Dr.  Brown's  Dissertation,  etc.  (Lond. :  1 764),  and  Remarks  on  Some 
Observations,  etc.  (Lond.:  1764).  In  1764  the  original  Dissertation 
was  republished,  with  some  changes,  as  The  History  of  the  Rise  and 
Progress  of  Poetry,  etc.  The  work  was  translated  into  French,  Italian, 
and  German  (see  Blankenburg,  1797,  vol.  II,  p.  318).  E.  Evans, 
Some  Specimens  of  the  Poetry  of  the  Ancient  Welsh  Bards  (Lond. : 
1 764),  with  a  Diss.  on  Bards.  W.  Shenstone,  Essay  on  Elegy  (Works 
in  Verse  and  Prose,  2  vols.  1 764).  J.  Aikin,  Essays  on  Song- Writing: 
with  a  collection  of  such  English  songs  as  are  most  eminent  for  poetical 
merit,  etc.  (1772):  one  of  the  most  considerable  discussions  of  the  lyric 
that  appeared  during  this  century  in  England.  The  first  essay  includes 
a  brief  historical  introduction  (in  which  Ossian  and  Theocritus  are 
exhibited  as  types  of  the  two  varieties  of  earliest  song-writers),  dis- 
cusses the  union  of  song  and  music,  defines  song,  and  differentiates 
the  lyric  according  to  manner  of  composition,  by  which  is  meant 
musical  accompaniment  (though  such  distinctions  as  sonnet,  rondeau, 


Il8  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

and  vaudeville  are  regarded  as  "  unessential  to  the  poetical  character 
of  any  composition  ").  It  differentiates  the  song  from  other  lyrics  by 
subject,  confining  it  to  gaiety  and  tenderness,  and  maintaining  that  the 
graver  and  sublimer  strains  are  proper  to  the  ode,  and  it  divides  songs 
into  ballads,  pathetic  or  descriptive  songs,  and  witty  songs.  There 
follow  short  essays  on  Ballads  and  Pastoral  Songs,  Passionate  and 
Descriptive  Songs,  Ingenious  and  Witty  Songs.  T.  Warton,  Hist, 
of  English  Poetry  (3  vols.  1774-81).  V.  Knox,  Essays,  Moral  and 
Literary  (1777):  see  No.  127,  On  the  Prevailing  Taste  in  Poetry. 
For  Johnson's  famous  criticism  of  the  "  metaphysical  poets,"  and  for 
his  criticism  of  Cowley's  Pindarics,  see  his  Life  of  Cowley.  Johnson's 
other  Lives  should  also  be  studied  (i  779-81).  Hugh  Blair,  in  his  Lec- 
tures on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres  (1783  ;  see  vol.  II,  Lect.  XXXIX 
Pastoral  Poetry,  Lyric  Poetry),  treats  ode  and  lyric  as  synonymous 
terms,  and  utters  a  conscientious  warning  against  lyric  extravagance. 
J.  Scott  of  Amwell,  Critical  Essays  (1785).  W.  Preston,  Thoughts 
on  Lyric  Poesie  (in  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  for 
1787.  Dublin:  1788).  Coleridge,  On  the  Sonnet  (Poems,  1797), 
after  reading  the  poems  of  Bowles  and  Charlotte  Smith :  the  reawaken- 
ing of  lyrical  genius  and  of  a  more  adequate  idea  of  the  lyric  species. 

D.  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries. 

On  the  criticism  of  this  period  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  413-422; 
Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  vol.  Ill,  Bk.  VIII,  Chap.  I,  Bk.  IX,  Chaps.  II, 
III ;  E.  D.  Jones,  English  Critical  Essays,  igth  Century  (Oxford  :  1916). 

The  criticism  of  this  period  has  been  so  varied  and  so  plentiful 
that  the  task  of  determining  just  what  it  has  added  in  a  specula- 
tive way  to  the  theory  of  a  poetic  type  is  very  difficult.  By  way 
of  narrowing  the  field  it  must  be  noted,  of  course,  that  the  growth 
of  philological  research  jn  our  universities  has  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  age  tended  to  turn  criticism  from  the  more  personal  and  sub- 
jective methods  of  the  essayists  to  a  more  objective  though  not 
always  scientific  methodology.  Historical  study,  distrustful  of 
theory,  has  preferred  narrow  investigation  to  philosophical  gen- 
eralization. An  account  of  the  resulting  criticism  need  not, 
therefore,  be  undertaken  at  this  point;  it  will  be  found  below, 
§  6,  where  works  dealing  with  the  history  of  the  lyric  are  listed  in 
connection  with  brief  outlines  of  the  growth  of  the  lyric  literatures 
of  the  various  nations. 


V,D]  ENGLISH  1 19 

Our  present  task  is  to  rummage  the  almost  countless  literary 
essays  —  critical  and  semi-historical  and  biographical,  appreciative 
and  interpretative  —  which  have  been  a  characteristic  product  of 
the  period  ever  since  the  establishment  of  the  great  reviews 
early  in  the  nineteenth  century  (Edinburgh  Rev.  1802,  Quarterly 
Rev.  1809,  Blackwood"1  s  Mag.  1817,  London  Mag.  1820).  From 
this  material  the  student  may  gather  suggestions,  asides,  and 
assumptions  that  bear  upon  lyric  theory.  He  will  find  that  there 
is  an  indefinable  consensus,  readily  applicable  to  the  lyric,  as  to 
what  is  good  poetry  and  what  is  not  good.  Constantly  he  will 
come  across  patches  of  descriptive  appreciation  allusively  illus- 
trating the  subject.  But  comparatively  seldom  will  he  discover 
reasoned  inductions  of  the  general  laws  of  the  type ;  he  will 
search  in  vain  for  a  commonly  received  basis  of  definition,  division, 
or  other  method.  If  the  historical  spirit  is  distrustful  of  theory, 
the  appreciative  talent  is  scarcely  equal  to  the  task.  Moreover, 
the  absence  of  a  determined  reliance  on  classical  models,  such  as 
supported  and  regulated  the  criticism  of  former  centuries,  makes 
for  greater  variety  o*f  criticism  and  less  agreement  in  detailed 
result ;  gives  opportunity  for  imaginative  originality  and  the  ex- 
pression of  aesthetic  idiosyncrasy.  Consequently  the  criticism  of 
the  century  has  made  of  itself  an  art  which  no  longer  can  be 
fully  regarded  from  the  single  point  of  view  of  the  historian  of 
critical  theory.  Indeed,  the  student  will  commit  an  error  who 
approaches  these  literary  essays  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
furthering  his  analysis  of  poetic  kinds :  the  essays  for  the  most 
part  should  be  read  for  aesthetic  pleasure. 

To  trace  even  the  main  currents  of  criticism  through  this  be- 
wilderment of  theory  is  no  simple  affair ;  but  the  pages  in  Gayley 
and  Scott  referred  to  above  may  furnish  guidance.  The  spiritual 
phases  of  the  period  are  many  and  often  mutually  contradictory ; 
yet  most  of  them  have  found  lyrical  utterance,  and  have,  in  turn, 
affected  the  temper  of  lyric  criticism.  By  way  of  example  some 
of  these  phases  may  here  receive  brief  mention. 

The  enunciation  of  the  romantic  principle  by  Wordsworth  and 


120  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

Coleridge  involved  both  lyric  expression  and  lyric  theory.  Critical 
argument  in  favor  of  those  new  fashions  of  diction  and  subject- 
matter  that  had  been  introduced  in  the  Lyrical  Ballads  (1798) 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  Prefaces  of  Wordsworth.  The  con- 
temporary reviews  of  Wordsworth's  poems  and  prefaces  should 
be  explored ;  and  from  the  Prefaces  as  a  starting  point  a  system- 
atic study  might  well  be  made  of  the  poetic  diction  of  the 
English  lyric.  Similar  tempting  fields  of  research  are  offered-  by 
the  contemporary  periodical  criticism  of  later  developments  of  the 
lyric,  e.g.,  the  critical  welcome  (and  disapproval)  of  the  pre- 
Raphaelitic  school,  or  of  the  Irish  Movement. 

Classicism,  revived  in  the  cold  and  brilliant,  formal  and  genteel 
criticism  of  Jeffrey,  in  the  startling,  personal  criticism  of  Gifford 
and  Lockhart,  and  in  the  more  mellow  judgments  of  Wilson  and 
Southey,  was  concerned  with  the  lyrism  of  many  besides  its  two 
chief  victims,  Burns  and  Keats.  But  in  spite  of  the  classical 
.reaction  the  new  enthusiasm  had  its  way.  Romantic  criticism 
came  to  its  own  in  Shelley  and  Coleridge,  Leigh  Hunt  and 
Hazlitt,  the  modern  kin  of  Longinus,  through  an  insistence  upon 
the  qualities  which  most  of  all  characterized  the  romantic  lyric,  — 
new  poetic  diction,  emotional  suggestion,  free  creative  imagination, 
wonder,  and  personal  subjectivity.  To  discover  new  effects  of 
sound  and  image  was  the  object  of  the  new  poetic  performance 
and  the  criterion  of  its  success.  The  "  jingling  rhythm "  and 
"  resplendent  gibberish  "  of  some  such  attempts  naturally  provoked 
in  certain  quarters  adverse  criticism:  as,  for  instance,  the  1849 
Black-wood  article  on  Tennyson  (cited  with  relish  by  Professor 
Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  3  :  502).  But  the  aim  of  the  new  criti- 
cism was  sympathetic  interpretation  of  the  author,  of  his  feelings, 
images,  and  thoughts  as  enshrined  in  the  poem.  The  legislative 
criticism  of  Dryden,  Addison,  Pope,  and  Johnson  gave  way  to 
alluring  adventures  in  interpretation.  Since  the  spirit  of  such 
interpretative  adventures  was  essentially  rhapsodical  and  lyrical, 
what  wonder  that  criticism  should  concern  itself  in  very  large 
measure  with  the  lyric ! 


V,  D]  ENGLISH  121 

Here  is  Carlyle's  declaration  of  the  new  way,  —  of  what  a  critic 
must  know  before  he  pronounces  a  poet  in  fault : 

First,  we  must  have  made  plain  to  ourselves  what  the  poet's  aim 
really  and  truly  was,  how  the  task  he  had  to  do  stood  before  his  own 
eye,  and  how  far,  with  such  means  as  it  afforded  him,  he  has  fulfilled 
it.  Secondly,  we  must  have  decided  whether  and  how  far  this  aim,  this 
task  of  his,  accorded,  —  not  with  us,  and  our  individual  crotchets,  and 
the  crotchets  of  our  little  senate  where  we  give  or  take  the  law,  —  but 
with  human  nature,  and  the  nature  of  things  at  large ;  with  the  uni- 
versal principles  of  poetic  beauty,  not  as  they  stand  written  in  our 
text-books,  but  in  the  hearts  and  imaginations  of  all  men  (Essay  on 
Goethe,  1828). 

Such  qualification  for  criticism,  we  reflect,  is  the  property  of  a 
demigod.  When  arrogated  by  less  than  a  demigod,  the  supposed 
qualification  is  likely  to  be  the  apotheosis  of  personal  preference 
—  that  is  to  say,  taste  or  feeling  —  under  the  assumption  that  all 
men  feel  or  should  feel  as  the  self-exalted  critic.  How  often  did 
the  critical  effort  of  even  such  men  as  Hazlitt,  Coleridge,  and 
Carlyle  attain  to  this  marvellous  insight  into  the  author's  genius 
—  to  this  universal  knowledge  of  the  secrets  of  human  hearts  ? 
"  The  lyrical  critic  judging  the  lyrist "  —  that  is  the  characteristic 
tableau  presented  by  the  new  criticism.  We  must  acknowledge, 
however,  that  the  mysticism  of  Carlyle  and  the  dreams  of  De 
Quincey  not  only  add  lyric  intensity  and  loveliness  to  their 
prose-poetry  but  at  times  illuminate  their  criticism  with  gleams 
of  genuine  insight  into  the  essentials  of  literary  theory.  Note, 
for  instance,  the  descant  on  Song  in  Sartor  Resartus,  or  the 
analysis  of  lyrical  emotion  in  De  Quincey's  essay  on  Wordsworth's 
Poetry  (see  above,  §  2). 

Poetics  was  meanwhile  not  unaffected  by  the  rise  of  the  ethical 
theory  of  utilitarianism  and  the  development  of  science.  Specula- 
tive forerunners  of  the  attempt  to  correlate  criticism  with  such 
movements  were  J.  S.  Mill,  Herbert  Spencer,  and  G.  H.  Lewes. 
But  the  advance  of  the  century  in  utilitarian  philosophy,  scientific 
discovery,  invention,  and  commerce  necessitated  a  readjustment  of 
social,  political,  philosophical,  and  religious  values :  and  the  lyric 


122  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

embodies  with  increasing  frequency  the  suffering  and  the  joy,  the 
reactions  and  escapes  of  individual  souls  rendered  introspective  by 
the  need  of  such  readjustments.  Hence  a  profound  develop- 
ment of  the  subjective  power  of  the  lyric,  and  a  renewed  critical 
emphasis  upon  its  subjective  nature.  Herein  lies  one  of  the 
chief  contributions  of  this  period  to  the  theory  of  the  lyric.  Never 
before  had  the  subjective,  mysterious,  and  utterly  poetic  character 
of  the  lyric  been  so  distinctly  emphasized,  or,  as  nineteenth-century 
critics  would  say,  recognized.  This  recognition  is  the  keynote  to 
most  of  the  critical  utterances  concerning  the  lyric  that  have  ap- 
peared during  the  later  nineteenth  century ;  and  not  seldom  a  certain 
spirit  of  lyric  lawlessness  keeps  company  with  the  recognition. 

Here,  too,  must  be  mentioned  the  comparative,  '  touchstone ' 
method  of  Arnold,  developing  in  his  hands  at  least  to  serene  judg- 
ment and  successful  didacticism  concerning  qualities  and  degrees 
in  this  or  that  poet's  performance,  but  seldom  giving  us  general- 
izations on  types  (for  an  exposition  of  the  raison  d'etre  and  the 
limitations  of  the  '  test-passage '  or  '  touchstone '  see  Gayley's 
Principles  of  Poetry,  pp.  cvi-cix).  To  determine  whether  this 
poem  is  good  or  bad  poetry,  and  why,  is  Arnold's  frequent  pur- 
pose. To  describe  subtly  and  sweetly  one's  deeper  pleasure  in 
reading  is  the  hedonistic  aim  of  Walter  Pater.  "  What  special 
sense,"  writes  Pater,  "  does  Wordsworth  exercise,  and  what  in- 
stincts does  he  satisfy?  What  were  the  subjects  and  motives 
which  in  him  excite  the  imaginative  faculty  ?  What  are  the  quali- 
ties in  things  and  persons  which  he  values,  the  impression  and 
sense  of  which  he  can  convey  to  others,  in  an  extraordinary 
way  ?  "  Power  of  poetic  expression,  or  "  expressiveness,"  to  use 
the  watchword  of  the  school  of  Croce,  is  after  all-  the  main  interest 
for  both  Arnold  and  Pater,  and  for  all  the  critics,  romantic  and 
other,  with  Professor  Saintsbury  at  their  head,  who  may  be  said 
to  be  in  substantial  accord  with  these  two  Victorians. 

Still  another  interest  is  found  in  the  mass  of  modern  criticism, 
the  biographic-historical-sociological  interest  that  derives  from 
Hegel  through  Sainte-Beuve  (the  master  of  Matthew  Arnold), 


V,D]  ENGLISH  123 

Taine,  and  Brunetiere.  A  poem  —  even  a  lyric  poem  —  is  to 
be  '  explained '  by  viewing  the  author  from  as  many  different 
angles  as  possible,  with  the  faith  that  in  a  fine  mixture  of  ante- 
cedents and  causes  will  be  found  a  sufficient  raison  (Ptire  for  the 
poem,  including  its  peculiarities.  On  this  and  on  other  develop- 
ments of  the  scientific-historical  method,  see  Gay  ley's  Literary 
Studies  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (St.  Louis  Congress  of  Arts 
and  Sciences,  Boston  :  1906,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  336-340,  342-346). 

Concerning  compilations,  works  on  poetics  and  aesthetics,  and 
introductions  to  poetry  —  original,  eclectic,  or  servile ;  profound, 
gentlemanly,  or  capricious  —  we  need  add  little  to  what  is  written 
in  §  2,  above. 

In  the  introductions  to  works  dealing  with  the  history  of  the 
English  lyric  (see  Reed,  Erskine,  Schelling,  and  Rhys,  mentioned 
below,  §  5),  and  in  essays  prefixed  to  some  of  the  anthologies  of 
the  English  lyric  (e.g.,  the  anthologies  of  Palgrave,  F.  I.  Carpenter, 
A.  H.  Bullen,  Sir  Sidney  Lee,  E.  K.  Chambers,  F.  E.  Schelling, 
Gosse,  Henley,  Locker-Lampson,  Hunt  and  Lee,  Brander  Matthews, 
A.  T.  Quiller-Couch,  N.  Hepple,  —  all  of  which  may  be  traced 
through  the  index  to  this  volume),  may  be  found  brief  utter- 
ances on  the  nature  of  the  lyric  and  some  of  its  kinds.  The.  gen- 
eral approbation  with  which  at  present  all  historical  essays  are 
greeted  serves  somewhat  to  blind  us  to  the  lack  of  distinct  method 
and  system  in  most  recent  treatises  upon  the  lyric.  As  a  rule,  they 
are  descriptive  rather  than  definitive,  and  show  only  slight  attempts 
at  scientific  method.  It  is  indeed  inevitable  that  in  works  of  this 
character  the  author  should  flee  fast  and  far  from  the  undeniable 
difficulties  of  exact  definition  and  division  into  the  labyrinth  of 
historical  observation  or  gossip,  or  take  refuge  in  the  anthology 
itself  behind  the  noncommittal  trellis  of  a  footnote. 

Finally,  it  should  be  noted  that  attention  has  been  turned  to  the 
psychological  study  of  poetic  genius  and  poetic  rhythm,  and  that 
this  study  bears  both  directly  and  indirectly  upon  the  nature  of 
the  lyric.  The  importance  of  the  psychological  method  of  approach 
can  scarcely  be  overrated.  It  is  indeed  characteristic  .of  scientific 


124  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

study  into  questions  of  literary  quality  and  function  that  hitherto 
have  teen  treated  specula tively.  A  typical  and  excellent  example 
of  the  best  that  has  been  done  is  Ribot's  Essay  on  the  Creative 
Imagination  (trans,  by  A.  H.  Baron  (Chicago:  1906));  but  see 
the  references  given  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  138.  Examples  of  the 
study  of  rhythm  by  experimental  psychologists  are  found  in  the 
American  Journal  of  Psychology,  6:  2  (T.  L.  Bolton),  12:  360 
(N.  Triplett  and  E.  C.  Sanford),  12:  492  (C.  R.  Squire),  etc. 
See  also  Hurst  and  Mackay,  Experiments  on  the  Tune  Relations 
of  Poetical  Metres  (Univ.  of  Toronto  Studies,  PsychoL  Series, 
No.  3);  Scripture,  in  Studies  from  the  Yale  PsychoL  Lab.,  7:  95 
(1899);  R.  C.  Givler,  The  Psycho-physiological  Effect  of  the 
Elements  of  Speech  in  Relation  to  Poetry  (PsychoL  Rev.  Publica- 
tions, vol.  XIX,  No.  2,  April,  1916,  Princeton);  W.  M.  Patterson, 
The  Rhythm  of  Prose  (Columbia  Univ.  Press:  1917).  Further 
references,  including  foreign  monographs,  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  23. 

The  main  bocfy  of  references  for  historical  criticism,  as  already  stated, 
will  be  found  below,  §  6,  xi,  F.  Some  works,  English  and  American, 
dealing  more  exclusively  with  aesthetic  questions  or  appreciation  are 
listed  here ;  but  the  most  important  of  this  sort  will  be  found  in  §  2, 
above.  There  the  student  should  note  the  following :  Alden,  Alexander, 
Ambros,  Bayne,  Beeching,  Browning,  Caine,  Courthope,  Dennis,  De 
Quincey,  Erskine,  Fuller,  Gayley,  Gosse,  Gould,  Guest,  Gummere, 
Gurney,  Hepple,  Hudson,  Hunt,  Keble,  Lee,  Locker-Lampson,  Mac- 
kail,  Mill,  Moulton,  Neilson,  Noble,  Palgrave,  Pattison,  Patmore,  Peck, 
Poe,  Posnett,  Quiller-Couch,  Reed,  Rhys,  Saintsbury,  Schelling,  Sharp, 
Shelley,  Stedman,  Swinburne,  Symonds,  Thompson,  Tomlinson,  Watts- 
Dunton,  Winchester,  Woodberry,  Wordsworth.  General  discussions  of 
many  of  the  works  that  follow  are  offered  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§  20, 
21  B.  For  Reviews,  Magazines,  etc.,  see  Appendix. 

W.  L.  Bowles,  Concluding  Observations  on  the  Poetic  Character  of 
Mr.  Pope  (in  vol.  X  of  his  edition  of  Pope's  Works,  1 806) :  the  Byron- 
Bowles  controversy  which  followed,  on  the  relative  merit  of  objects  of 
nature  and  art  as  subjects  of  poetry,  has  little  or  nothing  for  the  student 
of  the  lyric  (see  R.  Kahn,  Die  Pope-Kritik  im  18.  Jahrh.,  Emmen- 
dingen :  1910,  p.  102  ff.  See  also  T.  E.  Casson,  W.  L.  Bowles,  in 
Eighteenth  Century  Literature:  An  Oxford  Miscellany,  1909,  pp.  151- 
183 ;  H.  Beers,  Hist,  of  Eng.  Romanticism  in  the  Nineteenth  Century, 


V,  DJ  ENGLISH  125 

Chap.  II,  with  bibliography  of  Bowies'  pamphlets,  p.  73,  note  (N.Y.  : 
1901)).  Coleridge,  Lectures  on  English  Poets  (1808,  1812);  Biographia 
Literaria  (1817),  Chaps.  I  (Bowles),  IV  and  XIII-XIV  (Lyrical  Ballads, 
Imagination  and  Fancy,  etc.).  Consider  Coleridge's  distinction  between 
the  "  faculties  "  (note  the  basis  in  the  discredited  facultative  psychology) 
of  imagination  and  fancy,  and  its  applicability  to  the  study  of  the  lyric. 
For  Coleridge's  indebtedness  for  this  distinction  to  Richter,  and  for  the 
.development  of  the  idea  by  Wordsworth  and  Leigh  Hunt,  see  Professor 
Cook's  Leigh  Hunt's  What  is  Poetry  (pp.  75-94).  For  a  note  on  elegy 
and  ode  see  the  Table  Talk,  Oct.  23,  1833.  J.  Aikin,  Vocal  Poetry, 
or  a  select  collection  of  English  songs,  to  which  is  prefixed  an  essay  on 
song-writing  (Lond. :  1810).  The  author  enlarges  the  collection  of  1 772 
(noted  above),  and  writes  a  new  essay  embodying  his  maturer  views  of 
the  nature  and  kinds  of  song,  amending  his  former  classification  and 
considering  at  some  length  the  relation  of  song  to  ballad.  W.  Words- 
worth, in  the  preface  to  his  Poems  (1815),  adopts  the  following  classifi- 
cation :  "  the  hymn,  the  ode,  the  elegy,  the  song,  and  the  ballad." 
Consider  his  idea  of  "  impassioned  recitation  "  as  taking  the  place  of 
musical  accompaniment.  With  Wordsworth's  ideas  on  poetry  (see 
Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  345,  411-412),  as  found  in  his  Prefaces  (1798, 
1802,  etc.),  compare  Coleridge's  criticism  in  the  Biographia  Literaria 
(see  the  selections  from  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge  in  Saintsbury's 
Loci  Critici);  for  an  earlier  recognition  of  the  power  of  "language 
unadorned,"  see  The  Spectator,  No.  85.  Hazlitt's  famous  Lectures 
on  the  English  Poets  (i 8 1 8),  —  interpretative,  suggestive;  see  also  his 
Spirit  of  the  Age  (Lond.:  1825).  Leigh  Hunt,  What  is  Poetry? 
(1844).  Francis  Jeffrey,  Contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  Review 
(4  vols.  1844),  —  'intellectual,'  rarely  sympathetic  toward  mysticism 
and  romanticism,  formal,  stiff,  and  glittering;  see  the  criticisms  of 
Wordsworth,  Byron,  Scott,  Keats,  Burns,  etc.  Walter  Bagehot, 
Hartley  Coleridge  (1852),  in  vol.  I  of  Literary  Studies  (2  vols.  2d  ed. 
Lond.:  1879).  Lyrical  poetry  is  designed  to  express  "some  one  mood, 
some  single  sentiment,  some  isolated  longing  in  human  nature.  It  deals 
not  with  man  as  a  whole,  but  with  man  piecemeal,  with  man  in  a  scenic 
aspect,  with  man  in  a  peculiar  light.  Hence  lyrical  poets  must  not  be 
judged  literally  from  their  lyrics."  "  Self-delineative  "  poetry  grows  out 
of  the  lyric,  but  is  distinct  from  it ;  Hartley  Coleridge  offers  excellent 
examples  of  this  type.  See  also  the  same  author's  essays  on  Shelley 
(1856),  BeVanger  (1857),  Clough  (1862),  Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and 
Browning ;  or  Pure,  Ornate,  and  Grotesque  Art  in  English  Poetry 
(1864).  G.  B.,  Alfred  Tennyson's  Poems,  in  Cambridge  Essays 


126  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

1855  (Lond. :  1855).  Peter  Bayne,  Tennyson,  Elizabeth  Barrett 
Browning,  in  Essays  in  Biography  and  Criticism,  ist  Series  (Boston: 
1857).  L.  Hunt  and  S.  A.  Lee,  The  Book  of  the  Sonnet  (2  vols. 
Boston  ed. :  1867),  with  introd.  on  "The  Sonnet:  its  Origin,  Structure, 
and  Place  in  Poetry."  A.  C.  Swinburne,  William  Blake,  Chap.  II 
Lyrical  Poems  (1868).  T.  Hood,  Studies  in  the  Field  of  vers  de 
socie'fe  (in  London  Society,  May,  1870).  Hodgson's  Theory  of  Prac- 
tice (2  vols.  Lond.:  1870):  see  vol.  I,  pp.  264-305  Poetical  Emotions. 
R.  H.  Hutton,  Literary  Essays  (1871).  R.  Buchanan  ("Thomas 
Maitland"),  The  Fleshly  School  of  Poetry:  Mr.  D.  G.  Rossetti  (in 
Contemp.  Rev.,  Oct.  1871).  D.  G.  Rossetti,  The  Stealthy  School 
of  Criticism  (in  Athenaum,  1871).  H.  G.  Hewlett,  Poets  of  Society 
(in  Contemp.  Rev.,  July,  1872).  Robert  Buchanan,  Master-Spirits 
(Lond.:  1873), — -various  essays  of  earlier  date.  S.  A.  Brooke, 
Theology  in  the  English  Poets  (Lond.:  1874).  A.  C.  Swinburne, 
Essays  and  Studies  (1875);  A  Study  of  Ben  Jonson,  p.  97  ff.  (1889); 
Studies  in  Prose  and  Poetry  (1894),  especially  the  chapters  on  Herrick 
and  Social  Verse,  but  the  essays  on  Victor  Hugo,  particularly  Toute 
/a  Lyre,  are  full  of  suggestive  appreciation.  See  also  Swinburne's  A 
Study  of  Victor  Hugo  (Lond.:  1886).  .  R.  H.  Hutton,  Essays  in 
Literary  Criticism  (American  ed.,  1876).  Note  the  following  in  the 
essay  on  Matthew  Arnold :  "  It  is  of  the  essence  [of  lyrical  poetry]  to 
reflect  absolutely  the  mood  of  the  poet,  to  begin  where  he  begins  and 
end  where  he  ends,  —  the  only  artistic  demand  which  can  possibly  be 
applicable  to  the  structure  of  such  pieces,  is  that  it  shall  show  you  the 
growth  and  subsidence  of  a  vein  of  thought  and  emotion,  and  make  no 
abrupt  demands  on  the  sympathy  of  the  reader  "  (p.  344).  J.  C. 
Shairp,  Studies  in  Philosophy  and  Poetry  (1872):  Poetic  Interpretation, 
of  Nature  (1877);  Aspects  of  Poetry,  p.  194  (1882).  W.  A.  Barrett, 
English  Glee  and  Madrigal  Writers  (Lond.:  1877).  E.  Gosse,  A 
Plea  for  Certain  Exotic  Forms  of  Verse  (in  Corn/till  Mag.,  July,  1877): 
English  Odes  (Lond.:  1881);  Coventry  Patmore  (1905).  Edward 
Dowden,  Studies  in  Literature,  1789-1877  (Lond.:  1878);  Transcripts 
and  Studies  (1888);  Life  of  Shelley  (Lond.:  1886);  New  Studies  in 
Literature  (Lond. :  1895);  French  Revolution  and  English  Lit.  (Lond. : 
1897);  Puritan  and  Anglican,  Chap.  IV  (2d  ed.  1901);  Browning 
(1904);  .Essays,  Modern  and  Elizabethan  (1910).  Some  of  the  sanest, 
justest,  sweetest  criticism  of  the  century  is  contained  in  these  volumes. 
J.  B.  Selkirk,  Ethics  and  Aesthetics  of  Modern  Poetry  (Lond.:  1878). 
W.  Bagehot,  Literary  Studies  (Lond.:  1879).  C.  Kingsley,  Burns 
and  his  School  (1880).  A.  Dobson,  Introd.  to  Praed's  poems  in  the 


V,  D]  ENGLISH  127 

4th  vol.  of  Ward's  English  Poets :  on  vers  de  socittt.  George 
Brimley,  Tennyson,  Wordsworth,  etc.,  in  Essays  (Lond. :  1882),  all  of 
earlier  date  than  this  collection.  F.  T.  Palgrave,  Essay  on  Spenser's 
Minor  Poems  (in  vol.  IV  of  Spenser's  Complete  Works,  Ed.  by  A.  B. 
Grosart,  10  vols.,  1882-84).  R.  W.  Emerson,  essays  on  the  Poet 
and  on  Poetry  and  Imagination  (Complete  Works,  1 883-84).  W.  Sharp, 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  a  Record  and  a  Study  (1883).  Sat.  Rev., 
57  :  25  (Jan.  5,  1884),  —  a  criticism  of  the  vague  idea  of  the  lyric  held 
by  the  editor  of  Eng.  Lyrics  (Parchment  Library,  Lond. :  1883);  see 
also  Sat.  Rev.,  62  :  692.  Spencer's  Principles  of  Psychology  (2  vols. 
N.Y. :  1885),  vol.  II,  pp.  539-557  Language  of  the  Emotions. 
T.  Watts-Dunton,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  (in  Encyc.  Brit.,  gth  ed., 
1886);  see  above,  §  2,  for  other  references  to  same  author.  Aubrey 
de  Vere,  Wordsworth,  Shelley  and  Keats,  Landor,  in  Essays,  Chiefly 
on  Poetry  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1887).  W.  P.  Begg,  The  Development 
of  Taste,  etc.  (Glasgow:  1887),  Chap.  II  Nature  in  Hebrew  Lyric. 
Walter  Pater,  Browning  (1887),  etc.,  in  Essays  from  The  Guardian 
(Lond.:  1901).  J.  Veitch,  The  Feeling  for  Nature  in  Scottish 
Poetry  (2  vols.  Edinb. :  1887).  Matthew  Arnold,  Essays  in  Criti- 
cism, 2d  Series  (1888),  especially  the  papers  on  The  Study  of  Poetry, 
on  Shelley,  on  Byron.  C.  C.  Everett,  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty 
(1888).  A.  Lang's  Letters  on  Literature  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1889)  con- 
tains two  charming,  informal  letters  on  vers  de  societe".  J.  A.  Symonds, 
Essays,  Speculative  and  Suggestive  (2  vols.,  Lond.:  1890),  vol.  II, 
p.  .181  ff.  Is  Music  the  Type  or  Measure  of  All  Art?,  being  a  review 
of  W.  Pater's  The  School  of  Giorgione,  which  appeared  in  the  Fort. 
Rev.,  Oct.  1887:  suggestive  of  the  relation  of  lyric  inspiration  to  all 
art.  By  the  same,  The  Lyrism  of  the  English  Romantic  Drama  (in 
The  Key  of  Blue  and  other  Prose  Essays.  Lond.:  1893).  Brother 
Azarias,  Spiritual  Sense  of  In  Memoriam,  in  Phases  of  Thought  and 
Criticism  (Boston:  1893).  W.  J.  Courthope,  Hist,  of  English  P.oetry 
(6  vols.,  1895-1910), passim.  A.  C.  Benson,  Essays(i896).  S.  Baring- 
Gould's  English  Minstrelsie  (1896)  contains  an  historical  ^introduction 
on  English  national  song  and  opera.  James  Thompson  ("  B.  V."), 
Biographical  and  Critical  Studies  (Lond.:  1896).  W.  E.  Henley, 
English  Lyrics  (Lond.:  1897):  see  the  Introduction  for  an  antithesis 
between  temperamental  and  epigrammatic  lyrics.  J.  M.  Robertson, 
New  Essays  towards  a  Critical  Method  (Lond. :  1897),  p.  191  ff.  Shelley 
and  Poetry.  Alfred  Ainger,  Cowper,  Burns,  Scott  (1898),  in  vol.  I  of 
Lectures  and  Essays  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1905).  W.  C.  Bronson,  The 
Poems  of  William  Collins,  Introd.  (Boston:  1898).  W.  E.  Henley, 


128  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§3 

Views  and  Reviews,  Essays  in  Appreciation  (2  vols.  1891-92);  by  the 
same,  Burns:  Life,  Genius,  Appreciation  (1898).  J.  W.  Bray,  A 
Hist,  of  English  Crit.  Terms,  p.  181  (Boston:  1898).  L.  E.  Gates, 
Studies  and  Appreciations,  Three  Lyrical  Modes  (N.  Y. :  1900). 
W.  Archer,  Poets  of  the  Younger  Generation  (Lond. :  1902),  —  an 
admirable  review.  G.  E.  Woodberry,  Makers  of  Literature  (N.Y. : 
1900);  Swinburne  (1905).  T.  R.  Price,  The  Technic  of  Shakespere's 
Sonnets  (in  Studies  in  Honor  of  Basil  Lanneau  Gildersleeve.  Balti- 
more: 1902).  A.  B.  Walkley,  War  and  Poetry  (in  Edinb.  Rev., 
July,  1902).  S.  Lee,  Elizabethan  Sonnets  (New  English  Garner. 
2  vols.  N.Y. :  1904).  T.  Watts-Dunton,  The  Renascence  of  Won- 
der in  Poetry  (in  Chambers'  Cyclop,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1904,  vol.  III). 
B.  Matthews,  American  Familiar  Verse  (N.Y. :  1904):  the  first  part 
of  the  Introduction  sketches  the  nature  of  what  Cowper  called  "  Fa- 
miliar Verse."  A.  Symons,  Studies  in  Prose  and  Verse  (1904);  by 
the  same,  The  Romantic  Movement  in  Poetry  (1909).  C.  Weygandt, 
The  Irish  Literary  Revival  (in  The  Sewanee  Review,  XII,  No.  4,  Oct. 
1904 ;  see  also  other  articles  by  the  same  author  in  the  same  periodical). 
P.  E.  More,  Elizabethan  Sonnets  (in  N.  Y.  Evening  Post,  Aug.  6, 
1904);  see  also  the  same  author's  Shelburne  Essays,  Third  Series 
(N.Y. :  1906),  pp.  124-142  Christina  Rossetti :  a  short  but  penetrative 
study  of  the  personality  of  one  of  the  best  examples  of  the  modern, 
subjective  lyrist,  Christina  Rossetti.  Mr.  More  finds  that  her  lyric 
secret  lies  in  a  "  perfectly  passive  attitude  toward  the  powers  that 
command  her  heart  and  soul."  See  also  the  other  Series  of  Shelburne 
Essays.  W.  H.  Sheran,  A  Handbook  of  Literary  Criticism  (N.Y. : 
1905),  pp.  514-547.  R.  H.  Case,  English  Epithalamies  (Lond.: 
1906).  F.  B.  Gummere,  Originality  and  Convention  in  Literature 
(in  Quart.  Rev.,  Jan.  1 906) :  on  the  superior  power  of  "  convention  " 
in  the  lyric,  as  compared  with  other  literary  kinds.  S.  A.  Brooke, 
Studies  in  Poetry  (Lond.:  1907),  —  see  the  study  on  Shelley;  by  the 
same,  Four  Victorian  Poets  (Clough,  Rossetti,  Arnold,  Morris),  1908. 
E.  K.  Chambers,  Some  Aspects  of  Mediaeval  Lyric,  in  Chambers  and 
Sidgwick,  Early  English  Lyrics,  etc.  (Lond.:  1907).  Oliver  Elton, 
Tennyson,  Swinburne,  in  Modern  Studies  (Lond.:  1907).  E.  G.  Sihler, 
Testimonium  Animae,  etc.  (N.Y. :  1908),  Chap.  V  Voices  from  the 
Lyrical  Poets.  F.  Thompson,  Shelley  (in  The  Dublin  Rev.,  July, 
1908).  A.  C.  Bradley,  Oxford  Lectures  on  Poetry  (Lond.:  1909). 
H.  T.  Peck,  Studies  in  Several  Literatures  (N.Y.:  1909),  IV  The 
Lyrics  of  Tennyson.  B.  de  Selincourt,  William  Blake  (1909).  R.  Le 
Gallienne,  Attitudes  and  Avowals  (1910).  G.  Murray,  What  English 


VI,  A]  GERMAN  129 

Poetry  may  still  learn  from  Greek  (in  Atlantic  Mo.,  Nov.  1912),  —  an 
admirable  essay.  H.  C.  Beeching,  Blake's  Religious  Lyrics- (in  Essays 
and  Studies  by  Members -of  the  English  Association,  vol.  Ill,  1912). 
Amy  Cruse,  The  Elizabethan  Lyrists  and  their  Poetry  (Lond. :  1913). 

For  the  modernization  of  old  French  metres  (rondeau,  rondel,  triolet, 
etc.)  in  England,  see  A'.  Dobson's  Note  on  Some  Foreign  Forms  of 
Verse  (in  Latter-Day  Lyrics. -Ed.  by  W.  D.  Adams.  Lond.:  1878); 
E.  W.  Gosse,  in  the  Cornhill  Mag.,  July,  1877;  Alden,  English  Verse 
(N.  Y. :  1903),  pp.  359-388  ;  Gayley  and  Young,  Princ.  and  Prog.  Engl. 
Poetry,  87-91.  Compare  the  French  revival  of  these  old  forms;  see 
T.  de  Banville,  Odes  funambulesques,  Petit  traite"  de  poesie  frangaise, 
and  other  works. 

VI.  German. 

For  general  reviews  of  German  criticism  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  422-428,  where  the  history  of  German  poetics  is  resumed  under 
five  periods ;  Saintsbury's  Hist,  of  Crit. ;  E.  Grucker,  Histoire  des 
doctrines  litte"raires  et  esthe"tiques  en  Allemagne  (Paris:  1883).. 

A.   To  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

For  German  criticism  to  the  i8th  century  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
p.  422;  Saintsbury,  vol.  II,  Bk.  V,  Chap.  Ill ;  K.  Borinski,  Die  Poetik 
der  Renaissance  und  der  Anfang  der  literarischen  Kritik  in  Deutschland 
(Berlin:  1886);  T.  S.  Perry,  From  Opitz  to  Lessing  (Boston :  1885); 
Blankenburg,  as  noted  above,  §  2. 

German  criticism  up  to  the  time  of  Bodmer  (1721)  is  purely 
formalistic,  relies  upon  foreign  poetics  (Italian  and  French),  and 
is  negligible  in  the  history  of  the  criticism  of  the  lyric.  For  early 
treatises  in  Latin  on  Latin  prosody,  see  Borinski,  pp.  15—55  > 
notice  also  what  Borinski  has  to  say  on  the  influence  of  Luther. 
For  the  critical  point  of  view  of  the  Latin  versifiers  of  the  age  of 
Luther  see  Conrad  Celtes,  Ars  versificandi  et  carminum  (Leipz. : 
1486;  cf.  A.  Schroeter,  Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der  neulat.  Poesie, 
etc.,  Palaestra,  77:  i).  To  the  year  1571  belongs  Adam  Pusch- 
mann's  Grundlicher  Bericht  des  deutschen  Meistergesangs  (in 
Niemeyer's  Neudrucke.  Halle:  1888).  Puschmann  was  a  pupil 
of  Hans  Sachs.  Voss  detects  a  lyrical  character  in  the  earliest 
poetry  of  the  race  (Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  i  :  359).  Opitz, 
who  himself  practised  the  lyric  in  a  didactic  and  sententious  style, 


130  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

speaks  of  it  ineffectually  in  his  Buch  von  der  deutschen  Poeterey 
(1624).  fie  says  that  the  lyric  requires  in  the  poet  a  free  and 
happy  spirit,  and  the  ornament  of  sententious  epigram.  Love  is 
recognized  as  a  natural  subject,  but  passion  is  feared :  the  Chris- 
tian should  be  more  restrained  in  poetic  passion  than  the  heathen 
(see  Chap.  V  of  the  work;  cf.  Borinski,  72-74;  Grucker,  op.  tit., 
163-164;  Veranek,  M.  Opitz  in  seinem  Verhaltniss  zu  Scaliger 
und  Ron  sard  (Vienna:  1883.  Progr.)).  For  Birken  (1679),  see 
below,  §  6,  xin,  D.  D.  G.  Morhof  touches  upon  the  lyric  in 
his  Unterricht  von  der  deutschen  Sprache  und  Poesie,  deren 
Ursprung,  Fortgang  und  Lehrsatzen  (Kiel:  1682),  Chap.  XV. 

B.  The  Eighteenth  Century. 

See  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  423-425;  Saintsbury,  vol.  II,  Bk.  VI, 
Chap.  Ill,  and  vol.  Ill,  Bk.'vil,  Chaps.  II,  V;  F.  Braitmaier,  Ge- 
schichte  der  poetischen  Theorie  und  Kritik  von  den  Diskursen  der  Maler 
bis  auf  Lessing  (2  Thl.  Frauenfeld :  1888-89);  T.  S.  Perry,  as  noted 
above;  B.  Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesthetic,  210  ff.  (Lond. :  1904);  O. 
Neboliczka,  Schaferdichtung  und  Poetik  im  18.  Jahrh.  (in  Viertel- 
jahrsch.  f.  Littgesch.  2:  1-89),  which  contains  bibliography  and  a 
history  of  the  poetics  of  the  century;  Blankenburg,  as  noted  above, 
§  2.  Braitmaier  is  the  chief  authority.  His  work  should  be  studied 
carefully,  in  order  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  circumstances  attending 
the  birth  of  German  criticism.  His  references  to  Ode,  Epic,  and  Drama 
will  afford  clues  to  the  discussion  of  these  types  by  the  German  critics 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  For  citations  of  Horace  during  this  period 
see  the  footnotes  to  the  text  of  the  Ars  Poetica  in  J.  Bintz's  Der 
Einfluss  der  Ars  Poetica  des  Horaz  auf  die  deutsche  Literatur  des 
XVIII.  Jahrhs.  (Progr.  Hamburg:  1892). 

German  literary  criticism  practically  begins  in  this  century  with 
the  polemical  quarrel,  .frequently  descending  to  an  acrimonious 
interchange  of  personalities,  between  the  romantic  Swiss  School 
of  Bodmer,  J.  J.  Breitinger,  and  others,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
neo-classic,  rule-giving  School  of  Grojtsched  on  the  other  hand. 
The  Swiss  critics  "  pointed  out  the  vanity  of  the  existing  French 
school  of  German  poets  and  critics,  and  attacked  the  accepted 
authorities  on  German  art."  This  involved  an  attack  upon  Gott- 
sched  and  the  Saxon  School,  which  was  returned  in  good  earnest. 


VI,  B]  GERMAN  131 

Little,  however,  is  said  about  the  theory  of  the  lyric.  Bodmer's 
critical  weekly,  Diskurse  der  Maler  (1721-23),  is  inclined  to  the 
discussion  of  poetry  in  general.  Slight  attention  is  paid  to  the 
various  types.  So  far  as  the  ode  is  concerned  there  is  little  else 
than  a  repetition  of  the  famous  locus  in  Boileau.  For  other  peri- 
odicals that  followed  the  Diskurse,  see  Braitmaier,  i  :  40  ff. 
Gottsched,  with  his  pseudo-classicism,  relying  upon  the  French 
and  the  Ancients,  follows  Scaliger  and  Boileau  in  the  treatment 
of  the  lyric  (see  the  second  part  of  his  Versuch  einer  kritischen 
Dichtkunst,  etc,,  1730;  cf.  Braitmaier,  i:  108-110;  Grucker, 
438  ff.).  On  Gottsched,  see  the  references  given  under  his  name 
both  below,  §§  6,  9,  and -also  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20.  The 
Bremer  Beitrage  (Neue  Beitrdge  zum  Vergnugen  des  Verstandes 
und  Witzes.  i744ff.)  have  but  little  criticism,  and  nothing  on  the. 
lyric,  though  many  lyric  poems  are  contained  in  the  various  num- 
bers. J.  F.  von  Bielfeld's  L'e'rudition  universelle,  ou  analyse 
abregee  de  toutes  les  sciences,  des  beaux-arts,  et  des  belles-lettres 
(4  vols.  Berlin:  1768.  English  trans,  by  W.  Hooper,  The  Ele- 
ments of  Universal  Erudition,  etc.  3  vols.  Lond. :  1770)  contains 
a  conventional  account  of  the  various  types,  with  much  quotation 
of  Boileau  and  Voltaire. 

The  second  half  of  this  century  is  the  age  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller,  the  Classical  Period  of  German  literature.  The  criticism 
which  accompanies  this  period  is  philosophical  in  character,  and 
achieves  its  main  development  in  the  next  century  (for  notice  see 
below).  Goethe's  fragmentary  utterances  on  the  lyric  belong 
partly  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  partly  to  the 
first  thirty  years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Attention  should  be 
given  not  only  to  his  major  writings  but  to  his  book  reviews, 
maxims  and  reflections,  to  Uber  den  sogenannten  Dilettantismus, 
and  to  the  Noten  und  Abhandlungen  zum  West-6'stlichen  Divan : 
Dichtarten,  Naturformen  der  Dichtung.  In  this  last,  lyric,  epic, 
and  drama  are  regarded  as  the  three  original  and  natural  forms 
of  poetry.  In  the  notice  of  Manzoni's  Adelchi  (1827),  it  is  pointed 
out  that  the  lyric  entices  the  reader  into  participation  with  the 


132  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

subject  or  situation,  whereas  in  pragmatic  (epic  and  dramatic) 
poetry  the  hearer  need  only  keep  himself  in  a  state  of  lively 
receptivity.  Other  scattered  remarks  will  be  found  in  Wilhelm 
Meister  and  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit;  see  also  Eckermann's 
Conversations  with  Goethe.  On  Goethe's  literary  criticism  in 
general,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  314-317.  For  Herder, 
see  above,  §  2.  Examples  of  the  German  philosophical  works 
on  aesthetic,  of  the  numerous  Theorien  der  schonen  Wissenschaften 
written  during  the  last  quarter  of  the  i8th  century,  are  listed  in 
Blankenburg,  Art.  Aesthetik.  Among  others  the  following  con- 
tain typical  remarks  upon  the  lyric:  J.  A.  Eberhard,  Theorie  der 
schonen  Wissenschaften  (Halle:  1783;  3d  ed.  1789),  p.  262;  J.  J. 
Eschenburg,  Entwurf  einer  Theorie  und  Litteratur  der  schonen 
Wissenschaften  (Berlin:  1783;  another  ed.  1789),  Pt.  VII; 
C.  Meiners,  Grundriss  der  Theorie  und  Geschichte  der  schonen 
Wissenschaften  (Lemgo :  1787),  Chap.  XVIII ;  K.  H.  Heydenreich, 
System  der  Aesthetik  (Leipz. :  1790),  pp.  269,  317.  Richter, 
Engel,  and  Mendelssohn  are  noted  above,  §  2. 

C.  T/ie  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries. 

See  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  425-428;  Saintsbury,  vol.  Ill,  Bk.  VIII, 
Chap.  Ill,  Bk.  IX,  Chap.  IV;  E.  Wolff,  Ueber  neuere  Beitrage  z. 
Gesch.  d.  Poetik  (in  Archiv.  f.  Gesch.  d.  Philos.  4:  251).  A  brief 
introduction  to  the  speculative,  inductive,  and  psychological  poetics  of 
this  century  will  be  found  in  pp.  10-40  of  Lehmann's  Poetik,  cited 
below.  On  the  aesthetic  philosophy  of  Schelling,  Hegel,  Schopenhauer, 
Herbart,  Zimmermann,  Solger,  Rosenkranz,  Carriere,  Hartmann,  and 
others,  see  Chaps.  XII-XIV  of  Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic  2d  ed. 
Lond. :  1 904). 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  i8th  century  occurred,  as  already  noted, 
the  Classical  Period  of  German  literature  and  criticism,  the  period 
of  Lessing,  Schiller,  Goethe,  Herder,  and  Richter.  In  this  period, 
and  the  first  fifty  or  seventy-five  years  of  the  igth  century,  th> 
rule-criticism  of  the  previous  poetics,  with  its  monotonous  discus- 
sions of  function  and  technique,  is  superseded  by  a  criticism  of 
greater  insight  that  endeavors  to  philosophize  upon  the  essential 
nature  of  poetry  and  its  various  kinds.  The  general  influence  of 


VI,  C]  GERMAN  133 

Alexander  Baumgarten,  Gellert,  Kant,  Fichte,  Hegel,  and  Schopen- 
hauer upon  the  development  of  this  philosophical  criticism  should 
be  noted  (see  references  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  423-427).  But 
though  a  widening  of  the  scope  of  criticism  is  effected,  such  criti- 
cism is  vitiated  to  no  slight  extent  by  a  priori  deduction  and  by  a 
repetition  of  philosophical  commonplaces  that  can  be  compared 
only  with  the  endless  repetition  of  the  '  tags '  of  formal  Renais- 
sance criticism.  The  idea  of  the  lyric  is  first  deduced  from  the 
author's  general  philosophical  prepossession.  Its  nature  is  then 
distinguished  from  the  epic  as  subjective  instead  of  objective; 
concerned  with  the  present  rather  than  the  past ;  having  its 
source  in  feeling,  not  in  events ;  revealing  the  personality  of  the 
poet,  whereas  the  epic  bard  is  lost  in  -anonymity ;  presenting  eter- 
nity in  a  moment,  and  not,  as  in  the  epic,  ranging  through  a  long 
series  of  deeds ;  suggesting  the  universal  in  the  individual  rather 
than  in  a  group  or  society;  approximating  music  rather  than 
history ;  etc.,  etc.  In  a  somewhat  similar  manner,  the  lyric  is 
distinguished  from  the  drama.  The  drama,  for  instance,  must  be 
made  to  appear  as  concerned  with  the  future,  since  the  lyric  has 
already  occupied  "  the  present "  and  the  epic,  "  the  past."  Such 
a  triad  philosophical  generalization  was  unable  to  resist ;  and  the 
process  of  reasoning  was  only  too  easy.  In  the  drama  each  scene, 
each  act,  takes  place  in  the  present ;  but  its  final  significance  is  not 
in  the  present,  it  is  prospective  :  ergo,  the  drama  is  concerned  with 
the  future.  But  the  distinction  from  the  epic  is  not  so  clear  after 
all.  For  epic  suspense,  although  it  occurs  in  connection  with  past 
events,  also  casts  forward  to  a  future.  Moreover  the  "  present " 
time  of  the  drama  is  but  an  ideal  present,  achieved  by  illusion ;  and 
a  similar  illusion  of  ideal  time  is  achieved  in  the  epic :  the  reader 
looks  toward  the  "  future  "  contained  in  the  next  book  or  canto, 
just  as  the  play-goer  looks  to  the  next  scene  or  act.  For  further 
comparisons  of  lyric  and  drama  consult  the  references  given  below. 
The  last  quarter  of  the  century  witnesses  the  application  of 
inductive  method  and  evolutionary  principles  to  the  study  of  lit- 
erature,—  an  attempt  to  create  a  science  of  literature.  Several 


134  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

historico-philosophical  works  had  already  employed  a  semi-scientific 
method  (e.g.  those  of  Rosenkranz,  Wackernagel,  Carriere).  To 
this  kind  of  study  Scherer's  Poetik  gave  an  impetus :  it  empha- 
sized the  psychological  bases  of  literary  investigation.  Others, 
like  Du  Prel  and  Geiger  (see  §  2),  elaborated  the  psychology  of 
the  lyric  —  still  somewhat  theoretical.  Bruchmann  and  Wolff  de- 
veloped the  theory  of  literary  evolution.  Since  the  scientific 
method  necessarily  leads  away  from  theoretical  discussion,  we 
shall  note  its  achievements  elsewhere  (see  section  on  the  historical 
study  of  the  lyric  in  the  nineteenth  century,  below,  §  6,  xui,  F). 
In  the  list  that  follows  the  student  will  note  a  variety  of  minor 
essays  that  are  composite  in  method  (Lehmann's  Poetik,  for 
example),  or  fragmentary  in.  purpose  (the  majority),  or  dilettante 
and  polemical  (Holz  and  Honegger).  For  the  more  important 
works,  see  above,  §  2. 

On  A.  W.  Schlegel's  Vorlesung  iiber  das  Sonett  (1803)  see  Welti's 
Gesch.  d.  Sonettes,  p.  241  ff.  K.  W.  F.  Solger,  Vorlesungen  iiber 
die  Aesthetik  (Leipz. :  1829),  p.  298  ff.  Solger  was  the  forerunner  of 
the  romantic  school  of  poetics  (see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  118,  424). 
The  important  Aesthetics  of  Hegel,  Schelling,  Schopenhauer,  Vischer, 
and  others  are  noted  above,  §  2.  K.  Rosenkranz,  Die  Poesie  und 
ihre  Geschichte :  Eine  Entwicklung  der  poetischen  Ideale  der  Vftlker 
(Konigsberg  :  1855),  —  historical  in  method  and  arrangement,  but  philo- 
sophical (Hegelian)  in  its  underlying  idea  and  purpose.  Material  on  the 
lyric  must  be  gleaned  from  the  various  historical  divisions.  On  the  gen- 
eral theory  of  the  work,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  427.  R.  Zimmermann, 
Allgemeine  Aesthetik (2  vols.  1858-65),  §  582  ff.  C.  Lemcke,  Aesthetik 
(ist  ed.  1865  ;  6th  ed.,  Leipz.:  1890).  H.  Baumgart's  Handbuch  der 
Poetik  (Stuttgart:  1887)  contains  comparatively  little  on  the  lyric,  and 
that  mostly  in  connection  with  Lessing's  definition  of  poetry  as  given  in 
the  Laocoon ;  the  method  is  philosophical.  W.  Scherer's  Poetik  (Berlin : 
1888)  has  little  on  the  lyric,  because  of  its  lack  of  determinate  unity  as 
a  type  (pp.  245,  252) ;  cf.  the  letter  cited  in  the  Anhang  (296-297),  which 
suggests  that  lyric  and  drama  are  the  two  Urphdnomena,  whereas  the 
epic  stands  between  them  and  may  be  partly  lyrical,  partly  dramatic. 
Werner's  Lyrik  und  Lyriker  (cited  above,  §  2)  is  an  attempt  to  apply 
Scherer's  psychological  method  to  the  study  of  the  type.  H.  Viehoff, 
Die  Poetik  auf  der  Grundlage  der  Erfahrungsseelenlehre  (Trier :  \\ 


VI,  C]  GERMAN  135 

—  philosophical  and  psychological,  but  the  handling  of  the  lyric  is  of  a 
piece  with  the  usual  philosophical  treatment.  See  p.  470  ff.  for  prin- 
ciples of  division  and  for  classification  of  the  lyric.  Karl  Elze,  in 
Chaps.  XI  and  XII  of  the  Grundriss  der  englischen  Philologie  (2d  ed. 
Halle :  1 889),  distinguishes  the  style  and  metres  of  the  lyric  from  those 
of  other  types.  V.  Valentin,  Die  Dreiteiligkeit  in  der  Lyrik  (in 
Zeitschr.  f.  vergl.  Littgesch.,  N.  F.,  II  (1889),  9).  P.  Heinze  and 
R.  Goette,  Deutsche  Poetik  (Dresden  :  1891) :  for  Werner's  criticism  of 
the  authors'  classification  of  the  lyric,  see  Jahresb.  fur  neuere  deutsche 
Littgesch.,  vol.  II,  I,  3  :  45.  J.  J.  Honegger,  Das  deutsche  Lied  der 
Neuzeit,  etc.  (Leipz. :  1891), — descriptive  and  superficial.  O.  Harnack, 
U&e.r'Lyriklin  Preussischejahrbiicher,6f):  386-401.  1892).  Brock- 
haus,  Konversations-Lexikon,  Art.  Lyrik  (Berlin  :  1 893).  A.  Biese, 
Lyrische  Dichtung,  etc.  (Berlin  :  1 896),  Chap.  I ;  Lyrische  Dichtung  und 
neuere  deutsche  Lyriker  (Berlin:  1896),  — the  nature,  aesthetic  enjoy- 
ment, and  genesis  of  the  lyric  (Chap.  I),  with  criticism  of  German  lyrists. 
K.  Busse,  Ueber  Lyrik  und  Lyriker  (in  Magazin  fur  Litt.  d.  In-  und 
Auslandes,  65:  35-47.  1896).  L.  Jacobowski,  Die  Lyrik  d.  Unge- 
bildeten  (in  Blatter  fur  litt.  Unterhaltung  (1896),  pp.  449-452),  —  the 
popular  lyric  is  always  striving  to  become  art-poetry  (cf.  Burns). 
J.  Oertner,  Betrachtungen  iiber  die  deutsche  Lyrik  (Progr.,  Gross- 
Strehlitz  :  1 896).  A.  Thimme,  Lied  und  Mare  (Giitersloh  :  1 896),  — 
characteristics  of  folk-poetry.  W.  Nef,  Die  Lyrik  als  besondere 
Dichtungsgattung  (Diss.  Zurich:  1898).  O.  Harnack,  Ueber  Lyrik, 
in  his  Essais  und  Studien,  pp.  20-38  (Braunschweig  :  1 899) :  two  modes 
of  emotional  expression,  —  direct  statement  and  suggestion  by  images. 
.Arno  Holz,  Revolution  der  Lyrik  (Berlin:  1899),  —  heated  polemic  in 
favor  of  Holz's  lyric  "  Telegrammstil,"  i.e.,  his  long  and  short  verses 
divided  by  caprice,  depending  for  their  effect  primarily  upon  the  idea, 
only  secondarily  upon  rhythmic  pattern.  For  replies,  reviews,  etc., 
see  Jahresb.  fiir  neuere  deutsche  Littgesch.,  vol.  XI,  I,  3:  246-251. 
J.  K.  von  Hoesslin,  Gedankenmelodien.  Studien  iiber  die  lyrischen  Mittel 
in  der  Dichtung  (in  Die  Gegenivart,  63:  39-42.  1903).  R.  Prb'lss, 
Asthetik  (3d  ed.  Leipz.:  1904),  §76.  H.  Haag,  L.  Uhland.  Die 
Entwicklung  des  Lyrikers  und  die  Genesis  des  Gedichts  (Stuttgart  und 
Berlin:  1907).  Anon.,  Grundriss  einer  Methodologie  der  Geistes- 
wissenschaften,  etc.  (Wien:  1908), — mystical.  R.  Lehmann,  Deutsche 
Poetik  (Muenchen  :  1 908) :  not  satisfied  with  inductive  or  psychological 
methods  taken  singly,  the  author  combines  them  and,  viewing  the 
problem  from  various  angles,  aims  to  present  Poetics  as  the  technology 
of  art  (Kunstlehre}.  W.  Peper,  Die  lyrische  Dichtung  (Leipz.: 


136  THEORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  3 

1909),  —  for  German  schools.  P.  Witkop,  Die  neuere  deutsche 
Lyrik,  vol.  I  (Leipz. :  1910),  —  a  series  of  essays,  with  a  brief  and 
"  thin  "  theoretical  introduction  on  modern  German  lyrists  (from  von 
Spec  to  Holderlin).  The  author  attempts  to  discover  in  each  modern 
German  lyric  poet  some  eternal  type  of  humanity.  For  further  refer- 
ences see  the  Jahresb.  fur  neuere  deutsche  Littgesch. 

VII.  For  Dutch  and  Spanish  criticism,  see  Saintsbury,  Hist. 
Crit.  The  most  important  guide  for  Spanish  criticism  is  Menendez 
y  Pelayo's  Historia  de  las  ideas  esteticas  en  Espana  (9  vols.  2d  ed. 
Madrid:  1890-1904).  With  this  should  be  used  F.  Fernandez  y 
Gonzalez'  Historia  de  la  crftica  literaria  desde  Luzan  hasta  nuestros 
dias  (1870). 


CHAPTER   II 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

v 

SECTION  4.    STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS  ;  ANALYSIS 

Here  the  student  enters  upon  a  subject  hitherto  surprisingly 
neglected.  The  principles  of  the  lyric,  even  from  the  theoretic 
point  of  view,  have  with  peculiar  nonchalance  been  passed  over 
by  many  of  the  most  distinguished  critics  up  to  the  third  decade 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  as  too  vague  for  determination  or  too 
delicate  and  capricious  for  analysis.  "  Bis  jetzt,"  according  to 
Richard  Werner,  "ist  die  Lyrik  das  Stiefkind  der  Forschung 
geblieben."  For  the  species  of  poetry  other  than  the  drama 
and  the  epic  Aristotle  could  find  "  no  name  generally  applicable  "  ; 
his  treatise  accordingly  limits  itself  to  the  laws  of  epic  and  tragic 
productions.  Longinus  and  Proclus  expatiate  upon  the  aesthetic 
emotions  that  obtain  expression  in  poetry,  upon  peculiarities  of 
diction,  imagery,  and  type ;  but  they  leave  us  no  generalizations 
concerning  the  mass  of  Greek  verse  which  we  denominate  lyrical. 
Horace  confines  himself  to  the  laws  of  the  epic  and  the  conven- 
tionalities of  the  stage.  To  the  secret  of  the  Carmina,  even  of 
his  own,  he  gives  us  no  key.  Quintilian  considers  but  four  of  the 
nine  lyrists  of  Greece,  and  those  he  criticizes  from  the  oratorical 
rather  than  the  poetical  point  of  view.  Of  the  lyric  writers  of 
Rome  "  Horatius  fere  solus  legi  dignus,"  and  that  merely  because 
of  his  sweetness,  his  grace,  and  his  happy  audacity  of  figurative 
phrase  and  of  diction.  Still  slighter  hint  of  the  reason  for  the 
charm,  less  suggestion  of  the  definite  principles  of  the  lyric,  is 
dropped  by  the  Scholiasts,  by  the  Italians  of  the  Renaissance, 
by  the  Bales,  Puttenhams,  and  Webbes.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  tells 
us  more  in  two  paragraphs  than  most  of  his  predecessors  in  all 


138  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§4 

their  works  concerning  the  lyric  poet :  "  Who  giveth  praise,  the 
reward  of  virtue  to  virtuous  acts ;  who  giveth  moral  precepts 
and  natural  problems ;  who  sometimes  raiseth  up  his  voice  to 
the  height  of  the  heavens,  in  singing  the  lauds  of  immortal  God." 
But  although  he  recognizes  the  glorious  possibilities  of  the  lyric  in 
celebrating  immortal  beauty  and  immortal  goodness,  he  neither 
defines  the  principle  nor  illustrates  the  kinds  of  the  type.  Such 
was  not  his  purpose. 

Vida,  Boileau,  Le  Bossu,  Pope,  and  the  rest  of  them  may  be 
searched  in  vain  for  any  discussion  that  may  avail.  Schiller  and 
Goethe  wrote  about  the  drama  but  not  much  about  the  lyric.  In 
quality  and  importance  they  deemed  the  lyric  inferior ;  in  manner 
and  principle  they  thought  it  too  capricious  for  analysis.  Many 
of  the  German  writers  of  poetics,  Wackernagel,  Scherer,  Gottschall, 
and  the  like,  derive  the  lyric  from  other  types  or  distribute  its  sub- 
species under  other  divisions  of  poetry  in  various  fashions  and 
with  varying  degrees  of  unconvincingness.  That  no  two  agree 
is  to  be  expected  since  each  adopts  a  new  principle  of  classifica- 
tion :  one  the  subject  treated  of,  another  the  method  of  treatment, 
a  third  the  form,  a  fourth  the  purpose,  and  so  on. 

During  the  last  hundred  years  in  England  the  most  sympathetic 
and  valuable  estimates  of  the  nature  and  function  of  the  lyric  have 
been  those  of  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  Browning,  Matthew  Arnold, 
and  John  Stuart  Mill.  But  the  radical  defect  of  English  criticism 
has  been  its  disregard  of  the  historical  method  of  investigation. 
If,  as  will  readily  be  granted,  the  lyric  is  difficult  of  definition 
and  division  on  a  priori  principles,  the  only  reasonable  recourse 
is  to  its  historic  development.  The  investigations  of  Hegel,  von 
Hartmann,  and  Vischer  (see  above,  §  2)  into  the  growth  of  the 
lyric  as  an  organic  member  of  the  poetic  genus  and  their  induc- 
tions concerning  the  national  differentiae  of  the  lyric  species  are 
an  invaluable  contribution  to  literary  science.  Other  authorities 
(some  of  more  recent  years)  will  be  mentioned  in  the  course 
of  this  chapter;  suffice  it  here  to  remind  the  student  that  the 
only  way  to  arrive  at  a  just  mastery  of  lyric  forms,  capabilities, 


§4]  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;    ANALYSIS  139 

and  principles  is  not  by  deduction  from  authority,  but  by  study 
of  the  evolution  of  the  type. 

Before  the  student  undertakes  to  study  the  development  of  a 
type  he  should  inform  himself  of  the  actual  methods  of  historical 
research.  The  most  common  has  been  called  the  chronological 
method  (Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  352),  but  it  is  also  descriptive, 
aesthetic,  and  sociological.  It  consists  in  arranging  works  of 
given  sorts  in  the  order  of  their  production,  in  marking  out 
more  or  less  roughly  the  limits  of  great  epochs  of  development, 
in  supplying  illustrative  biographical  details  and  brief,  critical 
appraisals,  and  in  connecting  the  literary  phenomena  more  or 
less  vaguely  with  the  growth  of  various  social  forces,  —  eco- 
nomic, political,  religious,  and  the  like.  Most  of  the  general 
histories  of  national  literature  and  many  of  those  that  deal  with 
particular  types  or  periods  are  of  this  complex  mode. 

Another  method,  often  named  historical  or  comparative,  but 
not  really  scientific,  consists  in  gathering  the  facts  of  literary 
history  under  concepts  or  classes  deduced  from  philosophical, 
even  metaphysical,  generalization.  This,  the  method  of  Hegel 
and  his  followers  (Vischer,  Carriere,  etc.),  may  better  be  called 
the  judicial,  deductive,  or  schematic.  From  the  conveniently  re- 
moved height  of  a  world-formula  the  philosopher  gazes  upon 
the  facts  of  literature  and,  frequently  with  little  first-hand  inves- 
tigation of  their  meaning,  differentiation,  and  history,  forcibly 
marshals  them  under  his  preconceived  categories.  In  spite  of 
such  procrustean  Schematismus,  the  philosophers  of  literary  history 
have,  as  every  student  must  gratefully  acknowledge,  supplied  us 
with  a  broad  outlook  and  with  suggestions  of  problems  and  aims 
stimulating  to  inductive  research.  Indeed,  their  universal  affirma- 
tives and  negatives  and  their  logically  evolved  categories  are  the 
outcome  of  some  sort  of  observation  of  literature  in  general,  and 
of  its  relation  to  life,  growth,  law,  aesthetic  motive,  and  the  ideal, 
and  therefore,  in  view  of  the  intricate  interrelation  of  all  phe- 
nomena, cannot  but  have  some  bearing  —  often  poetic  and 
illuminating  —  upon  the  principles  of  literary  development. 


140  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  4 

The  third  method  "  does  not  dispense  with  the  discipline  of 
the  two  former,  nor  with  the  results  provided  by  them,  but, 
proceeding  on  the  principles  of  rational  sequence  and  organic  de- 
velopment, it  corrects  defective  conclusions  based  upon  temporal 
sequence  and  formal  resemblance"  (Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  352). 
It  may  properly  be  called  inductive  and  comparative.  It  consists 
of  two  steps :  collection  of  definitely  ascertained  data,  and  com- 
parison of  these  with  a  view  to  the  induction  of  general  laws 
of  development.  To  the  first  step  belongs  the  multitude  of 
monographs  on  literary  sources  and  cross-influences.  We  have 
essays  on  the  sources  of  a  form,  as  the  tercet,  or  of  an  idea,  as 
"  Where  are  the  roses  of  yesterday  ?  "  ;  or  on  the  influence  of  one 
poet  upon  another  or  upon  a  whole  period  or  type,  as  Petrarch's 
influence  upon  the  French  and  English  lyric.  The  facts  —  dates, 
sources,  influences  —  determined  by  this  exact  research  supply 
material  for  an  inductive  study  of  the  nature  and  causes  of 
literary  growth  in  general  and  also  in  particular  periods  or 
types.  Such  induction 'is  an  end  in  itself,  and  justifies  the  exten- 
sive labor  of  ascertaining  and  collecting  details.  By  its  help 
scholars  may  someday  be  able  "  to  show  that  the  birth,  rise, 
culmination,  and  decline  of  literary  movements  are  manifestations 
of  a  general  law,"  or  to  point  out  some  "  tolerably  permanent 
principle  of  social  evolution  round  which  the  facts  of  literary 
growth  and  decay  may  be  grouped." 

More  particularly,  with  reference  to  the  growth  of  literary  types, 
inductive  study  hopes  to  answer  such  questions  as : 

Why  do  certain  types  of  literature  become  prominent  at  certain  epochs 
of  history?  Why  should  certain  literary  forms  and  ideas  persist  from 
generation  to  generation,  or  recur  at  intervals?  Is  there  any  law  govern- 
ing the  order  x>f  such  recurrence  ?  What  signs  accompany  the  rise,  the 
maturity,  and  the  obsolescence  of  a  given  type  ?  Does  one  literary  type, 
as  epic,  ever  pass  into  another,  as  drama,  by  a  definite  process  of  trans- 
formation? And,  if  so,  what  are  the  modifying  influences  which  effect 
such  a  metamorphosis  ?  Why  are  certain  literary  forms  missing  from 
certain  literatures?  For  that  matter,  the  doubter  would  ask:  Are  there 
any  fixed,  definite  and  indispensable  literary  types  at  all?  And  if  so, 


I,  A]  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  LYRIC  141 

have  they  any  inherent  principle  of  development,  any  quasi-biological 
or  genetic  quality  ?  Is  it  possible  that  their  apparent  '  growth '  and 
1  change '  are  but  the  growth  and  change  of  creative  genius  —  of  succes- 
sive poets  —  under  the  pressure  of  successive  external  influences,  social, 
political,  economic,  international,  etc.  ? . 

For  the  above  questions  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  239-250,  266- 
270,  350-367.  For  various  attempts  to  define  and  outline  the  scientific 
method  see  Taine,  Brunetiere,  Hennequin,  Eug.  Wolff,  Scherer,  Posnett, 
Bruchmann.  The  works  of  these  authors,  a  fuller  discussion  of  the 
various  methods  of  historical  study,  and  bibliography  of  the  subject 
as  a  whole  may  be  found  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§  16,  17,  18,  21  A, 
Comparative  Literature,  and  Historical  Study  of  Poetry.  Note  especially 
pp.  351-353,  on  the  three  ways  of  approaching  the  subject:  the  Linear 
or  Chronological,  the  Encyclopedic,  and  the  Cyclic.  The  scientific- 
historical  method  is  considered  at  length  by  C.  M.  Gayley  in  What 
is  Comparative  Literature?  (Atl.  Mo.,  July,  1903,  pp.  56-68);  and  the 
relation  of  literary  science  to  other  methods  of  study  is  discussed  by 
the  same  writer  in  The  Development  of  Literary  Studies  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  (St.  Louis  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  Boston  :  1 906 
—  vol.  Ill,  pp.  321-353).  See  also  Manly,  Hoskins,  and  Biedermann. 

Since  study  of  'this  kind  is  still  in  its  experimental  stage,  and 
consequently  suffers  both  from  confusion  of  hypotheses  and 
lack  of  accurate  knowledge  of  the  history  and  import  of 
many  particulars  that  fall  under  observation,  it  is  patent  that 
no  specific  laws  of  development  can  be  quoted  here  as  generally 
accepted  by  the  world  of  scholarship.  Several,  however,  are  cited, 
as  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  student,  in  the  historical  sections 
and  bibliographical  notices  which  follow.  The  purpose  of  this 
section  is  to  suggest  in  a  general  way  the  scope  of  inductive 
inquiries  into  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  lyric.  Sotne  special 
problems,  relating  to  particular  literatures,  periods,  movements, 
or  poets,  are  noted  in  connection  with  the  summaries  of  lyric 
development  by  nationalities  that  make  up  §  6,  below. 

In  pursuit  of  this  plan  there  may  be  considered  here : 

I.  The  Beginnings  of  the  Lyric. 

A.  With  Reference  to  Preceding  and  Succeeding  Artistic  and 
Literary  Types,  i.  How,  for  instance,  did  poetry  differentiate 


142  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§4 

itself  (historically  considered)  from  the  -primitive  Art  of  Move- 
ment —  the  religious,  mimetic,  choral  and  musical  dance  ?  See 
Spencer  (First  Principles,  105-109),  Fiske  (Cosmic  Philosophy), 
and  Gummere ;  further  references  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  266- 
274.  Can  the  origin  of  the  lyric  be  traced  to  the  involuntary 
repetition  of  words  and  phrases  by  the  individual  when  in  a  state 
of  strong  excitement  ?  to  the  rhythmic  "  dilatations  and  contrac- 
tions of  the  heart  which  are  the  physiological  accompaniments  of 
emotion  "  ?  Can  it  be  traced  to  the  work-songs  of  primitive  peoples 
(Hirn)  ?  or  to  the  substitution  of  words  and  sense  for  the  series  of 
meaningless  sounds  of  which  songs  originally  consisted  (Adam 
Smith,  Dessoir)?  Compare  the  theories  of  the  origin  of  the  art 
instinct,  for  which  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  173-176. 

2.  How  did  the  lyric  gain  an  individuality  distinct  from  other 
poetic  types  ?  3.  Did  the  lyric  precede  or  succeed  the  epic  ?  What 
does  the  history  of  poetry  in  Greece  suggest  ?  What  also  (for  critics 
are  somewhat  prone  to  limit  their  investigations  to  the  circle  of 
Greek  and  Roman  poetry)  does  the  history  of  poetry  among  the 
nations  of  modern  Europe  prove  ?  —  Anglo-Saxon  poetry,  Old 
High  German,  Early  Italian,  Provencal  ?  See  references  to  the 
lyric  poetry  of  various  literatures  in  §  6,  below.  Among  authorities, 
see  Mure,  ten  Brink,  Jebb,  Jevons,  Posnett.  4.  Study  the  early 
poetry  of  any  familiar  literature,  comparing  lyric  effusions  with 
epic  or  dramatic  in  respect  of  naivete  of  form,  dependence  upon 
choral  assistance,  use  of  figurative  language,  continuity  of  narrative 
purpose,  unity  of  thought  and  feeling,  persistence  or  duration  of 
emotion,  dependence  upon  '  occasional '  inspiration  or  impulse. 
Note  ten  Brink's  application  of  this  method  in  his  Early  English 
Literature.  5.  What  part  may  the  desire  of  change  or  novelty 
have  played  in  the  substitution  of  lyric  for  epic  (or  vice  versa), 
as  the  popular  form  of  poetry?  6.  Differentiate  the  impersonal 
Volkslyrik  from  the  personal  art  lyric.  See  Gummere  (Origins  of 
Poetry),  A.  E.  Berger,  and  H.  Grasberger.  Can  the  art  lyric  any- 
where be  shown  to  have  emerged  from  the  folk  song  ?  Consider 
the  earliest  written  songs  of  the  French  trouveres  (Chambers). 


I,  B]  THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  THE  LYRIC  143 

An  absorbing  study  is  that  of  the  spread  of  the  poetry  of  the 
troubadours  from  Provencal  centres  through  Catalonia,  Aragon, 
Italy,  northern  France,  and  England.  The  methods  by  which 
in  these  countries  lyrics  of  an  original  and  natural  kind  succeeded 
the  imitations  of  the  artificial  Proven9al  varieties  afford  an  interest- 
ing subject  for  investigation. 

B.  With  Reference  to  the  Historical  Conditions  of  its  Origin. 
i.  In  what  period,  for  instance,  of  national  development  do  we 
come  upon  the  germ  of  the  lyric  ?  Is  it  when,  as  some  say,  primi- 
tive forms  of .  regal  government  are  passing  away  ?  when  the 
national  spirit  is  awakening  in  the  establishment  of  colonies,  and 
the  individual  is  emphasized  by  "his  importance  in  commercial  and 
civil  relations  ?  or  when  republican  forms  of  government  are  being 
established  ?  or  when  men's  thoughts  begin  to  be  centred  upon  the 
present  as  of  more  importance  than  the  heroic,  or  epic,  past  ?  Do 
we  find  that  the  germs  of  the  lyric  existed  in  an  earlier  epic  period, 
but  required  new  political  and  social  conditions  for  their  develop- 
ment ?  Or  is  the  lyric  (in  the  form  of  hymn  or  chant)  contemporary 
with  the  earliest  service  oi  the  gods,  with  religious  enthusiasm? 
And  does  it  grow  toward  epic  consistency  and  narrative  form 
according  as  it  gradually  undertakes  the  celebration  of  definite 
occasions,  festivals,  events  ?  Does  the  cultivation  of  the  lyric  wait 
upon  the  cultivation  of  music  ?  See  Jeanroy,  Paris,  Mure,  Jevons, 
Jebb,  Miiller,  W.  von  Christ,  and  F.  W.  J.  von  Schelling  (§§  2,  5). 
Here  also  the  student  is. warned  against  drawing  his  conclusions 
from  the  literature  of  one  people.  Let  him,  after  acquainting  him- 
self with  the  facts  in  his  own  literature  and  in  standard  modern 
and  ancient  classics,  go  farther  afield,  gathering,  by  means  of 
translations,  as  will  generally  be  necessary,  what  information 
he  may  from  the  folk  songs  of  Basques,  Lapps,  Finns,  Serbs, 
Bulgarians,  the  peoples  of  Southern  India,  of  China,  Japan, 
Polynesia,  from  any  nationality  whose  songs  are  accessible.  The 
broader  the  induction  the  safer  the  conclusion.  For  general 
references,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  266-274,  The  Origins  of 
Poetry ;  detailed  references  below,  §  6. 


144  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§4 

2.  To  what  historical  periods  does  the  lyric  in  its  various  forms 
seem  to  be  naturally  adapted  ?  Does  the  personal  dement  of  the 
lyric,  the  keen  sense  of  present  interest,  comport  with  a  primitive 
period  ?  or  rather  with  one  of  refined  habits  of  thought  and  ex- 
pression ?  Does  the  art  lyric  flourish  in  an  age  "  alike  removed 
from  the  simplicity  and  immaturity  which  is  content  to  note  in 
its  literature  the  direct  effects  of  the  phenomena  of  the  outside 
world  and  no  more,  and  from  that  complexity  of  conditions  and 
that  tendency  to  intellectualize  emotion  which  characterize  a  time 
like  our  own  "  (Schelling,  Book  of  Elizabethan  Lyrics,  p.  x)  ?  Is 
the  decay  of  epic  and  drama  accompanied  or  followed  by  a 
development  in  any  or  all  literary  types  of  lyric  sentiment  — 
of  what  Symonds  calls  the  '  lyric  cry '  ?  Does  the  lyric  demand 
a  certain  atmosphere,  analogous  to  the  '  mist  of  antiquity '  that 
appears  to  envelop  the  epic?  Compare  above,  §  2,  Carriere. 
Do  not  the  choral  hymns  of  praise,  of  prayer,  of  apprehensive 
deprecation  or  of  superstitious  ecstasy,  the  popular  songs  of 
seasons  and  occasions,  indicate  a  stage  of  civilization  earlier 
than  that  which  produces  the  thought  and  style  of  the  epic? 
or  of  the  personal  lyric  ?  Of  what  force  is  the  argument  that 
would  exclude  choral  hymns  from  the  lyric  species  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  anonymous  ?  Should  such  anonymous  verse  be 
denominated,  as  frequently,  an  unconsciotts  production  ? 

II.  The  Principles  determining  the  Growth  of  the  Lyric.  These 
are  ascertained  by  studies  of  the  following  kinds : 

A.  Of  Individual  Lyrics  in  Process  of  Composition.  Light  on 
the  manner  of  the  development  of  a  lyric  may  of  course  be 
obtained  from  the  confession  of  the  poet  or  from  the  observation 
of  his  intimates.  Burns  has  in  some  of  his  letters  revealed  some- 
thing of  his  method  of  procedure ;  Wordsworth  has  given  us  hints 
in  his  prefaces  and  notes.  The  diaries  of  other  poets  are  similarly 
suggestive.  The  study  of  the  internal  development  of  the  lyric 
has  been  most  exhaustively  prosecuted  by  R.  M.  Werner  (see 
§  2,  above),  who  in  Die  Lyrik  und  die  Lyriker  quotes  freely 
from  the  diary  of  the  poet  Hebbel,  and  illustrates  with  no 


II,  B]  GROWTH  OF  THE  LYRIC  145 

mediocre  ingenuity  the  process  of  lyrical  incubation  characteristic 
of  Burger,  Uhland,  Heine,  and  other  writers.  See  also  Sarrazin's 
Study  of  Hugo's  Lyrics.  The  relative  influence  of  convention 
and  of  invention  upon  the  poet's  genius  is  considered  by  Professor 
Gummere  in  an  article  on  Originality  and  Convention  in  Litera- 
ture (see  above,  §  3,  v,  D)  :  the  author  suggests  that  convention 
is  of  greater  moment  in  lyric  production  than  in  other  kinds  of 
poetic  creation.  It  should  be  noted  that  the  article  is  a  criticism 
of  Tarde's  Laws  of  Imitation,  to  which  the  student  in  search  of 
further  discussion  should  turn. 

B.  Of  the  Evolution  of  the  Lyric  as  a  Type.  By  a  comparison 
of  English  lyrics  of  each  period  with  those  of  the  periods  imme- 
diately anterior  and  subsequent,  the  student  may  apprehend  — 
tentatively  —  some  principle  of  lyric  evolution  in  England.  By 
applying  the  same  plan  of  investigation  to  other  literatures  he 
may  acquire  materials  for  a  general  induction  concerning  the 
stages  of  lyric  growth  and  the  principles  involved.  This  method, 
the  '  comparative,'  adapts  itself,  of  course,  to  the  study  of  any 
type  of  literature,  or  of  literature  itself  as  an  organism.  Such 
investigation  has  been  attempted  by  Posnett,  Jacobowski,  Paul 
Albert,  Brunetiere,  Jeanroy,  Gaston  Paris,  Gummere,  Grasberger, 
E.  Wolff,  Veitch,  Shairp,  and  others ;  of  the  philosophical  critics, 
consult  Hegel,  Vischer,  Carriere,  etc.  Detailed  suggestions  of 
stages  of  development  will  be  found  in  the  remarks  appended 
to  the  outlines  of  development  by  nationalities,  in  §  6,  below ; 
but  we  may  note  here  one  of  the  attempts  toward  summarizing 
the  growth  of  the  English  lyric.  N.  Heppel  (see  above,  §  2,  and 
below,  §  6)  suggests  four  stages  of  development,  based  on  succes- 
sive changes  in  the  relation  of  the  lyric  to  musical  accompaniment : 
"  the  primitive  stage  in  which  the  theme  was  of  little  importance 
and  the  language  in  such  a  crude  and  undeveloped  state  as  to 
make  the  minstrel's  '  romantic  harp '  almost  a  necessity  for  the 
full  effectiveness  of  the  poem ;  the  next  stage  in  which  the  subject- 
matter  remained  conventional  and  —  though  with  notable  excep- 
tions—  comparatively  unimportant,  but  when  words  and  rhythms 


146  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§4 

were  invested  with  the  highest  musical  quality  and  the  formal  side 
of  the  poem  was  developed  to  the  utmost ;  a  third  stage  in  which 
the  subject-matter  became  of  more  importance  than  the  words  or 
the  music;  and,  finally,  a  stage  in  which  subject  and  form  assumed 
almost  equal  importance  and  an  artistic  compromise  was  effected 
between  the  two.  These  four  steps  correspond  roughly  to  the 
four  general  divisions  into  which  it  is  convenient  and  customary 
to  divide  our  national  literature  as  a  whole:  the  Pre- Elizabethan, 
the  Elizabethan,  the  Classical,  and  the  Romantic  (including  the 
Neo-Romantic)  periods  "  (p.  2). 

C.  An  examination,  as  has  already  been  implied,  into  the 
Influences  which  have  Modified  the  Lyric  will  assist  the  student 
in  distinguishing  between  variable  and  constant  factors  of  develop- 
ment. Careful  discrimination  should,  therefore,  be  made  between 
principles  of  growth  that  are  common  to  all  kinds  of  art,  — 
tendencies  that  uniformly  succeed  definite  causes,  —  and  more 
uncertain  movements  produced  by  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the  lyric 
poet,  by  the  temper  of  his  time  in  matters  linguistic,  artistic, 
social,  political,  philosophical,  scientific,  by  peculiar  climatic  or 
geographical  conditions,  and  by  the  ephemeral  reflex  of  foreign 
influence.  Note,  for  instance,  the  modification  of  English  lyric 
poetry  in  the  second  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  under  French 
and  Latin  influences  (ten  Brink) ;  and  the  decline  of  the  Spanish 
poetry  of  chivalry  during  the  age  of  Charles  V  under  the  dreamy 
and  sensuous  influences  imported  from  Italy  {Ed.  Rev.,  40 :  443). 
The  successive  influences  that  determine  the  fashions  of  lyric 
diction  furnish  a  particularly  attractive  field  of  study.  Can  the 
investigation  of  the  lyric  literature  of  various  nations  reveal  any 
common  order  in  the  succession  of  such  influences,  or  any  other 
general  laws  explanatory  of  fashions  in  diction  ? 

III.  Tendencies  of  the  Lyric.  The  Asiatic  lyric  is  not  of  the 
same  temper,  fire,  or  spirit  as  the  European.  The  Hebraic  tone 
of  emotional  exaltation  and  the  Hellenic  differ  in  quality ;  and  in 
racial  characteristic  the  Hebrew  lyric,  the  Hindoo,  the  Japanese, 
are  as  distinct,  the  one  from  the  other,  as  the  Celtic  and  the 


IV,  A]  KINDS  OF  THE  LYRIC  147 

Finno-Hungarian.  Also  in  lyrical  expression  stocks  and  groups 
of  a  common  characteristic  vary  as  widely  from  stocks  and 
groups  of  another  as  constellations  of  southern  skies  from  those 
of  northern.  Tendencies  of  spirit  should  be  traced,  and  tendencies 
of  national  development;  and,  within  the  lyric  anthology  of  a 
single  nation,  tendencies  at  .one  time  toward  religious  themes, 
at  another  toward  secular,  or  didactic,  or  aesthetic.  For  the 
lyric  of  one  century  may  sing  of  nature  and  the  innate  simplicity 
of  the  human  heart,  whereas  the  lyric  of  the  last  sang  of  manners ; 
but  the  century  to  come  may  sing  of  social  brotherhood  or  of  the 
sanctity  of  treaties,  or  the  league  to  enforce  peace.  Such  tenden- 
cies in  a  national  literature  must  be  noted,  and  their  causes  ascer- 
tained. The  English  lyric,  for  example,  is  largely  a  song  of  God 
and  of  Nature ;  the  French  of  man  and  manners ;  the  Chinese  of 
peace  and  the  domestic  affections;  the  Japanese  of  the  seasons 
and  a  rich  melancholy.  The  philosophy  of  Nature  which  manifests 
itself  in  English  poetry  from  Beowulf  to  the  Excursion  may  be 
^studied  historically.  The  evolution  of  this  philosophy  from  a  stage 
of  "  confused  personality  of  animate  and  inanimate  "  to  a  stage  of 
spiritual  communion  between  man  and  Nature,  through  varying 
moods,  is  the  key  to  one  principle  of  the  English  lyric.  Tendencies 
of  national  thought  and  emotion  color  the  lyric  no  less  than  other 
types  of  poetry ;  and  call  for  careful  discrimination  on  the  part 
of  the  historical  investigator. 

IV.  Kinds  of  the  Lyric. 

A.  The  differentiation  here  may  be  attempted  in  respect  of 
form  or  of  content,  but  in  either  case  it  should  be  conducted 
as  a  sequence  of  a  principle  of  growth  already  determined.  If 
the  principle  of  development  in  metre,  rhythm,  stanzaic  form, 
etc.,  be  from  the  irregular  to  the  conventional,  or  from  the 
conventional  to  the  artistic,  the  kinds  of  the  lyric  should  illustrate 
the  stages  of  the  development.  If  the  essential  principle  of  lyric 
growth  is  the  expression  of  personality  in  its  development,  or  of 
emotion  increasingly  ideal,  universal,  aesthetic,  the  kinds  again 
must  follow  the  steps  of  the  process. 


148  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§4 

Another  basis  of  classification  is  that  adopted  by  Werner  (Lyrik, 
etc.,  pp.  138-188,  246,  248).  It  may  be  called  the  static.  It  is 
'comparative,'  not  as  following  the  historic  development  of  the 
type,  but  the  radii  of  the  poet's  environment.  Having  divided 
the  lyric  psychologically  into  lyrics  of  direct  and  of  indirect  ex- 
pression, and  the  former  into  the-  emotional  and  the  reflective 
species,  Werner  proceeds  by  a  method  of  kaleidoscopic  permuta- 
tions and  combinations  to  illustrate  256  cross-sections  or  hybrids 
of  the  "  direct  emotional."  Of  the  "  direct  reflective  "  he  evolves 
130  mongrels  more,  then  adds  to  these  some  128  phenomena  of 
the  "  indirect " :  grand  total  of  species,  514,  —  more  or  less.  The 
modus  operandi  of  this  series  in  Teutonic  progression  is,  of  course, 
as  simple  as  the  differential  calculus  and  delightfully  remunerative. 
You  feel  something  —  say,  love ;  then  you  divide  the  emotion  into 
as  many  forms  as  an  isolated  individual  can  achieve ;  then  you 
multiply  the  sum  of  these  by  the  sum  of  the  possible  complications 
of  the  individual's  historic  period ';  then,  allowing  one  for  his  nation- 
ality, three  for  his  rank,  and  one  for  his  locale,  you  multiply  your 
former  result  by  five.  The  outcome  is  the  grand  total  of  the  shades 
of  love-lyric  of  which  you  are  capable.  If  you  are  unfortunate  enough 
to  experience  another  emotion  —  or  fifteen  others  as  Dr.  Werner 
did  —  you  just  keep  on  multiplying.  If  you  should  prefer  a 
"  reflection,"  you  renew  the  process  from  the  outset.  To  obtain 
an  "  indirect  experience  "  you  must  multiply  the  sum  total  of  your 
emotional  and  reflective  combinations  by  two.  And  so  on.  In  a 
review  of  his  own  work,  in  the  Jahresberichte  f.  neuere  deutsche 
Litteraturgeschichte,  Bd.  I,  Halbbd.  I,  pp.  22-23,  Dr.  Werner 
compares  his  minute  classification  to  the  botanist's  systematic 
arrangement  of  plants,  and  defends  it  on  the  ground  that  it  is 
the  only  method  by  which  a  sufficiently  comprehensive  survey  of 
the  lyric  may  be  obtained.  Minute  differentiation,  he  thinks,  must 
precede  and  lay  the  basis  for  wide  generalization.  We  may  add  that 
he  rejects  the  common  division  into  folk  lyric  and  individual  lyric, 
or  art  lyric,  maintaining  that  every  lyric  of  whatever  time  is  the 
outcome  of  the  feeling  of  an  individual  poet.  Compare  Geiger's 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  149 

criticism  of  Werner,  noted  above,  §  2,  under  Geiger;  see  also,  under 
§  2,  the  note  on  Werner.  For  another  attempt  at  differentiation 
see  Moulton,  Modern  Study  of  Literature,  p.  igyff. 

B.  Special  Forms  or  Differentiations.  The  history  of  the  Elegy 
is  outlined  at  some  length,  the  history  of  the  Hymn,  Epigram, 
and  Ode  at  less  length,  in  §  6,  below  (Elegy,  §  6,  xxxiv,  A  ; 
Hymn,  §  6,  iv ;  xi,  G ;  xm,  D-G  ;  Epigram,  §  6,  xxxiv,  B  ;  Ode, 
§  6,  xxxiv,  c).  Brief  notes  on  the  Sonnet  and  Song  are  also 
included  in  the  same  section  (§  6,  xxxiv,  D,  E),  with  which  may 
be  compared  the  notices  above,  §  i,  iv,  D,  A. 

SECTION  5.    GENERAL  REFERENCES 

The  student  need  not  be  surprised  to  note  how  few  books  have 
aimed  to  cover  the  whole  history  of  the  lyric.  The  subject  is  too  vast 
to  engage  a  modern  scholar.  Only  an  encyclopedist  like  Quadrio 
could  venture  upon  such  a  task, —  and  that  in  the  naivete  of  his  age 
of  scholarship.  In  the  following  list  will  be  found  the  titles  princi- 
pally of  works  that  treat  at  length  or  touch  suggestively  some  of 
the  broader  comparative  and  evolutionary  aspects  of  the  historical 
problem.  The  treatment  is  often  only  suggestive.  Detailed,  his- 
torical discussion  of  the  lyric  is  necessarily  confined  to  works  dealing 
with  particular  authors,  periods,  or  movements ;  and  such  works, 
legion  in  number  and  diverse  in  aim  and  method,  are  noticed  in  the 
chapter  following  this.  There  they  are  grouped  according  to  their 
particular  subjects,  so  as  to  indicate  methods  and  materials  con- 
tributory to  an  outline  of  the  historical  development  of  the  type. 
For  histories  of  literature  see  the  Appendix ;  here  are  noted  only 
a  few  of  the  larger  and  more  important  of  these,  such  as  the 
works  of  Christ,  Ebert,  Manitius,  Teuffel,  Miiller,  and  Mure. 

ALLEN,  P.  S.    Mediaeval  Latin  Lyrics.   In  Mod.  PhiloL,  5  :  423  fL; 

6:  55  ff. ;  cf.  3:  411. 

On  a  possible  Latin  origin  of  the  Minnesang.  The  author  holds 
that  the  German  lyric  may  be  traced  to  Latin  origins  (compare 


150  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

Jeanroy  and  Gaston  Paris,  who  find  its  origin  in  imitations  of 
the  French;  also  Courthope,  who  finds  the  origin  in  Arabian 
court-poetry;  also  below,  §  6,  xm,  The  German  Lyric,  where 
further  references  on  the  origin  of  the  Minnesang  may  be  found). 
The  article  is  well  annotated,  and  is  worthy  of  careful  study. 

ALLEN,  W,  F.,  and  Others.    Slave  Songs  of  the  United  States. 
N.Y.:   1867. 

A  suggestion  of  the  way  in  which  songs  arise  among  primitive 
peoples  may  be  gained  from  the  slave-songs  and  '  shouts '  of  the 
American  negro.  The  student  should  consult  the  following  refer- 
ences :  T.  W.  Higginson,  in  the  Atlantic  Monthly,  June,  1867; 
Address  delivered  by  J.  Miller  McKim,  in  Sumner  Hall,  Phila- 
delphia, July  9,  1862  ;  New  England  Magazine,  19  :  443,  609, 
707;  Independent,  55:  1723  ;  Craftsman,  23  :  660  ;  H.  E.  Kriebel, 
Afro-American  Folksongs ;  W.  E.  Barton,  Hymns  of  Slaves  and 
Freedmen,  Old  Plantation  Hymns,  Recent  Negro  Melodies. 

AUSFELD,  F.   Die  deutsche  anakreontische  Dichtung  des  18.  Jhdts- 
In  Quellen  vnd  Forschungen,  No.  101.    1907. 

Relation  of  German  anacreontic  verse  to  French,  Latin,  and 
Greek  anacreontics. 

Ausx,  J.   Beitrage  zur  mittelenglischen  Lyrik.   In  Herrig's  Archiv, 
70:  253  ff. 

The  characteristics  of  ecclesiastical  lyric  and  secular  lyric  in 
their  earliest  forms,  and  their  reciprocal  influence. 

BAUMGART,  H.    Handbuch  der  Poetik.    Stuttgart:   1887. 

v 

Learned,  trustworthy,  and  exhaustive. 

BEERS,  H.  A.  Points  at  Issue  and  Some  Other  Points.  N.  Y. :  1904. 

Pp.  1 83-2  1 1  The  English  Lyric. 

A  sketch  of  the  development  of  the  English  lyric  from  the 
Elizabethan  song  lyrics  to  the  modern  art  lyric.  Compare  N.  Hepple, 
above,  §  2  and  p.  145. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  151 

BERGER,  A.  E.    Volksdichtung  und  Kunstdichtung.    In  Nord  und 

Siid,  68:  76-96  (1894). 

An  examination  of  earlier  attempts  at  differentiating  folk  poetry 
and  art  poetry  (Herder,  Arnim,  Brentano,  Grimm  Brothers),  with 
a  finding  against  their  methods.  The  author  would  differentiate 
the  two  on  the  basis  of  means  of  perpetuation,  —  the  former  by 
oral  tradition,  the  latter  by  writing.  Cf.  J.  Meier,  below. 

BERNHARDY,  G.    Grundriss  der  griechischen  Litteratur. 
See  above,  §  2. 

BIEDERMANN,  FREiHERR  W.  VON.  Zur  vcrgleichenden  Geschichte 
der  poetischen  Formen.  In  Zeitschr.  fur  vergleich.  Littgesch., 
N.F.,  2  :  415.  .1889. 

BIESE,  A.    Griechische  Lyriker. 
See  above,  §  2. 

BLACKIE,  J.  S.    Scottish  Song.    Edinb.  and  Lond. :   1889. 

Beginning  with  the  Volkslied,  the  editor  gives  examples  of 
love-songs,  war-songs,  songs  of  character,  drinking-songs,  songs 
of  the  sea,  of  thought,  of  sentiment,  with  a  running  commentary 
of  unusual  interest.  See  also  Shairp,  §  2,  above. 

BLANKENBURG,  F.  VON.  Litterarische  Zusatze  zu  J.  G.  Sulzer's 
Allgemeine  Theorie,  etc. 

See  above,  §  2,  under  Sulzer,  J.  G. 

BOECKH,  A.  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  philologischen 
Wissenschaften.  2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1886. 

Pp.  649-684  Greek  epic,  lyric,  drama;  710-724  Roman 
drama,  epic,  and  lyric.  For  Boeckh's  method  of  attack, 
see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§2,  14.  Boeckh's  observations 
and  bibliographies  are  still  valuable. 

BOVET,  E.    Lyrisme,  e'popee,  drame  :  une  loi  de  1'histoire  litte'raire 
•     expliquee  par  1'evolution  generale.    Paris:   1911. 

An  attempt  to  revive  Victor  Hugo's  tripartite  division  of  literary 
evolution  into  stages  corresponding  to  the  lyric,  epic,  and  drama. 


152  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

BRUCHMANN,  K.    Poetik.    Berlin:   1898. 

Pp.  108-113. 
A  valuable  attempt  in  the  inductive  method. 

BRUNETIERE,  F.    Involution  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au 
ige  siecle.    2  vols.    zd  ed.    Paris:   1895. 

See  articles  in  Revue  Bleue,  June,  etc.,  1893. 

A  brilliant  attempt  to  trace  the  evolution,  as  distinct  from  the 
history,  of  the  French  lyric  in  the  century  indicated  in  the  title. 
Brunetiere  shows  the  peculiarly  intimate  relation  of  French  lyrism 
to  romanticism  and  individualism,  to  naturalism,  and  symbolism, 
to  the  novel,  and,  in  general,  to  the  chief  philosophical  and  social 
movements  of  the  century.  Subjective  and  objective  tendencies 
are  alike  discussed.  The  work  is  valuable  for  general  method  as 
well  as  for  the  handling  of  the  particular  subject  with  which 
it  deals.  For  comment  upon  Brunetiere's  method  see  Gayley 
and' Scott,  pp.  251-252  et  passim  (Index);  also  §2,  above. 

BUCHER,  K.    Arbeit  und  Rhythmus.    4  Aufl.    Leipz. :  1909. 

The  relation  of  the  lyric  to  the  rhythm  of  labor  (work-songs) 
has  afforded  a  subject  of  considerable  discussion.  See  further 
the  works  by  Hirn,  Gummere,  and  Wallaschek  mentioned  else- 
where; also  M.  K.  Smith,  Rhythmus  und  Arbeit  (in  Wundt's 
Philos.  Studien,  16:  71-34,  197-306);  and  Gayley  and  Scott, 
p.  272,  —  in  general  pp.  266-274  The  Origins  of  Poetry. 

Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature.     Ed.  by  A.  W.  Ward 

and  A.  R.  Waller.    14  vols.    Lond.  and  N.  Y. :  1907-1916. 
In  the  various  volumes  will  be  found  invaluable  and  up-to-date 
monographs  upon  the  history  of   the   lyric  or  its   sub-types  in 
particular  periods,  and  upon  the  productions  of  the  successive 
lyric  poets.    Detailed  references  are  given  below,  §  6,  xi. 

CARDUCCI,  G.    Opere.    20  vols.    Bologna:  1889-1909. 

Vol.  XVI  Dello  svolgimento  dell'  ode  in  Italia.  In  vol.  XIX 
will  be  found  essays  on  the  Italian  lyric  of  the  i8th  cen- 
tury ;  in  vol.  XVI,  Primavera  e  fiore  della  lirica  italiana. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  153 

The  essay  on  the  development  of  the  ode  in  Italy  is  particularly 
valuable  in  array  of  material  and  exemplification  of  historical  method. 

CARPENTER,  F.  I.  English  Lyric  Poetry  1500-1700.  Lond. :  1897. 
The  Introduction  contains  a  brief  resume  of  English  lyric  poetry 
up  to  1700,  in  which  the  discussion  of  lyric  themes  and  the  causes 
underlying  the  successive  varieties  of  treatment  is  sensible.  On 
p.  Ixiii  occurs  the  following  hint  of  a  general  characteristic 
of  lyric  growth :  "  Changes  in  form  resulting  from  changes  in 
spirit  affect  the  lyric  later  than  other  literary  kinds,  for  the  reason 
that  Form  in  the  lyric  is  more  important  than  in  other  kinds  and 
consequently  more  tenacious  and  persistent." 

CARRIERS,  M.    Die  Poesie.    2d  ed.    Leipz. :   1884. 

Chap.  VIII,  pp.  407-434  Die  Lyrik  in  der  Geschichte.    Cf. 
above,  §  2 ;  see  also  Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der 
,  Culturentwickelung  (also  noted  above,  §  2). 

CASE,  R.  H.    English  Epithalamies.    Lond. :   1896. 

An  anthology  of  English  epithalamies,  with  a  chronological  list 
of  English  examples  of  this  sub-type,  and  a  very  helpful  introduc- 
tion in  which  is  sketched  the  history  of  marriage-songs  from  the 
time  of  the  ancient  Greeks  to  the  present. 

CHAMBERS,   E.   K.,    and    SIDGWICK,   F.      Early    English   Lyrics, 
Amorous,  Divine,  Moral  and  Trivial.     Lond.:   1907. 

See  the  essay,  Some  Aspects  of  Mediaeval  Lyric,  pp.  259-296, 
by  Chambers ;  in  the  same  author's  Mediaeval  Stage  will 
be  found  many  valuable  references  to  the  growth  of  the 
early  European  lyric. 

Professor  Chambers  believes  that  the  art  lyric  of  the  trouvere 
sprang  from  an  earlier,  popular,  originally  communal  lyric.  His 
description  of  this  art  lyric,  or  chanson  courtois,  and  of  the  chanson 
populaire  that  is  not  folk  song,  but  rests  upon  folk  song,  and  may 
represent  an  intermediate  stage  between  it  and  the  chanson  courtois, 
is  brief  and  stimulating.  Notice  the  discussion  of  the  development 
of  the  English  lyric  as  compared  with  that  of  the  French.  Good 
bibliography. 


154  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

CHRIST,  W.  VON.    Geschichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur.    Edited 
and  enlarged  by  W.  Schmid  and  O.  Stahlin.    In  two  parts  and 
three  volumes.    5th  ed.    Miinchen :    1908-1913.    In  I.  von 
Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschaft. 
The  standard  history  of  Greek  literature  from  its  beginnings 
to   530  A.D.     Here  the  student  will  find  the   latest   and   most 
authoritative  statement  of  the  history  of  all  the  literary  types, 
and  copious  references  to  monographs  and-  other  histories. 

COHEN,  H.  L.    The  Ballade.   Columbia  Univ.  Press.   N.  Y. :  1915. 
An  extended  study  of  the  origin,  development,  and  criticism  of 
the  ballade;  valuable  bibliography.    See  also  White,  §  2,  above. 

Collections  de   contes  et  chansons  populaires.     41   vols.    Paris: 

1881-1913. 

For  the  student  of  comparative  literature  this  collection  of  the 
popular  poetry  of  all  peoples  —  civilized,  barbaric,  and  savage  — 
is  an  empire  of  narrative  and  lyrical  material. 

COUAT,  A.    La  poesie  alexandrine  sous  les  trois  premiers  Ptole'me'es 

(324-222  B.C.).    Paris:   1882. 

A  clear  and  full  treatment  of  elegiac,  lyric,  epic,  pastoral,  idyllic, 
and  didactic  poetry  of  the  Alexandrian  age.  This  work  should  be 
checked  with  the  more  recent  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur 
of  W.  von  Christ  (see  above). 

COURTHOPE,  W.  J.     Life  in  Poetry  :  Law  in  Taste.    Lond. :  1901. 
Cf.  above,  §  2. 

CROWEST,  F.  J.   The  Story  of  the  Carol.    1911. 

CRUSIUS,  O.  Elegie.  In  Pauly-Wissowa's  Real-Encyclopadie  der 
classischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  vol.  V  (1905),  pp.  2260- 
2307. 

This  is  the  "  most  complete  and  only  satisfactory  "  history  of 
the  classical  elegy  as  a  whole.  It  is  an  indispensable  aid  in 
the  study  of  the  elegy.  It  contains  a  bibliography  of  the  most 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  155 

important  works  on  the  subject,  summarizes  ancient  criticism  of 
the  elegy,  and  gives  the  history  of  the  Greek,  Hellenistic,  and 
Roman  elegy.  Other  discussions  of  Roman  elegy  are  mentioned 
above,  §  2,  Sellar,  K.  F.  Smith,  Plessis,  and  below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  A. 

CUNNINGHAM,  A.  The  Songs  of  Scotland,  etc.  4vols.  Lond.:  1825. 
The  Introduction  contains  historical  material  that  should  be 
compared  with  the  essays  on  minstrelsy  by  Percy  and  Ritson, 
critical  and  appreciative  passages,  and  a  series  of  notes  on  the 
chief  Scottish  song-makers. 

DENNIS,}.    Studies  in  English  Literature.    Lond.:   1876. 
See  above,  §  2. 

DESSOIR,  M.   Asthetik  und  allgemeine  Kunstwissenschaft.    Stutt- 
gart:  1906. 

Dessoir's  point  of  view  is  anthropological  and  psychological.  In 
his  criticism  of  previous  theories  derived  from  similar  points  of  view 
the  author  very  opportunely  protests  against  some  as  too  narrow 
(insufficient  induction),  mechanical,  or  utilitarian.  For  example, 
on  p.  289  ff.,  the  theory  that  finds  the  origin  of  the  lyric  in 
repetition  developing  into  rhythmical  order  is  characterized  as 
narrow  because  rhythmic  order  is  not  a  later  development,  but 
an  original  means  of  creative  expression.  The  theory  that  relates 
the  origin  of  the  lyric  to  labor  (work-songs)  is  considered  to  be 
partial,  incomplete  (290  ff.).  Of  the  theory  that  regards  rhythmical 
expression  as  emotionally  excited  speech  (Dessoir,  p.  304,  refers 
to  the  following  supporters  of  the  theory:  Rousseau,  Dubos, 
Spencer,  Jakob  Grimm,  Wilhelm  Jordan),  the  author  thinks  lightly 
.because  he  finds  that  the  oldest  songs,  like  the  simplest  songs  of 
children,  have  no  text,  but  use  a  series  of  meaningless  sounds.  The 
manner  in  which  a  text  developed  from  these  sounds  is  indicated 
by  a  passage  from  Adam  Smith,  which  Dessoir  quotes,  p.  305  : 

In  the  succession  of  ages  it  could  not  fail  to  occur,  that  in  the  room 
of  those  unmeaning  or  musical  words,  if  I  may  call  them  so,  might 
be  substituted  words  which  expressed  some  sense  or  meaning,  and 


156  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

of  which  the  pronunciation  might  coincide  as  exactly  with  the  time 
and  measure  of  the  tune,  as  that  of  the  musical  word  had  done  before. 
Hence  the  origin  of  Verse  or  Poetry  (Works.  181 1.  Vol.  V,  p.  267). 

This,  of  course,  refers  the  origin  of  the  lyric  to  music,  rather  than 
to  speech.  For  further  remarks  on  the  lyric,  see  references  listed 
in  the  index. 

DUFF,  J.  W.    A  Literary  History  of  Rome.    Lond. :   1909. 

Du  MERIL,   M.   E.     Poesies    populaires    latines   ante'rieures   au 
douzieme  siecle.    Paris:    1843. 

Du  MERIL,  M.  E.     Poesies  populaires  latines  du  Moyen  Age. 

Paris:    1847. 

These  two  volumes  by  Du  Me'ril,  with  texts  and  introductions, 
are  helpful  in  tracing  the  development  of  Latin  popular  poetry 
during  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages. 

EBERT,  A.   Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Literatur  des  Mittelalters  im 
Abendlande  bis  zum  Beginne  des  XI.  Jahrhunderts.    3  vols. 
Leipzig:    1874-87.    2d  ed.    vol.  I,  1889.    French  trans,  by 
J.  Aymeric,  etc.,  3  vols.    Paris:   1883-89. 
This  standard  work  on  the  Latin  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
including  early  Christian  Latin  poetry,  should  be  studied  with  the 
two  works  of  Manitius  (see  below)  covering  the  same  general  field. 
Ebert  and  Manitius  are  the  standard 'guides  for  the  student  of 
the  literary  development  of  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages.    For  an 
English  guide  to  the  Dark  Ages  see  Professor  Ker's  admirable 
volume,  noted   below.     To   the    Middle  Ages-  the   volumes   by 
Saintsbury,  Snell,   and   Smith  in   Saintsbury's   Periods  of   Euro- 
pean Literature  Series  afford  convenient  English  introductions. 

Edinburgh  Reviwv,  40  :  443  ff.    Lyric  Poetry,  of  Spain. 

An  excellent  illustration  of  the  manner  in  which,  and  the  extent 
to  which,  one  literature  may  affect  another.  The  Italian  qualities 
of  the  Spanish  lyric  during  the  Golden  Age  of  Charles  V  are 
under  consideration.  The  author  shows  that  the  alteration  in  the 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  157 

Spanish  lyrical  style  cannot  be  accounted  for  merely  by  the  intro- 
duction of  new  forms  :  that  a  national  taste  in  poetry  must  develop 
from  within  as  well  as  by  impact  from  without. 

EGGER,  E\    L'Hellenisme  en  France.    2  vols.    Paris:   1869. 

Vol.  I,  Chaps.  XV,  XVI  for  the  sixteenth-century  lyric  in 
France  under  classic  influence;  vol.  II,  Chap.  XXVI 
L'Helle'nisme  dans  les  genres  secondaires  de  la  poesie 
frangaise. 

ERSKINE,  J.    The  Elizabethan  Lyric.    A  Study.    N.Y. :   1903. 

Compare  above,  §  2. 

The  most  careful  and  thorough  study  of  the  nature  and  history 
of  the  Elizabethan  lyric  that  has  as  yet  appeared.  The  Elizabethan 
lyric  is  resolved  into  two  chief  categories :  lyrics  which  incline  to 
be  pastoral  in  subject  and  idyllic  in  method ;  short  songs,  "  not 
generally  pastoral  in  subject,  and  epigrammatic,  rather  than  idyllic, 
in  manner."  Sonnet- writing  is  held  to  have  formed  a  transition 
between  these  two  categories.  The  song  in  the  drama  is  also  con- 
sidered. Throughout  the  book  much  emphasis  is  placed  upon  the 
varying  relations  of  the  lyric  forms  to  practical  music.  The  first 
chapter  is  general  in  nature,  and  differentiates  lyrical  quality  and 
lyric  form.  Other  problems  of  theory  are  also  briefly  treated  in 
the  same  chapter.  The  appendix  contains  a  chronological  resume 
of  the  Elizabethan  lyric  and  a  valuable  bibliography. 

FARNELL,  G.  S.    Greek  Lyric  Poetry.    Lond. :   1891. 

The  Prefatory  Articles  contain  a  very  helpful,  brief  account  of 
the  Greek  lyric. 

FLACH,  H.    Geschichte  der  griechischen  Lyrik.    Tubingen:   1884. 
The    chief    history   of    the   Greek   lyric:    extensive,   learned, 
methodical. 

FLOECK,  O.  Die  Kanzone  in  der  deutschen  Dichtung.  In  Berliner 
Beitrdge  zur  german.  und  roman.  PhiloL  Germ.  Abt.,  No.  27. 
1910. 


158  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

FROBERG,   T.     Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  und  Charakteristik  des 
deutschen  Sonetts  im  19.  Jahrh.    St.  Petersburg:   1904. 

GAUTIER,   L.    Les  epopees  franchises.    5  vols.    2d  ed.    Paris : 
1878-1897. 

P.  4.    The  lyric  precedes  the  epic.    See  below,  §  1 1 . 

GOSSE,  E.    Elegy. 

See  above,  §  2. 

GRASBERGER,    H.      Die    Naturgeschichte    des    Schnaderhiipfls. 
Leipz. :    1896. 

Cf.,  for  discussion  and  bibliography,  G.  Meyer,  Essays  und 
Studien  (1885),  pp.  289-407  ;  and  Gummere,  Beginnings 
of  Poetry,  p.  405  ff. 

An  admirable  monograph  on  this  type  of  Bavarian  folk  lyric, 
perhaps  originally  a  reaping  song.  In  general,  the  relation  of  the 
improvised  folk  song  to  the  art  lyric  affords  two  theories :  one, 
largely  discredited,  to  the  effect  that  the  folk  song  is  a  decaying 
remnant  of  art  poetry  discarded  by  the  upper  classes  and  surviving 
in  a  rude  way  among  the  peasants  (cf.  G.  Smith,  The  Transition 
Period,  p.  iSzff.);  the  other  to  the  effect  that  the  folk  lyric 
represents  an  early  stage  out  of  which  the  art  epic  grows  (see 
Gummere,  as  cited  above).  The  student  should  consider  the  stram- 
botti  of  Italy,  the  coplas  of  Spain,  the  stev  of  the  Scandinavians,  etc. 

GREG,  W.  W.    Pastoral  Poetry  and  Pastoral  Drama.    1906. 

An  extensive,  valuable,  and  authoritative  work.  Should  be  con- 
sulted for  material  on  the  pastoral  elegy. 

GROBER,  G.  Grundriss  der  romanischen  Philologie.  2  Bde.  Strass- 

burg :   1902,  etc. 

Consult  for  historical  outlines  and  bibliographical  accounts  of 
various  romance  literatures,  —  Medieval  Latin,  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  etc.  The  arrangement  of  materials  by  literary  kinds 
renders  this  great  work  particularly  helpful  to  the  student  of  the 
poetic  types.  For  early  Latin  Church  Hymns,  see  Bd.  II,  Abt.  i, 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  159 

pp.  112,  152,  325;  for  early  secular  Latin  lyric,  112,  157,  339, 
415  ;  for  French  lyric,  444,  475,  659,  935,  971  ;  for  Portuguese 
lyric,  Bd.  II,  Abt.  2  ;  for  Spanish  lyric,  Bd.  II,  Abt.  3.  For 
further  references,  see  below,  §  6. 

GROSSE,  E.    The  Beginnings  of  Art.    N.  Y. :   1897. 
Pp.  234-250. 

In  this  stimulating  work  —  fruitful  both  in  scientific  method 
and  far-reaching  result  —  Grosse  devotes  one  chapter  to  poetry 
among  primitive  races.  Contrary  to  Spencer,  who  held  that  primi- 
tive poetry  is  "  undifferentiated  "  as  regards  kinds,  Grosse  asserts 
that  the  facts  show  that  in  the  poetry  of  the  lowest  culture  the 
various  kinds  are  "quite  as  independently  and  characteristically 
formed  as  in  the  highest."  "  It  cannot,  however,  be  denied,"  he 
goes  on  to  say,  "  that  the  lyric  of  the  primitive  peoples  contains 
many  epic  elements,  and  that  their  epic  very  often  assumes  a  lyric 
or  dramatic  character.  But  if  we  should  call  primitive  poetry  un- 
differentiated on  that  account,  we  should  have  no  right  to  contrast 
cultivated  poetry  with  it  as  undifferentiated,  for  a  pure  lyric,  epic, 
or  dramatic  poetry  has  never  been  realized  anywhere."  An  exam- 
ination of  primitive  lyrics  leads  to  the  statements  that  the  mere 
rhythmical  repetition  of  verbal  expression  of  feeling  and  the 
aesthetically  'effective  expression  of  the  emotions  are  lyrical ;  that 
many  of  the  songs  are  satirical ;  that  the  romantic  element  is 
almost  lacking  (cf.  Werner  in  J B  L,  VI,  I,  10:  79-80);  that 
the  lyrics  are  egoistic  in  character ;  and  that  for  primitive  society 
poetical  meaning  is  of  less  importance  than  musical  effect. — Must 
not  a  successful  differentiation  of  poetic  kinds  (never  yet  accom- 
plished) be  based  on  an  historical  induction  that  begins  with  the 
crude  songs  of  '  primitive '  races  ?  In  them  the  historian  may  study 
the  simplest  conditions  of  content  and  outward  form;  following 
the  advance  of  culture  he  may  note  the  collateral  influences  which 
produce  shades  of  change  in  content  and  form,  —  may  perchance 
decipher  the  general  laws  of  such  change  and,  so,  come  to  under- 
stand the  principle  of  the  origin  and  descent  of  literary  species. 


160  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

GRUPPE,  O.  F.  Die  romische  Elegie.  2  vols.  Leipz. :  1838-39.  • 
An  early  treatment,  somewhat  appreciative  and  interpretative, 
of  the  Roman  elegy,  but  involving  careful  historical  study  of  the 
variation  within  the  Roman  type  and  a  comparison  with  the 
Alexandrian  elegy.  The  more  critical  material  is  contained  in  an 
extended  commentary  upon  Tibullus  and  Propertius  ;  the  historical 
treatise  is  contained  in  Chap.  XII  of  vol.  I. 

GUBERNATIS,  A.  DE.    Storia  universale  della  letteratura.    1 8- vols. 
in  23.    Milano:   1883-85. 

Vol.  Ill  Storia  della  poesia  lirica;  vol.  IV  Florilegio  lirico. 
A  work  of  considerable  value  by  way  of  orientation  for  the  stu- 
dent of  comparative  literature.  Vol.  Ill  consists  of  an  introduction 
on  popular  lyric  poetry  and  short  sketches  outlining  the  history 
of  the  lyric  in  India,  China,  Japan,  Palestine,  Arabia,  Persia, 
Turkey,  Greece,  Rome,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  France,  England, 
Scandinavia,  Holland,  Germany,  Hungary,  Rumania,  Russia, 
Poland,  and  Bohemia.  In  vol.  IV  are  representative  lyrics  from 
these  countries,  presented  in  Italian  translations. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.    The  Beginnings  of  Poetry.    N.Y. :   1901. 

Chaps.  IV,  VII. 

In  the  former  chapter  Professor  Gummere  endeavors  to  trace 
the  development  of  the  European  lyric  from  the  communal  stage 
(the  impersonal  VolkslyriK)  to  the  personal  and  artistic  stage. 
In  the  latter,  pp.  390-422,  the  lyric  of  individual  character  is 
distinguished  from  the  lyric  of  the  communal  dance.  This  proc- 
ess of  differentiation  begins  with  the  choral  horde  "  on  a  level 
of  general,  if  not  equal,  ability  to  make  and  sing  verse,  preferably 
in  the  form  of  a  single  couplet  or  quatrain."  The  couplet  or 
quatrain  "  is  at  first  subordinate  to  the  chorus  of  the  throng,  then 
meets  it  on  even  terms,  and  at  last,  losing  its  general  origins  and 
its  particular  individuality  and  coming  to  be  a  part  of  an  artistic 
poem,  drives  the  discredited  chorus  from  the  field."  See  also 
the  Index,  under  Lyric.  The  book  is  of  prime  importance. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  l6l 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.    Old  English  Ballads.    Boston:   1899. 

Introduction,  pp.  xi-xiv. 

The  change  from  the  communal  to  the  personal  note  as  due 
to  economic  development.  The  influence  of  the  invention  of 
printing  upon  subjectivity  in  the  lyric.  Compare  p.  147  of  the 
work  just  above :  "  The  history  of  modern  verse,  with  epic  and 
drama  in  decay,  is  mainly  the  history  of  lyrical  sentiment." 

HANFORD,  J.  H.  Classical  Eclogue  and  Medieval  Debate.  In 
Romanic  Rev.  2:  16,  129.  1911. 

On  the  origin  of  medieval  debat. 

HANFORD,  J.  H.  The  Pastoral  Elegy  and  Milton's  Lycidas.  In 
Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  25  (New  Series,  18):  403-447. 
Baltimore:  1910. 

A  brief  but  informing  review  of  the  relation  of  Milton's  Lycidas 
to  anterior  pastoral  elegy.  The  article  will  serve  as  an  introduction 
to  the  history  of  the  pastoral  elegy  from  Theocritus  to  Milton. 

HARTUNG,  J.  A.  Die  griechischen  Elegiker.  2  vols.  Leipz. :  1859. 
A  valuable  edition  of  Greek  and  Alexandrian  elegies,  with  intro- 
ductions on  the  ancient  Greek  and  Alexandrian  elegy  and  the 
Alexandrian  epigram,  translations  from  the  Greek  originals  into 
German,  and  annotations  and  references. 

HAUPT,  M.  —  BELGER,  C.  M.  Haupt  als  academischer  Lehrer. 
Berlin:  1879. 

See  the  sections  on  Roman  elegists. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.    Op.  at.,  §  2. 

Bd.  10,  Abt.  3,  pp.  466-478  Geschichtliche  Entwickelung  der 
Lyrik. 

The  lyric  is  examined  as  symbolic,  classical,  and  romantic.  To 
the  '  symbolic '  stage  belong  the  lyrics  of  the  Orient  (Chinese, 
Indian,  Hebrew,  Persian,  etc.).  In  these  the  lyrist  maintains  a 
negative  attitude  toward  the  surrounding  process  of  nature.  To  the 


162  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

'classical'  stage  belong  the  lyrics  of  Greece  and  Rome,  charac- 
terized by  the  element  of  dignified  self-assertion.  Their  form  is 
considered  (i)  in  Epic  Hymns,  (2)  in  Elegiacs,  (3)  in  Iambics ; 
and  their  sentiment  and  passion,  as  developed  (i)  in  Melic  Songs, 
(2)  in  Chorals,  (3)  in  Alexandrine  Poetry.  Roman  lyric  poetry 
follows  in  due  course.  Finally  is  considered  the  romantic  lyric, 
characterized  by  the  modern  spirit  of  Teutons,  Celts,  and  Slavs. 
This  romantic  stage  gives  us  :  (i)  the  lyric  of  pagan  characteristics, 
(2)  the  lyric  of  medieval  Christianity,  (3)  the  lyric  of  Protestantism. 

HERDER,  J.  G. 

See  above,  §  2,  and  below,  §  1 1. 

HERFORD,  C.  H.  The  Literary  Relations  of  England  and  Ger- 
many in  the  Sixteenth  Century.  Cambridge  Univ.  Press : 
1886. 

Pp.  1-20  Lyrics.  Cf.  G.  Waterhouse,  The  Literary  Relations 
of  England  and  Germany  in  the  Seventeenth  Century 
(Cambridge:  1914). 

HINNEBERG,  P.  (ed.)   Die  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  ihre  Entwicke- 
lung  und  ihre  Ziele. 

Die  orientalischen  Literaturen.  T.  i  :  7.  1906;  Die  griechi- 
sche  und  lateinische.  T.  i  :  8.  1905.  2d  ed.  1912; 
Die  osteuropaischen.  T.  I  :  9.  1908;  Die  romanischen. 
T.  i  :  ii  :  i.  1909. 

A  recent,  authoritative  work,  which  gives  in  its  articles  on 
literary  history  up-to-date  reviews  of  the  national  literatures  of 
modern  Europe,  classical  antiquity,  and  the  Orient.  The  sections 
on  Greek  and  Celtic  literature,  by  U.  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff 
and  Heinrich  Zimmer  respectively,  will  be  found  especially  helpful. 
Brief  bibliographical  notes  are  appended  to  all  sections. 

HIRT,  H.    Die  Indogermanen.    2  vols.    Strassburg:   1905-1907. 
Vol.  II,  p.  472  ff. 

HOSKINS,  J.  P.     Biological   Analogy  in   Literary  Criticism.     In 
Modern  Philology,  6  :  407-434;  7  :  61-82. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  163 

HUGO,  V.    Preface  to  "  Cromwell:" 

Hugo  distinguishes  three  successive  literary  types  —  lyric,  epic, 
and  drama  —  corresponding  to  three  great  historical  periods,  the 
primitive,  antique,  and  the  modern.  For  a  criticism  of  the  gran- 
diloquent assertion  of  the  priority  of  the  lyric,  see  Posnett,  Com- 
parative Literature,  pp.  152-155;  for  a  recent  resuscitation  of 
Hugo's  threefold  historical-literary  division,  see  above,  Bovet. 

JACOBY,  F.    Zur  Entstehung  der  romischen  Elegie.   In  Rheinisches 

Museum,  60:  38—105  (1905). 

Was  the  subjective  erotic  elegy  of  Tibullus  and  Propertius  a 
descendant  of  an  Alexandrian  erotic  elegy,  or  was  it  an  original 
Roman  development  from  the  Hellenistic  erotic  epigram  ?  Jacoby 
argues  for  the  second  hypothesis.  Compare  below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  A, 
The  Roman  Elegy ;  see  also  an  article  by  A.  Mess  (Rhein.  Mus., 
63  ;  488  ff.  1908),  which  endeavors  to  derive  the  subjective  erotic 
form  from  Catullus  68. 

JACOBY,  F.    Anthologie  aus  den  Elegikern  der  Romer.    26.  ed. 
Leipz. :   1895. 

A  brief  historical  introduction  deals  with  the  elegy. 

JANTZEN,  H.    Geschichte  des  deutschen  Streitgedichtes  im  Mjttel- 

alter.    In  Germanistische  Abhandlungen,  No.  13.    1896. 
Comparison  with  similar  poems  of  other  nations. 

JASINSKI,  M.    Histoire  du  Sonnet  en  France.    Paris:   1905. 

See  the  review  by  R.  Doumic,  in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
March  15,  1904  (p.  444  ff.). 

JEANROY,  A.     Les  origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en   France  au 
moyen  age.    zd  ed.    Paris:   1904. 

Compare  J.  Bddier,  Les  fetes  de  mai  et  les  commencements  de  la 
poe"sie  lyrique  au  moyen  age  (in  Rev.  d.  Deux  Mondes, 
May  i,  1896). 

This  is  the  best  work  on  the  early  French  lyric.  In  the  first 
part,  the  various  forms  of  the  north  French  medieval  lyric  are 


164  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

described,  and  the  theories  of  their  origin  discussed.  The  second 
part  applies  the  comparative  method  of  study  to  the  question  of 
origins  by  endeavoring  to  recover  the  lost  original  forms  of  French 
lyric  poetry  from  the  supposed  imitations  of  those  forms  in  the 
lyric  literature  of  other  European  nations. 

Le  principe  sur  lequel  nous  nous  appuierons  est  simple :  chaque  fois 
que  nous  trouverons  un  theme  poetique  dans  un  pays  ayant  irnit^  notre 
poesie  lyrique,  et,  en  France,  une  allusion,  un  fragment  se  rapportant  a 
ce  theme,  nous  nous  croirons  autorises  a  conclure,  non  point  qu'il  est 
ne  en  France,  mais  qu'il  a  et6  traits  aussi.  Si  nous  ne  trouvons  point 
de  textes  qui  s'y  rapportent  dans  la  poesie  franc.aise  du  XIIe  et  du 
XIII6  siecles,  mais  que  nous  en  trouvions  dans  celle  du  XI Ve  ou  du 
XVe,  ayant  un  caractere  nettement  populaire,  c'est-a-dire  n'ayant  pu 
venir  en  France  de  I'extdrieur,  nous  penserons  pouvoir  tirer  la  meme 
conclusion  (p.  1 26). 

The  third  part  contains  a  description  of  the  versification  of  the 
lyrics.  Bibliographical  material  will  be  found  on  pages  ix-xiii 
and  515-527.  Gas  ton  Paris  has  pointed  out  (p.  3  of  his  Les 
origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au  moyen  age:  see 
below)  that  perhaps  the  most  important  idea  of  the  book  is  that 
which  connects  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages  with  the 
spring  fetes  and  dances  (p.  387  ff.  of  Jeanroy). 

JESPERSEN,  J.    Progress  in  Language.     Lond. :   1894.    In  part  a 
translation  of  a  Danish  work  of  1891. 

§  279ff.    Song  antedates  language;  .cf.  §  264  ff. 

JEVONS,  F.  B.    A  History  of  Greek  Literature  from  the  Earliest 
Period  to  the  Death  of  Demosthenes.    Lond.:   1886. 
P.  1 06. 

Jevons  traces  the  influence  of  political  and  social  conditions  in 
Greece  upon  the  development  of  the  lyric.  He  wisely,  however, 
refrains  from  extending  his  conclusions  to  the  history  of  the  lyric 
in  countries  where  different  conditions  have  obtained.  The  lyric 
of  Greece  he  regards  as  more  occasional,  less  universal,  than  the 
modern  lyric. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  165 

JULIAN,  J.    A  Dictionary  of  Hymnology.    1892.    Rev.  ed.    1907. 

A  dictionary  of  hymns  of  all  ages  and  nations,  with  a  set  of 
essays  on  subjects  pertaining  to  hymnology. 

KER,  W.  P.    The  Dark  Ages.    Lond.  and  N.Y.:   1904. 
Cf.  Ebert  above,  Manitius  below. 

LENTZNER,  C.  A.  Uber  das  Sonett  und  seine  Gestaltung  in  der 
englischen  Dichtung  bis  Milton.  Halle:  1886.  See  also  §  2, 
Tomlinson,  Watts-Dunton,  Noble. 

LES  LITTERATURES  POPULAIRES  DE  TOUTES  LES  NATIONS.     45  VOls. 

Paris:   1881-1902. 

An  admirable  series  of  carefully  edited  texts  of  the  popular  lit- 
eratures of  many  peoples  and  dialect-divisions.  The  introductions 
are  of  value,  and  the  student  who  acquaints  himself  with  some 
fraction  of  this  wide  range  of  tales  and  poems  has  taken  a  long 
stride  toward  acquainting  himself  with  the  subject  and  problems 
of  popular  literature.  It  is  difficult  to  come  across  a  complete 
list  of  the  volumes,  but  the  book  catalogues  of  Lorenz  from  1881 
on  afford  the  necessary  information. 

LETOURNEAU,  C.    L'  Evolution  litteraire  dans  les  diverses  races 

humaines.    Paris:   1894. 
Superficial,  but  suggestive. 

LEVY,  P.  Geschichte  des  Begriffes  Volkslied.  In  Acta  Germanica, 
7,  3.  Berlin :  1911. 

See  the  review  in  the  Literaturblatt  f.  germ.  u.  roman.  Phil., 

34:   i- 
LLOYD,  M.   Elegies  :  Ancient  and  Modern.   Trenton,  New  Jersey : 

1903. 

A  volume  of  representative  selections  (the  foreign  poems  in 
English  versions)  from  the  whole  course  of  elegiac  poetry  up  to 
Dryden  and  Congreve.  It  is  prefaced  by  a  short  review  of  the 
history  of  elegy,  —  a  superficial  summary  of  names  and  titles 
rather  than  a  study  of  the  variation  of  the  type. 


1 66  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

LONGFELLOW,  H.  W.    The  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe:   With 

introduction  and  biographical  notes.    New  ed.    Phila. :   1871. 

This  volume  is  of  material  assistance  in  the  historical  study  of 

the  lyric.   It  contains  translations  hot  only  of  the  songs,  but  of  the 

ballads  and  epic-fragments  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Icelandic,  Danish, 

Swedish,  German,  Dutch,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese 

languages.   The  historical  and  critical  prefaces  by  Longfellow  give 

in  concise  and  popular  form  information  sufficient  to  acquaint  the 

beginner  with  the  subject. 

MACKAIL,  J.  W.    Lectures  on  Poetry.    Lond. :   1911. 

P.  93  ff.  Arabian  Lyric  Poetry ;  p.  1 79  ff .  Shakespeare's  Son- 
nets; p.  231  ff.  The  Poetry  of  Oxford;  p.  281  ff.  Keats. 

MACKAIL,  J.  W.     Select  Epigrams  from  the  Greek  Anthology. 
Lond.:   1890. 

See  above,  §  2. 

MACKENZIE,  A.  S.    The  Evolution  of  Literature. 
See  below,  §  1 1 . 

MAHAFFY,  J.  P.    History  of  Classical  Greek  Literature.    2  vols. 
N.Y.:   1880. 

Vol.  I  The  Poets. 

MANITIUS,  M.    Geschichte  der  christlich-lateinischen  Poesie  bis 
zur  Mitte  des  8.  Jahrhunderts.    Stuttgart:   1891. 

MANITIUS,  M.    Geschichte  der  lateinischen  Literatur  des  Mittel- 

alters.    Erster  Teil :  von  Justinian  bis  zur  Mitte  des  zehnten 

Jahrhunderts.    In  I.  von  Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen 

Altertums-Wissenschaf t.    Miinchen :   1911. 

These  two  standard  works  of  Manitius  should  constantly  be  at 

the  hand  of  every  student  of  the  development  of  a  literary  type 

in  Latin  during  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages.    For  other  guides  see 

above,  under  Ebert. 

MANLY,  J.  M.    Literary  Forms  and  the  New  Theory  of  the  Origin 
of  Species.    In  Modern  Philology,  4:  577-595. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  l6/ 

A  suggestive  attempt  to  explain  the  origin  of  mysteries,  miracle- 
plays,  and  moralities  in  the  light  of  De  Vries'  Mutation  Theory. 
The  method  might  be  extended  to  other  literary  types. 

MARTINENGO-CESARESCO,  COUNTESS  E.  Essays  in  the  Study  of 
Folk-Songs.  Lond.:  1886. 

MARTINON,  PH.  Les  strophes,  etude  historique  et  critique  sur  les 
formes  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  depuis  la  Renaissance. 
Paris:  1912. 

An  exhaustive  study  of  the  development  of  a  poetic  type  mu,st 
include  an  analysis  of  the  successive  variations  in  the  verse  tech- 
nique of  the  type.  The  analysis  of  variations  in  the  development 
of  modern  lyrical  forms  from  the  prosodical  patterns  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  affords  a  most  important,  as  well  as  clear  and  objective, 
subject  of  study.  For  the  French  portion  of  this  field,  especially 
significant  because  of  the  great  influence  of  Provengal  poetry  in 
the  general  provenience  of  the  European  lyric,  welcome  guides 
are  Kastner's  History  of  French  Versification  and  F.  de  Gramont's 
Les  vers  frangais  et  leur  prosodie.  Further  references  will  be 
found  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  506-509  ;  and  see  below,  §  6, 
vii  The  French  Lyric,  B  The  Troubadours.  But  the  present 
work  by  Ph.  Martinon  is  particularly  welcome  for  its  contribution 
to  the  history  of  stanzaic  forms,  both  in  the  general  rhume  of 
French  strophic  development  contained  in  the  introduction,  and 
in  the  careful  inductions  from  the  numerous  examples  cited  in 
the  various  divisions  of  the  work.  Especially  interesting  is  the 
author's  contention  (pp.  8-20)  that  to  Clement  Marot,  and  not  to 
Ronsard,  is  due  the  credit  for  making  over  the  medieval  lyric  into 
a  modern  instrument.  He  writes  : 

Ainsi  Marot,  avant  de  mourir,  a  prdpard  a  ses  successeurs  1'instru- 
ment  definitif  du  lyrisme  moderne.  C'etait  un  instrument  fait  de  pieces 
anciennes,  mais  les  pieces  seulement  e"taient  anciennes,  1'agencement  ne 
I'e'tait  pas :  1'instrument  ditait  tout  neuf,  et  il  sert  encore.  D'autres 
sauront  en  tirer  de  plus  beaux  sons,  mais  ce  sera  toujours  le  meme 
instrument :  ils  ajouteront  peut-etre  quelques  cordes  a.  la  harpe,  mais 
ce  sera  toujours  la  meme  harpe  (p.  20). 


168  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

MASSON,  G.    La  lyre  frar^aise.    New  ed.    Lond. :   1892. 

The  Preface,  Notes,  and  Chronological  Index,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  excellent  anthology,  furnish  helpful  material  to  a  student 
beginning  his  acquaintance  with  the  French  lyric. 

MATTHEWS,  B.    American  Familiar  Verse.    N.Y. :   1904. 

The  introduction  outlines  the  history  of  familiar  verse  from 
Anacreon  to  the  present.  See  also  Locker-Lampson  (above,  §  2), 
A.  Lang's  Letters  on  Literature  (noted  above,  §  3),  etc. 

MEIER,  J.  Kunstlied  und  Volkslied  in  Deutschland  (Halle :  1906)  ; 
Kunstlieder  im  Volksmunde,  Materialien  und  Untersuchungen 
(Halle:  1906). 

For  a  review  of  these  works,  see  Literaturbl.  f.  germ.  u. 
roman.  Phil.    1908,  No.  12.    Cf.  A.  E.  Berger,  above. 

MILLER,  G.  M.  The  Historical  Point  of  View  in  English  Literary 
Criticism  from  1570-1770.  In  Anglistische  Forschungen, 
No.  35.  1913. 

MOORMAN,  F.  W.  William  Browne,  and  the  Pastoral  Poetry  of 
the  Elizabethan  Age.  Strassburg:  1897. 

MOTHERWELL,    W.     Minstrelsy,    Ancient   and   Modern.     2  vols. 
Boston:    1846. 
Introduction. 

MOULTON,  R.  G.    The  Modern  Study  of  Literature.    1915. 
See  above,  §  2. 

MULLER,  K.  O.  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece. 
Trans,  by  G.  Lewis.  New  ed.  London.:  1847. 

Pp.  16-22. 

The  lyric  as  the  earliest  expression  of  religious  enthusiasm.  Its 
consequent  development  in  connection  with  the  necessities  and 
the  festivities  of  primitive  life.  See  also  for  history  of  the  various 
literary  types  in  Greece. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  169 

MURE,  W.    Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece,    zd  ed.    5  vols.    Lond. :   1854. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  170-172;  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  2-5. 

Mure  insists  upon  the  priority  of  epic  to  lyric,  but  the  reasons 
which  he  assigns  do  riot  prove  that  the  beginnings  of  lyric  poetry 
are  later  than  those  of  epic.  His  generalizations  on  the  respective 
characteristics  of  the  types  are  invalidated  by  an  evident  desire  to 
make  his  point.  It  would  hardly  be  safe,  nowadays,  to  assert,  as 
he  did,  that  no  anonymous  lyric  has  come  down  to  us.  With 
regard  to  some  of  the  principles  of  artistic  evolution,  however, 
and  the  parallel  courses  of  music  and  lyric  poetry,  this  discussion 
is  informing  and  trustworthy.  —  See  also  for  history  of  the  various 
literary  types  in  Greece. 

NEILSON,  W.  A.  Origins  and  Sources  of  the  Court  of  Love.   1900. 

NICKEL,  W.  Sirventes  und  Spruchdichtung.  In  Palaestra,  No.  63. 
1907. 

A  general  account  focused  upon  the  German  forms. 

NISARD,  C.  Des  chansons  populaires  chez  les  anciens  et  chez  les 
Franc.ais.  2  vols.  Paris:  1867. 

An  attempt,  to  trace  the  history  of  popular  songs  among  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  French.  Special  attention  is  paid  to  the 
chansonniers,  or  bacchanalian  songs,  to  songs  of  love,  and  to 
songs  of  war.  The  student  should  check  the  work  with  more 
recent  monographs  dealing  with  the  same  and  similar  subjects 
(cf.  below,  §  6,  vn,  K  ;  vm,  A,  j  ;  xni,  H  ;  etc.). 

OLIPHANT,  T.    A  Short  Account  of  Madrigals.    1836. 

For  other  references  on  the  madrigal  see  under  W.  A.  Barrett 
as  noted  below,  §  6,  xi,  c,  References. 

OLMSTEAD,  E.  W.  The  Sonnet  in  French  Literature  and  the 
Development  of  the  French  Sonnet  Form.  Cornell  Diss. 
Ithaca,  N.Y.:  1897. 


170  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

OUVRE,  H. 

Op.  cit.  §11. 

Notice  the  contrast  between  the  discursive  and  divergent  de- 
velopment of  the  Greek  lyric  and  the  unity  of  development  of 
the  Greek  epic  (p.  6 1  ff .).  Is  this  contrast  real  or  apparent  ? 

PALGRAVE,  F.  T.  Essay  on  Spenser's  Minor  Poems.  In  vol.  IV 
of  Spenser's  Complete  Works,  Ed.  by  A.  B.  Grosart,  10  vols., 
privately  printed,  1882-1884. 

PARIS,  GASTON.  Les  origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au 
moyen  age.  Paris:  1892.  (Extraits  du  Journal  des  Savants 
—  novembre  et  decembre  1891,  mars  et  juillet  1892.) 
A  critique  of  Jeanroy's  Poesie  lyrique  en  France  (see  above). 
Pp.  1-6  contain  a  brief  summary  and  general  criticism  of  Jeanroy's 
book.  The  rest  of  the  essay  supplements  the  first  part  of  Jean- 
roy's work  with  historical  and  literary  material  not  used  in  that 
work.  In  the  course  of  the  essay  Paris  supports  the  thesis, —  "  la 
poesie  des  troubadours  proprement  dite,  imitee  dans  le  Nord  a 
partir  du  milieu  du  XIP  siecle,  et  qui  est  essentiellement  la  poe'sie 
courtoise,  a  son  point  de  depart  dans  les  chansons  de  danses  et 
notamment  de  danses  printanieres,  .  .  ."  (p.  58).  See  the  same 
author's  La  poe'sie  du  moyen  age  (2  vols.  1885-95 ;  vol.  I, 
5th  ed.,  vol.  II,  3d  ed.,  1903-06),  La  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age, 
XP-XIVe  siecle  (sth  ed.  1914),  and  Me'langes  de  litt.  fr.  du 
moyen  sige,  Ed.,  M.  Roques  (Paris:  1912).  For  a  list  of  the 
works  of  this  most  important  writer  upon  medieval  French  lyric 
and  epical  poetry,  see  J.  Be'dier  et  M.  Roques,  Bibliographic 
des  travaux  de  Gaston  Paris  (Paris:  1904). 

PAUL,  H.  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie.  2d  ed.  3  vols. 
in  4.  Strassburg :  1900-1909.  3d  ed.  begun  1911. 

Cf.  Gay  ley  and  Scott,  Index. 

Consult  Bd.  II,  Abt.  I  for  history  and  bibliography  of  the 
Germanic  literatures :  Gothic,  German  (from  the  beginnings  to 
the  Middle  Low  German  period  inclusive),  Dutch  (up  to  the 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  17 1 

1 7th  century),  Frisian  (through  igth  century),  Norwegian-Icelandic 
and  Swedish-Danish  (through  Middle  Ages),  and  Anglo-Saxon. 
An  extensive  appendix  contains  a  most  valuable  account  of 
Scandinavian,  German,  and  Dutch  folk-poetry.  A  classified  table 
of  contents  makes  it  possible  for  the  student  of  any  literary  type 
to  find  his  way  with  ease  through  this  monumental  and  indispen- 
sable ground-plan  of  early  Germanic  literature. 

• 

PEACOCK,  T.  L.  Four  Ages  of  Poetry.  In  Ollier's  Miscellany, 
1820.  Also  in  Peacock's  Collected  Works,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  324- 
338,  and  in  A.  S.  Cook's  Shelley's  Defense  of  Poetry. 

PECK,  H.  T.    The  Lyrics  of  Tennyson. 
See  above,  §  2. 

PERRY,  E.  D.    Lyric  Poetry.    In  Greek  Literature:   A  Series  of 

Lectures  delivered  at  Columbia  University.    N.Y.:   1912. 
A  brief  historical  and  appreciative  essay  on  the  Greek  lyric. 

PETIT  DE  JULLEVILLE,  L.   Histoire  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litterature 

franchise  des  origines  a  1900.    8  vols.    Paris:   1896-1899. 
The  authoritative  history  of  French  literature.    Arrangement 
according  to  types  facilitates  the  use  of  the  book. 

PETSCH,  R.    Neue  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  des  Volksratsels.    In 

Palaestra,  No.  4.    1899. 

The  folk  lyric  often  takes  the  form  of  a  riddle.  For  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  riddle  see  J.  B.  Friedreich,  Geschichte  des  Rathsels 
(Dresden:  1861);  E.  Rolland,  Devincttes  ou  enigmes  populaires; 
on  the  Old  English  riddles,  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  I,  Chap.  IV 
and  bibliography.  The  critical  literature  is  fairly  representative. 

PIAZZA,  S.    L' Epigramma  latino.    Padova:   1898. 

This  is  an  extensive  (308  pp.),  clearly  written  history  of  the 
Latin  epigram  down  to  the  time  of  Martial.  Topics  :  Alexandrian 
epigram  and  epigrammatists ;  relation  of  these  to  early  Latin  epi- 
grammatists ;  development  of  Latin  epigram  to  Catullus ;  influence 


HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

of  Greek  models ;  epigrams  of  Catullus  in  relation  to  their  period. 
The  author  criticizes  Lessing's  definition  of  the  epigram  as  too 
narrow  to  cover  the  field.  On  the  Greek  epigram  see  also  albove, 
§  2,  Mackail. 

PI£RI,  M.  Le  Petrarquisme  au  XVP  siecle,  etc.  Marseilles:  1895. 
Discusses  the  influence  of  Petrarch  in  England  and  France, 
especially  in  reference  to  Ronsard.  For  other  works  dealing  with 
English  Petrarchism,  see  below,  §  6,  under  the  English  lyric  of 
the  sixteenth  century. 

PLESSIS,  F.    Eludes  critiques  sur  Properce  et  ses  elegies. 
See  above,  §  2. 

POSNETT,  H.  M.    Comparative  Literature.    N.Y. :  1896. 

Pp.  39-41. 

The  lyric  has  changed  with  the  change  and  development  of 
language  and  of  social  and  national  conditions.  "  Each  country 
has  its  own  lyrical  development  expressing  the  changes  of  its 
social  life."  The  lyric  varies  from  the  sacred  or  "  magical " 
hymns  of  priest-bards  to  the  written  expressions  of  individual 
feeling.  Posnett  calls  the  earliest  lyric  the  "  communal " ;  the 
lyric  of  modern  life  is  primarily  characterized  by  the  predominance 
of  individualism.  See  Chap.  II  Early  Choral  Song;  Chap.  Ill 
Personal  Clan  Poetry;  and  below,  §  n.  For  Posnett's  method 
in  general  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  32,  260. 

POTEZ,  H.    L'FJe'gie  en  France  avant  le  romantisme  (de  Parny 

a  Lamartine)  1778-1820.    Diss.  Paris:   1897. 
A  most  convenient  aid  to  the  study  of  the  French  elegy.    For 
further  notice,  see  below,  §  6,  xxxiv,  A,  6,  (//). 

QUADRIO,  F.  S.    Delia  storia  e  della  ragione  d'ogni  poesia.   7  vols. 

Bologna  e  Milano:   1739-1752. 

The  second  volume  (about  1200  pages,  in  two  parts)  is  devoted 
to  the  origin  and  history  of  the  lyric,  the  kinds  of  sacred  lyric, 
musical  and  dance  accompaniments,  metrical  forms  and  species 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  173 

(see  particularly  madrigal  and  epigram)  of  the  lyric.  The  origin 
of  the  lyric  is  traced  through  Hebrew  poetry,  through  David  and 
Jubal  and  Henoch  and  Adam,  to  the  hymns  of  the  angelic  hosts. 
Hundreds  of  names  of  lyric  writers  of  all  nations  —  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Phoenician,  Roman,  Persian,  Chinese,  Proven9al,  Italian, 
French,  German,  English,  etc.  —  are  congregated  uncritically;  and 
to  each  name  a  brief  and  frequently  untrustworthy  note  is  added. 
The  section  upon  metrical  forms  consists  of  a  patient  compilation 
of  all  the  ancient  divisions  and  subdivisions  upon  which  Quadrio 
could  lay  his  hands.  There  is  no  original  criticism,  —  only  a 
dictionary  of  names  and  species.  But  the  work  is  a  museum 
of  forgotten  titles,  and  is  notable  as  an  early  essay  at  the  historic- 
comparative  method.  Cf.  above,  §  2. 

Quarterly  Review,  192  (1900).    English  Patriotic  Poetry. 

REED,  E.   B.     English  Lyrical   Poetry  from  its  Origins  to  the 
Present  Time.    New  Haven:    1912. 

The  pioneer  book  in  its  field,  this  work  contains  much  infor- 
mation, a  mass  of  comment  on  particular  authors  and  lyrics, 
and  only  the  simplest  of  generalizations  regarding  the  lyric 
character  of  the  various  ages  of  English  literary  history. 

RHYS,  E.    Lyric  Poetry.    Lond. :   1913. 

This  volume  u  is  not  intended  to  be  a  history  of  lyric  poetry 
so  much  as  a  tracing  of  the  development  of  the  lyric  idea  in 
English  literature."  Its  method  is  appreciative,  rather  than  scien- 
tific. Cf.  Fuller,  C.  F.  Johnson,  F.  E.  Schelling,  Stedman,  Reed, 
above,  §  2. 

RITSON,   J.     A    Select    Collection    of    English    Songs.     3    vols. 
Lond.:   1783. 

In  a  prefatory  Historical  Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Progress 
of  National  Song,  Ritson  distinguishes  between  the  song  and 
the  narrative  ballad  (p.  i,  note) ;  compare  Ritson's  Scottish 
Song  (1774);  Ancient  Songs  and  Ballads  (1790);  etc. 


1/4  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

ROHDE,  E.  Der  griechische  Roman  und  seine  Vorlaufer.  2d  ed. 
Leipz. :  1900. 

This  standard  and  authoritative  work  is  of  considerable  aid 
in  tracing  the  development  of  the  erotic  elegy.  See  especially 
pp.  63-177. 

ROTTER,  C.   Der  Schnaderhiipfl-Rhythmus.    In  Palaestra,  No.  90. 

1912. 

Rotter  gives  a  list  of  the  collections  of  this  variety  of  folk 
poetry.  See  above  under  Grasberger. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.    The  Historical  Character  of  the  English  Lyric. 
See  above,  §  2. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.  A  Short  History  of  French  Literature.  6th  ed. 
Oxford:  1901. 

Pp.  51-60  Early  Lyrics;  81-87  Later  Songs  and  Poems. 
For  special  lyrists  see  Index.  For  the  forms  of  Trouba- 
dour poetry  see  chapter  on  Provencal  literature,  pp.  22-29. 

The  Provencal  literature,  though  chiefly  lyrical  in  form,  is  not 
considered  by  Professor  Saintsbury  (or  by  Karl  Bartsch,  whom 
he  follows)  to  have  "  exercised  an  initial  influence  over  Northern 
French  literature."  That  French  lyrical  poetry,  however,  has  been 
affected  by  the  spirit  of  Provencal  verse,  he  does  not  deny. 

SARRAZIN,  J.  V.  Victor  Hugo's  Lyrik  und  ihr  Entwickelungsgang. 

Ein  krit.  Versuch.    Baden-Baden:   1885. 
Worthy  of  comparison  with  Werner's  study  of  Hebbel. 

Sat.  Rev.    57  :  25  English  Lyrics. 

Sat.  Rev.  62  :  692  Lyrics  from  the  Song- Books  of  the  Elizabethan 
Age.  (See  A.  H.  Bullen's  Lyrics  from  the  Dramatists  of  the 
Elizabethan  Age,  and  his  More  Lyrics  from  the  Song-Books 
of  the  Elizabethan  Age.) 

SCHANZ,  M.  Geschichte  der  romischen  Litteratur  bis  zum 
Gesetzgebungswcrk  des  Kaisers  Justinian.  4  vols.  Miinchen : 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  1/5 

1890-1904.    Later  eds.  of  various  vols.,  1898-1914.  Inl.von 
Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschaft. 
Indispensable  to  the  student  of  the  poetic  types  in  Roman 
Literature. 

SCHEDER,  — .    Die  Entwickelung  der  Lyrik  in  der  klassischen 

Literatur-periode.  In  Herrig's  Archiv  28  :  165  (1860). 
Dr.  Scheder's  article  is  a  study  of  the  connecting  links  between 
the  lyrics  of  the  pre-classical  and  the  classical  periods  in  Germany. 
Stating  the  principle  of  the  lyric  to  be  the  "  idea  of  mediation 
and  reconciliation  between  the  ideal  and  the  real,"  Dr.  Scheder 
attempts  to  prove  that  Barthold  Heinrich  Brockes  (1680-1747) 
was  the  first  German  lyrist  to  discover  this  idea  in  the  revelation 
of  God  in  Nature.  Brockes'  Irdisches  Vergniigen  in  Gott  is 
consequently  regarded  as  the  forerunner  of  the  nature  poetry 
of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Heine,  Herder,  and  lesser  poets. 

SCHELLING,  F.  E.  A  Book  of  Elizabethan  Lyrics.  Boston:  1895. 
The  Introduction  contains  a  brief  historical  account  of  the  rise 
and  development  of  the  Elizabethan  lyric  of  art,  and  a  review 
"  of  the  chief  lyrical  measures  of  the  age  from  an  organic  as 
well  as  an  historical  point  of  view." 

SCHELLING,   F.   E.     A    Book   of    Seventeenth   Century   Lyrics. 

Boston:   1899. 

"  In  the  Introduction  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  trace  the 
course  of  English  lyrical  poetry  during  the  period  (1625-1700), 
to  explain  its  relations  to  the  previous  age,  and  to  trace  the 
influences  which  determined  its  development  and  its  final  change 
of  character." 

SCHELLING,   F.   E.     English  Literature  during  the   Lifetime  of 
Shakespeare.    N .  Y. :   1910. 

Chaps.  VIII,  XI,  XII,  XIX. 

On  p.  121  Professor  Schelling  argues  that  the  grasp  of  subtler 
phases  of  emotion  and  the  mastery  of  form  and  of  the  music  of 
speech,  which  are  necessary  to  the  lyric,  make  its  development 


176  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

a  matter  of  late  literary  growth.  "  Despite  what  must  be  admitted 
as  to  an  impersonal  lyrical  quality  inhering  in  much  early  popular 
poetry,  an  age,  in  which  the  gift  of  lyric  expression  is  widely 
diffused,  must  be  alike  removed  from  the  simplicity  and  im- 
maturity which  is  content  to  note  in  its  literature  the  direct 
effects  of  the  phenomena  of  the  outside  world  and  no  more, 
and  from  that  complexity  of  conditions  and  that  tendency  to 
intellectualize  emotion  which  characterize  a  time  like  our  own." 
The  Elizabethan  Age  was  ideally  suited  to  lyrical  expression. 

SCHELLING,  F.  E.    The  English  Lyric.    Boston:   1913. 

A  very  useful,  unpretentious  survey  of  •  the  history  of  the 
English  lyric :  the  best  work  of  its  scope.  For  general  summary, 
see  pp.  291-300. 

SCHERER,  W*.   History  of  German  Literature.   Trans,  by  Mrs.  F.  C. 

Conybeare.    2  vols.    N.Y. :   1886. 

In  these  volumes  may  be  found  frequent,  valuable  conclusions 
concerning  the  development  of  the  German  lyric.  See,  for  instance, 
I:  5,  10-15,  J^'  2I  On  trie  early  lyric;  I:  223,  259  Middle 
High  German  Poetry;  1 :  293,  370  Love  Songs;  I:  34  Christian 
Hymns;  277,  322,  359  Sacred  Songs;  I:  296,  315,  322,  369 
Convivial  Songs;  I:  53,  248,  252  People's  Songs.  But  especially 
interesting  is  the  chapter  in  vol.  II :  259-282  on  lyric  poetry 
from  Jacobi  and  Klamer  Schmidt  to  the  present.  This  is  the 
lyric  poetry  of  Romanticism. 

SCHERER,  W.    Poetik.    Berlin:   1888. 

Compare  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  262  ;  and  note  Burdach's  point 
(p.  296  ff.  of  the  Poetik)  that  lyric  and  drama  are  the  earliest 
poetic  phenomena. 

SCHMIDT,  E.    Die  Anfange  der  Literatur  und  die  Literatur  der 

primitiven  Volker.     In  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart 

(see  above),  T.  I  Abt.  VII  1-27.    Berlin  and  Leipz. :   1906. 

The   greater   part   of   this   convenient   review  of  the  earliest 

stages  of  poetic  expression  is  concerned  with  such  beginnings 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  177 

of  the  lyric  as  choral  poetry  and  dance,  prayers,  riddles,  cosmo- 
gonic  songs,  songs  of  the  field,  erotic  and  religious  songs,  charms, 
animal  songs  and  dances,  work  and  war  songs,  eulogistic  and 
elegiac  songs,  and  satirical  verse.  Compare  below,  §  6,  xxxin. 

SCHULZE,  K.  P.    Romische  Elegiker.    3cted.    Berlin:   1890. 
See  the  introduction  for  a  brief  review  of  classical  elegy. 

SCHURE,  E\    Histoire  du  Lied  ou  la  Chanson  Populaire  en  Alle- 
magne.    New  ed.    Paris:   1903.    (ist  ed.    1868.) 

SCOTT,    SIR   W.     Minstrelsy   of    the    Scottish  -Border.     2    vols. 

Edinb. :   1873. 

The  prefatory  Remarks  on  Popular  Poetry  afford  an  intro- 
duction to  the  Scottish  branch  of  the  subject.  Compare  the 
introduction  to  Motherwell's  work,  mentioned  above. 

SELLAR,  W.  Y. 

See  above,  §  2. 

Helpful  in  the  study  of  Roman  lyric  poetry,  especially  the 
elegiac  poets."  The  treatment,  however,  is  more  analytical  than 
historical. 

SMITH,  A.    Works.    5  vols.    Lond. :   1811-12. 

Vol.  V,  pp.  241-318  Of  the  Imitative  Arts. 

SMYTH,  H.  W.    Greek  Melic  Poets.    Lond. :   1900. 

See  the  introduction  for  a  brief  account  of  the  varieties  of  the 
Greek  lyric.  Pp.  cxxxv-clii  contain  a  very  convenient  Selected 
Bibliography  of  editions  and  monographs  pertaining  to  the 
Greek  lyric. 

SPENCER,  H. 

See  Gayley  and  Scott,  Lit.  Crit.,  Index. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.    The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry.    Boston : 
1892. 

See  index  under  Lyric  and  Subjectivity. 


178  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

SULZER,  J.  G.    Allgemeine  Theorie,  etc. 
See  above,  §  2. 

SUSEMIHL,  F.   Die  alexandrinische  Litteratur.    2  vols.    1891—1892. 
A  standard  work. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.   Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets.   2  vols.   N.Y. :  1880. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  26-31   Hesiod,  the  connecting  link  between  the 
epic  and  lyric  stages  of  Greek  poetry ;    Chaps.  X,  XI  The 
Lyric  Poets,  Pindar.    Vol.  II,  Chap.  XXII  The  Anthology. 
Admirably  stimulating  and  appreciative. 

TALVJ  (Fraulein  T.  A.  L.  von  Jacob,  afterwards  Frau  Robinson). 
Characteristik  der  Volkslieder  germanischer  Nationen.  Leipz. : 
1840. 

Cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  273. 

One  of  the  first  to  discard  the  idea  that  lyric  is  subsequent 
to  epic. 

TEN  BRINK,  B.  Early  English  Literature.  Trans,  by  Kennedy- 
Robinson-Schmitz.  3  vols.  N.  Y.  :  1889-1893. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  14;  205-211. 

A  forcible  statement  of  the  reasons  for  regarding  hymnic  poetry 
as  the  original  form  of  the  lyric,  and  the  precursor  of  the  epic. 
Some  seven  arguments  are  given  in  support  of  ten  Brink's  as- 
sertion. The  influence  of  French  and  Latin  verse  upon  the 
evolution  of  English  lyric  poetry  in  the  thirteenth  century  should 
be  noted. 

TEUFFEL,  W.  S.  History  of  Roman  Literature.  5th  ed.,  trans, 
by  G.  C.  W.  Warr.  Lond. :  1900. 

See  also  the  sixth  German  edition. 

An  authoritative  work;  to  be  consulted  for  the  historical  outlines 
of  the  various  types  in  Roman  literature. 

THURAU,  G.  Der  Refrain  in  der  franzb'sischen  Chanson.  In 
Litthist.  Forschungen,  No.  23.  1901. 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  1/9 

TIERSOT,  J.    Histoire  de  la  chanson  populaire  en  France.    Paris : 

1889. 
For  other  works  on  the  popular  lyric  see  above,  under  Nisard. 

TSCHERSIG,  H.  Das  Gasel  in  der  deutschen  Dichtung  und  das 
Gasel  bei  Platen.  In  Breslauer  Eeitrage  zur  Literaturgeschichte, 
No.  ii.  1907. 

URBAN,    E.     Owenus   und    die   deutschen    Epigrammatiker   des 

1 8.  Jhdts.    In  Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  n.    1900. 
A  study  of  the  literary  influence  of  the  English  epigrammatist, 
John  Owen  (d.  1622). 

VAGANAY,  H.  Le  sonnet  en  Italic  et  en  France  au  seizieme  siecle ; 
essai  de  bibliographic  comparee.  (Bib.  de  faculte  catholique 
de  Lyon.)  Lyon  :  1902-1903. 

VEITCH,  J.    The  Feeling  for  Nature  in  Scottish  Poetry.    2  vols. 

Edinb. :   1887. 

This  standard  work  covers  the  period  1300-1861,  and  is  of 
considerable  incidental  aid  to  the  student  of  the  history  of  the 
Scottish  lyric. 

VEYRIERES,  Louis  DE.     Monographic  du   Sonnet.     Sonnettistes 

anciens  et  modernes.    2  vols.    Paris:   1869. 
"  Ouvrage  fondamental  et  qui  te'moigne  de  patientes  recherches  " 
(Vaganay). 

VISCHER,  F.  J.   Aesthetik. 
See  above,  §  2. 

VOSSLER,  K.     Das   deutsche   Madrigal,   Geschichte   seiner  Ent- 
wickelung  bis  in  die  Mitte  des  XVIII.    Jahrhunderts.     In 
Litterarhistorische  fbrschungen,  vol.  VI.    Weimar:   1898. 
The  history  of  the  madrigal  as  a  type  is  traced  from  Italy  to 
Germany,  and  its  modifications  in  the  latter  country  (especially 
by  Caspar  Ziegler)  up  to  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
are  set  forth.    Summary  of  conclusions,  pp.  158-160.    For  other 
references  on  the  madrigal,  see  under  T.  Oliphant,  above. 


180  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  5 

WACKERNAGEL,  W.    Poetik,  e{:c. 
See  above,  §  2. 

WALLASCHEK,  R.    Primitive  Music.    Lond. :   1893. 

Chap.  VI  Text  and  Music;  Chap.  VII  Dance  and  Music. 
The  authoi;  presents  interesting  evidence  from  savage  life  of  the 
rise  of  song,  the  use  of  meaningless  words,  repetitions,  and  recitative, 
transition  of  song  to  speech,  union  of  dance  and  song,  etc. 

WARREN,  F.  M.  The  Romance  Lyric  from  the  Standpoint  of 
Antecedent  Latin  Documents.  In  Pub.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass., 
26:  280.  1911. 

Affords  an  introduction  to  the  important  problem  of  "  the 
relation  of  Latin  lyric  poetry  to  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Romance 
peoples."  Bibliography  cited. 

WATTS-DUNTON,  W.  T.    Poetry.    Sonnet. 
See  above,  §  2. 

WELTI,  H.  Geschichte  des  Sonettes  in  der  deutschen  Dichtung, 
mit  einer  Einleitung  iiber  Heimat,  Entstehung  und  Wesen  der 
Sonettform.  Leipz. :  1884. 

In  the  Appendix  is  printed  A.  W.  Schlegel's  Vorlesung  iiber 
das  Sonett.    1803. 

Particularly  valuable  for  the  history  of  the  German  sonnet. 
The  introductory  material  on  the  origin  and  development  of 
the  sonnet  must  be  checked  by  later  research. 

WERNAER,  R.  M.  The  New  Constructive  Criticism.  In  Pubs. 
Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  22  :  421-445. 

WERNER,  R.  M.    Lyrik  und  Lyriker. 

Cf.  above,  §  2 ;  §  4,  iv,  A. 
This  monumental  work  contains  much  historical  material. 

Westm.  Rev.    New  Series,  vol.  42  (1872).    Greek  Lyrical  Poetry. 

The  author  considers  the  specializing  tendency  of  Greek  poetry 

(particularly  of  the  lyric),  which  distinguishes  it  from   Oriental 


§5]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  l8l 

verse.  He  emphasizes  the  "  occasional "  character  of  the  Greek 
lyric  and  classifies  it  as  religious  and  social  (de  vita].  Perhaps  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  paper  is  the  discussion  of  the  part 
played  by  poet-families  in  the  cultivation  of  the  lyric.  In  the 
same  volume  see  an  essay  on  Pindar. 

WINDSCHEID,  K.  Die  englische  Hirtendichtung  von  1579  bis 
1625.  Halle:  1895. 

WODEHOUSE,  A.  H.  Article  "  Song,"  in  Sir  George  Grove's 
Dictionary  of  Music  and  Musicians.  Vol.  III.  Lond. :  1883. 

WOLF,  F.  tiber  die  Lais,  Sequenzen  und  Leiche.  Ein  Beitrag 
zur  Geschichte  der  rhythmischen  Formen  und  Singweisen 
der  Volkslieder  und  der  volksmassigen  Kirchen-  und  Kunst- 
lieder  im  Mittelalter.  Heidelberg:  1841. 

An  old,  learned,  and  still  valuable  essay. 

WOLFF,  E.  Poetik.  Die  Gesetze  der  Poesie  in  ihrer  geschicht- 
lichen  Entwicklung.  Oldenburg  und  Leipz. :  1899. 

In  this  important  and  seminal  essay  the  author  sketches  the 
new  conception  and  methods  of  historical  poetics.  The  new 
poetics  does-  not  attempt  to  give  rules  to  poetry,  but  by  wide 
historical,  comparative,  and  psychological  induction  to  arrive  at 
the  principles  of  literary  origins  and  development  (variations). 
The  development  of  the  literary  types  is  outlined  according  to  the 
author's  theory  that  the  advance  in  poetry  is  from  the  objective 
and  concrete  to  the  subjective  and  abstract,  and  that  the  history 
of  poetic  inspiration  involves  an  advance  from  original  simplicity 
(simpleness  ?)  to  later,  manifold  variety  and  spiritual  complexity. 
The  student  will  find  himself  constantly  hesitating  to  accept  the 
broad  generalizations  of  the  historical  section  of  the  essay,  —  a 
hesitation  that  is  an  almost  inevitable  consequence  of  the  extraor- 
dinary brevity  with  which  vast  topics  are  treated.  He  may  also 
question  Professor  Wolff's  conclusion  that  the  lyric  is  of  later 
origin  than  the  epic. 


1 82  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

ZINGERLE,  A.  R.  Ovidius  und  sein  Verhaltnis  zu  den  Vorgangern 
und  gleichzeitigen  romischen  Dichtern.  3  Parts.  Innsbruck  : 
1869-71. 

Valuable  for  any  student  engaged  in  a  detailed  study  of  the 
Roman  elegy. 

SECTION  6.    HISTORICAL  STUDY  BY  NATIONALITIES  : 
SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

As  an  aid  to  the  historical  study  of  the  lyric  the  following 
outlines  of  the  development  of  the  type  by  various  nationalities 
have  been  prepared.  They  do  not  aim  .to  be  exhaustive,  but 
it  is  hoped  that  they  may  furnish  such  paraphernalia  as  may 
insure  the  student  against  serious  omissions  of  critical  material, 
open  up  to  him  some  of  the  chief  periods  and  problems  of 
investigation,  and  afford  an  adequate  starting  point  for  original 
research  in  the  history  of  the  type. 

In  arranging  these  outlines  a  uniform  method  has  been  followed 
wherever  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  materials  have  rendered  it 
feasible.  When  possible  a  few  works  from  which  the  student 
may  gain  the  best  general  introduction  to  the  history  of  the 
nation's  lyrical  literature  are  mentioned  first.  Then  follows  a 
brief  indication  of  the  main  periods  of  development  of  the 
national  lyric  under  consideration.  Editions  and  translations 
come  next,  and  after  them  a  citation  of  some  of  the  more 
important  or  representative  works  that  deal  with  the  history  of 
the  national  lyrics,  with  particular  poets  or  periods,  or  with 
particular  problems  of  development.  Where  the  lyric  history 
of  a  nation  is  subdivided  into  centuries,  the  same  general 
method  is  followed  under  each  century.  Where  the  body  of 
material  is  small,  as  iij  the  case  of  the  less  important  nations 
or  periods,  it  has  not  always  been  convenient  to  observe  this 
ordering  of  divisions.  In  some  cases,  where  the  amount  of 
material  has  justified  it,  the  references  on  an  individual  poet 
have  been  kept  together. 


I]  THE  GREEK  LYRIC  183 

As  already  explained  in  the  Preface  to  this  work,  repeated 
mention  of  the  principal  general  histories  of  literature,  biblio- 
graphical aids  of  a  general  nature,  and  learned  periodicals  has 
been  avoided  by  listing  such  works  in  an  Appendix.  While 
using  any  part  of  the  following  outline  the  student  should  also 
consult  the  corresponding  section  of  the  Appendix.  If,  for 
instance,  he  happens  to  be  making  a  study  of  the  history  of 
the  Greek  lyric,  he  should  at  once  supplement  the  references 
under  I  The  Greek  Lyric  with  those  under  V-VII  in  the  Ap- 
pendix. Thus  only  will  he  be  sure  of  finding  some  of  the  most 
important  material  on  his  subject 

I.  The  Greek  Lyric. 

The  student  will  find  the  best  general  introductions  to  the  study 
.of  the  Greek  lyric  in  the  following  works:  H.  Flach,  Geschichte  der 
griechischen  Lyrik  (Tubingen :  1 884),  the  most  exhaustive  work  on 
the  subject;  G.  S.  Farnell,  Greek  Lyric  Poetry  (Lond. :  1891),  con- 
taining prefatory  articles  of  an  historical  and  analytical  nature,  the 
Greek  text  of  the  "  readable  fragments  of  the  Greek  Melic  poets 
other  than  Pindar,"  with  biographical  and  introductory  matter  on  each 
of  the  lyric  poets  represented,  together  with  certain  additional  notes 
of  value ;  R.  C.  Jebb,  The  Growth  and  Influence  of  Classical  Greek 
Poetry  (Boston:  1893),  Chaps.  IV  and  V  of  which  present  an  admirable, 
brief  review  of  Greek  lyric  in  general  and  of  Pindar  in  particular ; 
U.  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff  in  Die  griechische  u.  lateinische  Lit. 
u.  Sprache  (sded.  Berlin  u.  Leipz. :  1912,  pp.  29-53,  92-96,  209-218), 
being  Thl.  I,  Abthl.  VIII,  of  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, — 
authoritative  and  recent ;  F.  B.  Jevons,  A  Hist,  of  Greek  Lit.  (N.  Y. : 
1 904),  excellent  in  its  survey  of  the  lyric,  and  of  other  types  also ; 
A.  Biese,  E.  D.  Perry,  and  H.  W.  Smyth,  as  noted  above,  §  5 ; 
E.  Nageotte,  Histoire  de  la  poesie  lyrjque  grecque  (2  vols.  Paris : 
1888-89),  well  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  student.  Among  the  larger 
general  histories  of  Greek  literature  the  student  should  not  fail  to  consult 
the  works  'of  Miiller,  Mure,  Christ,  Bernhardy,  Bergk,  and  Croiset.  A 
list  of  the  more  important  guides  in  the  general  field  of  ancient  classical 
poetry  has  been  given  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  369-370.  See  also 
Hegel,  Symonds,  Westm.  Rev.,  as  in  §  5,  above.  For  works  on  Greek 
and  Latin  versification,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  24 ;  for  collections  of 
the  Greek  lyric,  see  below.  T—  On  the  influence  of  classical  literature  in 


184  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

later  periods  see  Paul  Shorey,  Classical  Lit.  and  Learning  (Congress 
of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  III.  St.  Louis:  1906);  H.  O.  Taylor,  Classi- 
cal Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  (N.Y. :  1901);  Sandys,  A  Hist,  of 
Classical  Scholarship ;  J.  Churton  Collins,  Greek  Influence  on  English 
Poetry  (1910);  F.  G.  Tucker,  The  Foreign  Debt  of  English  Literature 
(1907);  also  Schevill,  Schrottner,  Thayer,  Chislett,  and  others  noted 
below,  II,  References. 

The  history  of  the  Greek  lyric  may  be  examined  under  eight 
heads,  (i)  Evidences  of  early  popular  lyrics  (Volkslieder)  prior 
to  and  coincident  with  the  development  of  epic  lays.  This  kind 
must  have  been  of  an  objective  nature,  with  large  admixture 
of  narrative  matter.  Along  with  it  should  be  considered  early 
religious  lyric,  with  its  later  development  in  the  so-called  Homeric 
Hymns.  (2)  The  beginnings  of  a  new  lyric  development  after  the 
age  of  the  Homeric  epics.  First  of  all  should  be  noted  the  rise, 
700-500  B.C.,  of  political  and  reflective  elegiac  verse  (Callinus, 
Tyrtaeus,  Archilochus,  Mimnerm'us,  Solon,  Theognis,  Simonides 
of  Ceos,  etc.),  and  of  personal  lampoon  in  iambic  measure 
(Archilochus,  Simonides  of  Amorgos,  Solon,  Hipponax).  For 
the  elegy,  see  below,  xxxiv,  A.  (3)  Next  should  be  noted  the 
rise  (660-540)  of  what  the  Greeks  called  melic,  as  distinguished 
from  iambic  and  elegiac,  poetry.  This  melic  poetry  developed  two 
general  kinds :  the  personal,  Aeolic  lyric  at  Lesbos  (Sappho  and 
Alcaeus),  and  the  choral  lyric  under  Dorian  influences  (Alcman, 
Arion,  Stesichorus,  Ibycus,  etc.).  Here  the  student  will  note  the 
growth  of  subjectivity  and  reflection  as  the  epic  age  recedes 
further  and  further  into  the  past.  The  Doric  lyric  retained 
more  of  the  objective  character;  the  Aeolic  was  more  deeply 
emotional  in  a  personal  way,  but  without  the  picturesque  and 
vague  vistas  of  the  modern  European  lyric.  What  conditions 
of  racial  character  and  of  environment  may  be  regarded  as 
contributing  to  these  differences?  Under  what  advances  in 
culture  did  the  elegiac,  iambic,  and  melic  developments  take 
place  ?  Can  such  changes  in  the  cultural  bases  be  shown  to 
have  been  operative  elsewhere  than  in  Greece,  —  i.e.,  can  it  be 


I]  THE  GREEK  LYRIC  185 

shown  that  the  development  of  the  Greek  lyric  was  in  accordance 
with  any  general  law  governing  the  interrelation  of  social  condi- 
tions and  lyric  expression  ?  The  student  should  carefully  note  the 
nature  of  the  variations  of  literary  form  and  content  by  which 
the  epic  passes  into  the  lyric,  or  vice  versa,  and  either  or  both 
into  the  drama.  By  collating  and  analyzing  these  variations 
some  idea  may  be  gained  of  characteristic  steps  in  the  muta- 
tion of  literary  species.  (4)  Next  may  be  noticed  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  lyric  by  the  Tyrants.  To  this  period,  550-470, 
belong  Ibycus  and  Anacreon.  Simonides  of  Ceos  and  Bacchylides 
also  wrote  for  Tyrants.  The  influence  of  the  courtier's  life  upon 
the  lyric  is  not  so  great  in  what  remains  to  us  of  this  poetry 
as  might  be  expected.  (5)  The  first  half  of  the  fifth  century 
witnessed  the  flowering  of  Simonides,  Pindar,  and  Bacchylides. 
Under  the  contagion  of  the  social  and  political  excitement  of 
this  period  the  Greek  lyric  attained  its  highest  expression.  Melic 
poetry,  mainly  Dorian  in  form,  became  national  in  spirit :  hymns, 
paeans,  choral  dithyrambs,  processional  and  dance  songs,  laudatory 
odes,  and  dirges  appealed  to  all  Greece.  At  the  same  time  the 
condition  of  publication  changed  from  that  of  the  Tyrant's  court 
to  that  in  which  the  poet  wrote  to  order  for  anyone  who  would 
buy  his  services  at  an  agreed  price.  At  -first  sight  the  new  con- 
dition seems  artificial,  ill  adapted  to  the  spontaneity  of  the 
lyric;  and  the  lyrists  themselves  complained  of  their  lot,  and 
longed  for  the  '  older  way.'  Was,  then,  the  great  success  of 
the  lyric,  won  in  spite  of  these  new  .circumstances;  or  were 
these  circumstances,  after  all,  stimulative  even  to  lyric  genius  ? 
The  question  involves  the  interesting  and  important  problem 
of  the  relation  of  personal  patronage  to  poetic  development. 
The  student  would  do  well  to  follow  the  question  through  the 
lyric  literatures  of  other  nations.  (6)  With  the  advance  of  de- 
mocracy the  degeneration  of  the  lyric  set  in.  The  condition  of 
publication  changed  from  patronage  of  the  individual  to  award 
by  public  competition.  The  lyric  author  pandered  to  the  taste 
of  the  crowd,  and  sensationalism  of  all  sorts  took  the  place  of 


186  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

true  poetic  appeal.  It  is  to  this  debased  lyric  that  Plato  refers 
in  Laws,  700-701.  The  decline  continued  until  melic  poetry 
ceased  to  be  a  literary  type  of  any  importance,  reverting  to  the 
conditions  of  occasional  folk-composition  that  more  or  less  persist 
in  all  periods,  whatever  the  reigning  fashions  of  literary  production 
may  be.  (7)  The  Dorian  dithyramb,  however,  or  choral  hymn  to 
Dionysus,  to  which  Arion  (B.C.  606)  had  first  given  finished  lyric 
form,  had  its  further  development,  civic,  ethical,  and  religious,  in 
the  tragedies  of  Aeschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides ;  and  the 
old  chorus  of  Satyrs  was  developed  in  the  comedies  of  Aristoph- 
anes. This  is  the  Attic  and  classical  period  (B.C.  500-385). 
In  the  choruses  of  the  three  masters  of  tragedy,  in  the  lyric 
monodies  also  of  the  youngest,  Euripides,  the  Greek  lyric  of 
this  kind  finds  its  profoundest,  most  imaginative,  and  most 
artistic  expression ;  and  in  the  parabases  of  Aristophanes  an 
incomparable  delicacy  of  fancy,  wit,  and  graceful  melody.  To 
the  still  later  history  of  the  dithyramb  under  Philoxenus  (d.  380) 
and  of  the  citharode  as  practised  by  Timotheus  (d.  357)  an  intro- 
duction is  afforded  by  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  op.  tit.,  p.  92  ff. 
(8)  Finally  should  be  considered  the  later  growth  of  the  type :  as 
in  the  Hymns  of  Callimachus  (280-245)  anc^  tne  Alexandrian 
lyric,  the  lyric  portions-  of  the  Idyls  of  Theocritus  (280-260), 
the  elegiac  Laments  of  Bion  and  Moschus,  and  the  Anthology 
(on  the  Anthology,  see  below,  xxxiv,  B,  Epigram).  The  nature 
of  this  poetry  varies  very  considerably,  but  much  of  it  is  written 
in  the  elegiac  measure.  See  below,  under  xxxiv,  A,  Elegy,  3,  and 
§10,  ix,  c,  Idyl;  also  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  op.  cit.,  p.  206  ff. 
The  student  should  note  the  succession  of  kinds  in  the  Greek 
lyric.  Beginning  with  a  few  varieties,  the  number  increased  to 
an  amazing  extent  in  the  post-Homeric  and  classical  periods. 
Every  department  of  life  had  its  special  lyric  form,  so  that,  as 
has  been  observed,  the  Greek  poet  must  usually  have  set  out 
not  to  write  like  a  modern  poet  on  a  subject  that  dictated  its 
individual  form,  but  to  compose  some  one  of  the  following 
general  forms  :  hymn,  partheneia,  paean,  nomos,  comos,  prosodion, 


I]  THE  GREEK  LYRIC  .'  l8/ 

dithyramb,  hyporcheme  (all  addressed  to  the  gods)  ;  epinicion, 
threnos,  wedding-song  (for  men,  under  given  circumstances) ; 
a  tragic  or  comic  chorus ;  a  scolion  on  wine,  or  love,  or 
politics ;  and  many  others.  Should  we  regard  this  multiplicity 
of  forms  as  responsible  for  the  general  character  of  the  Greek 
lyric,  for  its  occasional,  objective,  and  formal  traits  ?  Or  was 
the  multiplicity  of  forms  an  effect,  rather  than  the  cause,  of 
these  traits  ?  The  student  should  consider  also  the  relation  of 
the  lyric  to  Greek  music,.  In  the  classical,  Attic  period,  as*  well 
as  at  the  time  of  Sappho,  music  played  a  subordinate  part;  but 
with  the  decline  of  the  type  the  positions  of  music  and  words 
were  reversed  in  importance  (see  Farnell,  p.  34ff.,  and  refer- 
ences there  cited).  These  facts  may  be  made  the  basis  of  an 
extended,  comparative  investigation. 

Editions  and  Translations.  On  ancient  popular  lyric  see  Benoist, 
Des  chants  populaires  dans  la  Grece  antique  (Nancy:  1857);  Cerrato, 
I  canti  popular!  della  Grecia  antica  (in  Rivista  di  Filol.,  13:  I93ff., 
289  ff.  1884-85) ;  and  other  references  listed  below,  or  by  H.  VV.  Smyth, 
op.  cit.,  p.  cxxxviii.  For  a  critical  edition  of  the  Homeric  hymns,  with 
preface,  notes,  bibliography,  etc.,  see  T.  W.  Allen  and  E.  E.  Sikes, 
The  Homeric  Hymns  (Lond. :  1904).  —  The  standard  critical  edition  of 
the  lyric  poets  is  that  of  T.  Bergk,  Poetae  Lyrici  Graeci  (3  vols. 
Leipz. :  1866-67;  4th  ed.,  1878-82;  vol.  I,  pt.  i,  5th  ed.  Leipz. :  1900). 
The  same  author's  Anthologia  Lyrica  (text  only)  was  published  by 
Teubner  (Leipz.:  1868;  new  ed.,  by  Crusius,  1897).  For  a  valuable 
review  of  the  first  work,  see  the  Westminster  Rev.,  v.  42,  N.S.,  noted 
above,  §  5.  Other  editions  by  R.  F.  P.  Brunck  (1776),  Gaisford  (1823), 
and  L.  A.  Michelangeli  (Frammenti  della  melica  greca,  text,  with  trans, 
into  Italian,  introduction,  etc.  5  Pts.  Bologna:  1881-90),  etc.  There 
are  German  school  editions  by  E.  Buchholz  (1898-1900),  and  F.  Bucherer 
(1904);  and  the  English  school  edition  by  H.  W.  Smyth  (Greek  Melic 
Poets.  Lond.:  1890)  is  valuable  for  its  introduction,  notes,  and  an 
excellent  bibliography  to  which  the  student  should  turn  for  further 
references.  One  of  the  most  convenient  of  modern  translations  of  the 
lyrics  is  the  German  translation  of  L.  Straub,  Liederdichtung  und 
Spruchweisheit  der  alten  Hellenen  (Berlin:  1908).  For  translations 
of  the  Greek  poets  in  general,  see  Gayley,  Classic  Myths  in  English 
Literature  and  in  Art,  p.  538  (Boston  :  revised  ed.,  1911). 


1 88  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

The  average  student  will  find  that  the  readiest  and  most  satisfactory 
method  of  approach  is  afforded  by  the  special  editions  and  translations 
of  the  individual  poets.  See  Alcaeus,  Alcman,  Anacreon,  Bacchylides, 
Pindar,  Sappho,  Simonides,  Callimachus,  etc.  H.  W.  Smyth  (op.  cit.) 
gives  references  for  the  melic  poets  and  for  several  of  the  melic  varieties. 

Editions  of  the  Greek  Anthology  (Palatina)  are  those  by  F.  Jacobs 
(3  vols.  Leipz. :  1813-17);  Diibner,  with  trans,  into  Latin  (3  vols. 
Paris:  1871-90);  H.  Stadtmueller  (3  vols.  Teubner,  Leipz.:  1894- 
1906).  —  Partial  translations  of  the  Anthology  are  those  of  J.  W.  Mackail 
(see  above,  §  2);  G.  Surges,  a  selection  for  schools  (Bohn,  Lond. :  1852); 
G.  R.  Tomson  (Canterbury  Poets,  Lond. :  1889);  W.  H.  Appleton, 
Greek  Poets  in  English  Verse  (Boston :  1 893) ;  W.  R.  Paton,  Love 
Poetry  of  the  Greek  Anthology  (Lond. :  1909).  For  further  notice  of 
the  Anthology,  see  below,  xxxiv,  B,  Epigram. 

For  modern  popular  lyric,  see  G.  F.  Abbott,  Songs  of  Modern  Greece 
(Cambridge :  1 900 ;  introductions  and  translations) ;  Fauriel,  Chants 
populaires  de  la  Grece  moderne  (2  vols.  Paris:  1824;  Eng.  trans, 
by  C.  B.  Sheridan.  Lond.:  1825);  L.  M.  J.  Garnett  and  J.  S.  Stuart- 
Glennie,  Greek  Folk  Poesy  (2  vols.  Lond.;  1896). 

References.  On  the  pre-Homeric  lyric,  'See  Flach  as  noted  above ; 
also  Boeckh  (op.  cit.  supra,  §  5)  p.  659,  and  the  reference  as  given 
there  to  Westphal ;  cf.  H.  Koster,  De  cantilenis  popularibus  veterum 
Graecorum  (Berlin  :  1831).  —  Of  works  dealing  with  various  subjects  or 
poets  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  A.  Baumstark,  Der  Pessimismus 
in  der  griechischen  Lyrik  (Heidelberg :  1 898) ;  A.  Beltrami,  Gl'  inni  di 
Callimacho  e  il  nomo  di  Terpandro  (1896);  S.  Bernagge,  De  Stesichoro 
lyrico  (1880);  Biese,  Die  Entwickelung  des  Naturgefiihls  bei  den  Grie- 
chen  (Kiel:  1882-84);  P.  Brandt,  Sappho  (Leipz.:  1905);  E.  Cesati, 
Simonide  di  Ceo  (1882);  A.  Croiset,  La  poesie  de  Pindare  et  les  lois 
du  lyrisme  grec  (Paris:  1880;  cf.  V.  Giraud,  in  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes, 
April  15,  1881),  —  the  first  part  of  Croiset's  work  affords  an  admir 
able  introduction  to  the  theory  of  the  Greek  lyric ;  Deventer,  Zu  den 
griech.  Lyrikern,  Natur  und  Naturgefiihl  bei  denselben  (Gleiwitz  : 
1887);  E.  Ermatinger,  Altgriechische  Artistenlyrik.  Ein  Stuck  vgl. 
Literaturbetrachtung  (in  Zeit,  439.  1903);  Percy  Gardner,  The  Prin- 
ciples of  Greek  Art  (N.  Y. :  1914),  Chap.  XVII,  on  the  relation  of  lyric 
and  drama  to  painting;  C.  Giarratani,  Tirteo  e  i  suoi  carmi  (1905); 
J.  Girard,  Pindare,  in  Etudes  sur  la  poe'sie  grecque  (Paris:  1900; 
p.  75  ff.) ;  A.  Hauvette,  Les  dpigrammes  de  Callimaque,  dtude  critique 
et  litte'raire  (Paris:  1907);  by  the  same  author,  Archiloque,  sa  vie 
et  ses  poe'sies  (1905);  R.  C.  Jebb,  an  edition  of  Bacchylides,  with 


II]  THE  ROMAN   LYRIC  189 

introduction,  translation,  notes,  and  bibliography  (1905);  R.  C.  Jebb,  in 
Whibley's  A  Companion  to  Greek  Studies  (Cambridge:  1905  ;  Chap.  II, 
I.  Literature);  P.  Malusa,  edition  of  Simonides  of  Amorgos,  with  intro- 
duction, etc.  (1900);  P.  Masqueray,  The'orie  des  formes  lyriques  de  la 
tragddie  grecque  (Paris:  1895);  B.  J.  Peltzer,  De  parodica  Graecorum 
poesi  (1855);  A.  Pischinger,  Der  Vogelgesang  bei  den  griechischen 
Dichtern.  .  .  .  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Wiirdigung  des  Naturgefiihls  der  antiken 
Poesie  (Progr.  Eichstatt:  1901);  A.  Rubio  y  Lluch,  Estudio  cn'tico- 
bibliogrdfico  sobre  Anacreonte  y  su  influencia  en  la  literatura  antiqua 
y  moderna  (Diss.  Barcelona:  1879);  W.  Schroter,  De  Simonidis  Cei 
melici  sermone  (1906);  B.  Steiner,  Sappho  (1907);  J.  A.  Symonds, 
Greek  Poets  (see  above,  §  5);  F.  Thiersch,  the  Introd.  to  his  trans,  of 
Pindar  (Leipz. :  1820);  G.  Vanzolini,  Mimnermo  (1883);  M.  Villemain, 
Essais  sur  le  genie  de  Pindare,  etc.  (see  above,  §  2);  H.  T.  Wharton, 
Sappho :  memoir,  text,  selected  renderings,  literal  translation,  and  bibli- 
ography (5th  ed.  Lond. :  1908);  T.  Zanghieri,  Studi  su  Bacchilide(i9O5). 
The  work  by  Flach,  cited  above,  has  much  to  say  on  the  relation  of  music 
and  lyric  in  Greek  culture,  and  also  upon  foreign  —  chiefly  oriental  — 
influence  on  the  Greek  lyric.  On  the  Alexandrian  lyric,  see  the  admirably 
arranged  and  most  readable  work  of  A.  Couat,  —  La  poesie  alexandrine 
sous  les  premiers  Ptolemies  (Paris:  1882);  A.  Hauvette,  Les  e*pigrammes 
de  Callimaque  (Paris:  1907),  a  most  convenient  critical  essay,  accom- 
panied by  a  translation ;  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  op.  cit.,  209  ff. ; 
further  references  will  be  found  below,  under  xxxiv,  A,  Elegy,  and 
in  the  Appendix. 

II.  The  Roman  Lyric. 

An  excellent  guide  to  works  on  the  various  poets  mentioned  below 
will  be  found  in  the  bibliographical  sections  of  Martin  Schanz,  Geschichte 
der  romischen  Litteratur  (in  Iwan  von  Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen 
Altertums-Wissenschaft.  3d  ed.  vol.  VIII.  Miinchen:  1907-11).  The 
references  are  annotated,  and  the  work  is  so  accessible  that  it  is  un- 
necessary to  reproduce  its  critical  materials  in  this  place.  The  history 
of  the  lyric  may  be  gathered  in  outline  from  Friedrich  Leo,  Die  romi- 
sche  Literatur  (in  Hinneberg,  Thl.  I,  Abthl.  VIII,  3d  ed.  1912;  cited 
above,  §  5),  and  from  other  histories  of  Roman  literature  (Cruttwell, 
Teuffel,  etc.)  as  noted  in  the  Appendix. 

The  student  will  notice  the  indications  of  the  existence  of  an 
early  popular  lyric,  including  dance  songs,  and  of  early  religious 
hymns.  He  will  then  pass  in  review  the  fragments  of  choral  and 


190  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

other  lyric  passages  from  the  dramatists  down  to  the  time  of 
Accius;  the  erotic  elegies  of  Catullus,  Tibullus,  Propertius,  and 
Ovid  (see  below,  under  xxxiv,  A,  Elegy) ;  the  Aeolic  strain  in 
Catullus ;  the  odes  of  Horace ;  the  Priapea  of  the  Augustan 
Age ;  the  rhetorical  choruses  of  the  Senecan  tragedies ;  the 
epigrams  of  Martial  (see  below,  under  xxxiv,  B,  Epigram) ; 
the  lyric  and  elegiac  Silvae  of  Statius ;  the  Pervigilium  Veneris 
of  the  second  or  third  century  after  Christ,  with  its  signs  of  a 
new  prosody  and  diction,  and  its  romantic  spirit;  and  the  verse 
of  Claudian  (4th  century  after  Christ),  which'  may  be  said  to 
bring  to  a  close  the  distinctively  Roman  history  of  the  lyric 
in  Latin. 

As  a  whole  the  Roman  lyric  is,  of  course,  imitative  of  the 
Greek,  especially  the  Alexandrian  Greek.  In  accounting  for  the 
nature  and  development  of  this  imitative  literature  the  student 
will  consider  the  influence  upon  lyric  expression  of  a  rich,  luxuri- 
ous "  millionaire  "  class,  the  relation  of  lyric  inspiration  to  the  life 
of  a  cosmopolitan  commercial  center,  such  as  Rome  became,  the 
further  influences  that  sprang  from  the  political  conditions  in 
Rome  at  successive  periods,  etc. 

Much  of  the  Roman  lyric  is  in  the  elegiac  measure,  the  rise 
and  development  of  which  is  considered  separately  (see  below, 
xxxiv,  A,  Elegy). 

Too  great  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  influence  -of  .Ovid 
and  Horace  on  the  learned  lyrics  (chiefly  Latin,  but  through  them 
on  the  vernacular)  of  the  Dark  aVid  Middle  Ages,  since  this  in- 
fluence is  the  chief  link  between  ancient  and  modern  lyric  poetry. 

Editions  and  Translations.  In  tracing  the  development  of  the  lyric 
of  Rome,  Weber's  Corpus  Poetarum,  John  Wordsworth's  Fragments 
and  Specimens  of  Early  Latin  (Lond. :  1874),  The  Oxford  Book  of 
Latin  Verse  (ed.  H.  W.  Garrod,  Clarendon  Press),  and  North  Pinder's 
Selections  from  the  less-known  Latin  Poets  (Oxford :  1 869)  will  prove 
helpful.  The  student  will  consult  also  the  Anthologia  Latina  of  Biicheler 
and  Riese  (2  vols.  Teubner,  Leipz. :  1870-97)  and  Baehrens'  Poetae 
Latini  Minores  (6  vols.  Teubner,  Leipz.;  1879-86;  ed.  F.  Vollmer, 
1910  ff.).  The  fragments  are  collected  in  Baehrens'  Fragmenta  Poetarum 


Ill]  THE  BYZANTINE  LYRIC  191 

Romanorum  (Teubner,  Leipz. :  1886).  Special  editions  of  Catullus, 
Tibullus,  Horace,  Ovid,  etc.  need  not  be  mentioned  here;  see  the 
bibliographic  references  in  Schanz.  For  translations  see  Gayley,"  Classic 
Myths  (revised  ed.,  1911)  p.  539,  and  below  under  xxxiv,  A,  4, 
Roman  Elegy. 

References.  For  Ovid's  influence  on  medieval  literature  see  R.  Schevill's 
Ovid  and  the  Renascence  in  Spain  (Univ.  of  California  Pubs,  in  Mod. 
Philol.,  vol.  IV,  No.  i,  1913)  and  the  further  bibliography  cited  in  the 
notes  to  the  first  26  pages  of  that  article,  including  W.  Schrottner's 
Ovid  und  die  Troubadours  (Diss.  Marburg:  1908).  For  Horace's  influ- 
ence, see  E.  Stemplinger,  Das  Fortleben  der  horazischen  Lyrik  (in 
Zeitschr.f.  vergl.  Littgesch.,  16:  97  ff.),  W.  Y.  Sellar,  Horace  and  the 
Elegiac  Poets  (2d  ed.,  by  A.  Lang,  Clarendon  Press),  M.  R.  Thayer, 
Influence  of  Horace  on  the  Chief  English  Poets  of  the  igth  Cent. 
(Cornell  Studies  in  English,  No.  2.  Yale  Univ.  Press:  1916),  and 
W.  Chislett,  Jr.,  Classical  Influence  in  Eng.  Lit.  in  the  igth  Cent. 
(Boston:  1918).  For  Catullus,  R.  Ellis,  Commentary  (Oxford,  1876); 
H.  Patin,  Du  renouvellement  de  la  poe"sie  latine  par  Lucrece  et  par 
Catulle,  in  Etudes  sur  la  poe"sie  latine  (2  vols.  3d  ed.  Paris:  1883); 
U.  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  Catull,  Reden  u.  Vortrage  (1901), 
p.  2i4ff.  See  also  Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic;  and  for  the 
succeeding  period  H.  E.  Butler's  Post-Augustan  Poetry  (Clarendon 
Press).  The  Roman  lyric  of  the  Dark  Ages  may  be  traced  in  the 
3d  vol.  of  Teuffel's  Romische  Literatur  (6th  ed.  Leipz.-Berlin :  1913; 
Eng.  trans,  from  5th  ed.  by  G.  C.  W.  Warr,  Lond. :  1892,  vol.  II),  and 
Manitius,  Gesch.  der  lat.  Lit.  des  Mittelalters,  Thl.  i  (Miinchen :  1911). 

III.  The  Byzantine  Lyric. 

On  the  Byzantine  Lyric,  see  K.  Krumbacher,  Geschichte  der  Byzan- 
tinischen  Litteratur  von  Justinian  bis  zum  Ende  des  ostromischen 
Reiches,  527-1453  (2d  ed.  Miinchen:  1897.  In  I.  von  Miiller's 
Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschaft.  Bd.  IX,  Abthl.  i), 
pp.  643-4,  648-52,'  653-705,  706-46  (Greek  Anthology,  725-3°).  749" 
86,  787-823.  Full  bibliographies  accompany  the  various  divisions. 

IV.  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  Hymns  of  the  Dark  and  Middle 
Ages. 

No  better  reference  can  be  given  the  student  beginning  the  investi- 
gation of  Christian  hymnic  poetry  than  Lord  Selborne's  article  on 
Hymns,  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.  It  is  historical,  critical,  and  bibliographical, 
and  will  acquaint  the  reader  with  the  outlines  and  possibilities  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

subject.  Consult  also  for  a  general  view  Ebert,  Grober,  and  Manitius, 
as  noted  above,  §  5  ;  A.  Baumgartner,  Gesch.  der  Weltliteratur,  vol.  IV ; 
H.  O.  Taylor,  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages,  pp.  247-301,  and, 
for  important  bibliography,  p.  375  ff. 

The  importance  of  the  Christian  hymn  —  particularly  the  Latin 
Christian  hymn  —  in  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages  is  so  decided,  its 
position  is  so  commanding,  its  influence  in  breaking  up  old  literary 
traditions  and  supplying  a  plastic,  popular  form  to  express  the 
new  life  of  modern  Christian  Europe  is  so  primary,  that  it 
deserves  here  a  section  to  itself. 

The  hymns  went  further  and  affected  a  larger  number  of  people's 
minds  than  anything  else  in  literature  [during  the  Dark  and  Middle 
Ages].  They  gave  the  impulse  to  fresh  experiment  which  was  so 
much  needed  by  scholarly  persons ;  provided  new  rules  and  a  new 
ideal  of  expression  for  the  unscholarly.  Those  who  had  no  mind  to 
sit  down  and  compose  an  epithalamium  in  hexameters  or  a  birthday 
epistle  in  elegiacs,  might  still  write  poetry  in  Latin,  —  unclassical  Latin, 
indeed,  but  not  dull,  not  ungentle  —  a  language  capable  of  melody  in 
verse  and  impressiveness  in  diction.  .  .  .  Also  the  free  Latin  verse  [of 
the  hymns]  is  the  origin  of  all  the  rhythms  and  measures  of  modern 
poetry  in  the  Romance  languages,  and  in  English  and  German  too, 
where  they  are  content,  as  Shakespeare  and  Milton  generally  were, 
with  the  Romance  types  of  versification  (Ker,  Dark  Ages,  pp.  199-200). 

On  the  development  of  a  new  versification  see  the  next  division 
below,  v. 

The  interested  student  will  strive  to  form  a  clear  conception 
of  the  development  of  the  hymn  from  the  psalms  and  "  spiritual 
songs  "  of  the  early  Christians  as  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament 
(Taylor,  Class.  Her.  of  M.  A.,  p.  249),  through  the  Arian  songs 
of  the  East  and  the  great  Greek  hymn-writers,  to  its  development 
in  the  Latin  West  and  its  final  flowering,  as  a  Latin  form,  in  the 
great  hymns  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  (Stabat  Mater, 
Dies  Irae,  etc.).  He  should  consider,  among  hymnists  of  the 
Eastern  Church  (in  Greek),  Hierotheus,  Ephraem  Syrus,  Synesius, 
Methodius,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Anatolius,  Romanus,  Sophronius, 
and  St.  John  Damascene ;  among  those  of  the  Western  Church 


IV]  CHRISTIAN  GREEK  AND  LATIN  HYMNS  193 

(in  Latin),  St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  St.  Ambrose,  Prudentius  (the 
Christian  follower  of  Horace,  "  who  bridged  the  gulf  between 
Pagan  poetry  and  Christian  Hymnody "),  Sedulius,  Gregory 
the  Great,  and  Venantius  Fortunatus;  in  the  early  medieval 
period,  Bede;  in  the  later  medieval,  Notker,  St.  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  Adam  of  St.  Victor,  Jacopone  da  Todi,  Tomasso  de 
Celano,  Jacobus  de  Benedictis,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  Bernard 
of  Morlaix,  etc. 

The  scholarship  that  has  concerned  itself  with  these  hymns  has 
been  devoted  primarily  to  their  collection  and  to  the  establishment 
of  their  authorship  and  historical  sequence.  Students  of  compara- 
tive literature  have  given  them  little  attention  beyond  noting  the 
progressive  breaking  down  of  quantitative  in  favor  of  accentual 
verse,  the  intrusion  of  rhyme,  and  the  development  of  the 
sequence-stanza  (see  below,  v,  c). 

A  few  topics  of  significance  in  connection  with  the  nature  and 
growth  of  the  lyric  may  be  suggested :  In  what  respects  is  the 
difference  between  the  nature  of  pagan  and  Christian  hymns  a 
difference  in  the  essential  character  of  their  religious  inspiration  ? 
Does  the  early  Christian  hymn  derive  in  form,  purpose,  and  nature 
from  Greek,  Roman,  and  Hebrew  lyrics  (psalms)  indiscriminately, 
or  is  its  form  due  to  one  source,  its  spirit  and  purpose  to  another, 
etc.  (cf.  Ebert,  i:  172-184)?  What  evidences  are  there  to  show 
that  the  development  of  hymns  falls  under  laws  other  than  those 
governing  the  growth  of  secular  lyrics  ?  What  are  the  differences 
between  secular  and  sacred  lyrics  in  regard  to  psychology  of 
inspiration,  means  of  publication,  character  of  audience,  and 
methods  of  preservation  ?  and  how  do  such  differences  affect 
the  development  of  the  two  kinds  ?  Is  the  later  Christian  hymn 
analogous  in  any  of  these  respects  to  popular  poetry  ?  Was 
Luther's  use  of  popular  lyric  tunes  for  a  German  evangelical 
hymnody  an  illustration  of  this  analogy  ?  and  are  there  not 
many  other  illustrations  of  the  same  kind?  Can  any  relations 
of  nature  and  development  be  established  between  the  hymn 
and  the  patriotic  lyric?  In  a  word,  is  the  hymn  a  form  to  be 


IQ4  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

studied  in  its  relation  to  the  crowd  rather  than  to  the  individual  ? 
and  is  a  modern  religious  hymn  the  nearest  modern  approach  to 
the  communal  lyric  ? 

Editions,  Translations,  References,  (i)  For  texts '  of  the  Greek 
hymns,  as  well  as  for  critical  and  historical  materials,  see  W.  Christ 
und  M.  Paranikas,  Anthologia  Graeca  Carminum  Christianorum  (Leipz. : 
1871);  Cardinal  Pitra's  Hymnographie  de  1'eglise  grecque  (Rome: 
1867),  and  Analecta  Sacra  (Paris:  1876);  H.  A.  Daniel,  Thesaurus 
Hymnologicus  (5  vols.  Leipz.:  1855-56);  A.  J.  Rambach,  Anthologie 
christlicher  Gesange,  etc.  (6  vols.  Altona  and  Leipz.:  1817-33); 
J.  Kayser,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  und  Erklarung  der  altesten  Kirchen- 
hymnen  (2  vols.  2ded.  Paderborn  :  1 881-86);  see  also  K.  Krumbacher. 
Die  griechische  Literatur  des  Mittelalters,  in  Die  Kultur  der  Gegenwart 
(1904)  I,  8.259  ff->  ar>d  von  Wilamowitz  in  the  same  volume,  p.  213  ff. 
(2)  In  the  study  of  Latin  hymnic  poetry  reference  should  be  made  to 
Kayser,  Daniel,  and  Rambach,  as  just  noted  and  to  the  following : 
G.  M.  Dreves  and  others,  Analecta  Hymnica  Medii  Aevi  (53  vols. 
Leipz.:  1886-1911);  F.  J.  Mone,  Lateinische  Hymnen  des  Mittel- 
alters (3  vols.  Freib. :  1853-55);  vol.  I  of  Wackernagel's  Das  deutsche 
Kirchenlied,  etc.  (Leipz.:  1864);  R.  C.  Trench,  Sacred  Latin  Poetry, 
Chiefly  Lyrical  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1 864),  —  unexcelled  as  an  introduction 
and  collection;  J.  M.  Neale,  Medieval  Hymns  and  Sequences  (Lond. : 
1 867) ;  Mrs.  Charles,  The  Voice  of  Christian  Life  in  Song  (N.  Y. :  1 867) ; 
P.  Schaff,  Christ  in  Song  (N.Y.:  1868);  G.  A.  Konigsfeid,  Lateinische 
Hymnen  und  Gesange,  etc.  (2  vols.  Bonn :  1 847-65) ;  G.  C.  F.  Mohnike, 
Hymnologische  Forschungen  (Stralsund :  1831);  Abbd  Ulysse  Cheva- 
lier, Repertorium  Hymnologicum,  vol.  I  (Paris  :  1892);  F.  W.  E.  Roth, 
Lateinische  Hymnen  des  Mittelalters,  etc.  (Augsburg:  1887);  S.  V.  Cole, 
The  Development  of  Form  in  the  Latin  Hymns  (in  Andover  Rev., 
10  :  343);  F.  A.  March,  Latin  Hymns  (N.Y. :  1896),  and  W.  A.  Merrill, 
Latin  Hymns  (Boston  :  1 904)  —  which,  combined,  illustrate  the  muta- 
tions down  to  the  present,  and  are  convenient  annotated  editions  for 
school  and  college  use.  J.  Julian's  Dictionary  of  Hymnology  (1892; 
rev.  ed.  1907)  treats  of  hymns  of  all  ages  and  nations,  and  contains 
essays  on  various  related  subjects.  For  the  older  authorities  on  Latin 
hymnody,  such  as  Walafridus  Strabo,  Radulphus,  Clichteveus,  George 
Cassander,  etc.,  as  well  as  for  the  older  authorities  on  Greek  hymnody, 
see  Lord  Selborne's  article. 

The  most  available  collection  of  Greek  and  Latin  hymns  for  English 
readers  is  J.  Brownlie's  Hymns  of  the  Early  Church  translated  from 


V]  OTHER  LATIN  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  195 

Greek  and  Latin  sources ;  together  with  translations  from  a  later  period, 
centos  and  suggestions  from  the  Greek,  and  .  several  original  pieces 
(Clarendon  Press,  Oxford).  See  also  the  translations  in  Hymns  Ancient 
and  Modern,  and  in  The  Church  Hymnal,  Boston,  1894  (Alphabetical 
Index  of  First  Lines  for  provenience).  A  small  but  convenient  anthology 
of  Greek,  Latin,  German,  Italian,  French,  Danish,  and  Welsh  hymns 
in  English  translations  is  that  of  R.  M.  Moorsom  (A  Historical  Com- 
panion to  Hymns  Ancient  and  Modern.  2d  ed.  Lond.  :  1903).  For 
modern  hymns,  see  below,  under  the  divisions  devoted  to  English  and 
German  lyrics. 

V.  Other  Latin  Christian  Lyric  Poetry  from  the  Second  to  the 
Fourteenth  Century. 

For  general  views  of  the'  literature  of  this  section  see  Ebert,  Manitius, 
Schanz,  Grober,  Paul,  and  Ker,  as  noted  above,  §  5  ;  also  the  appropriate 
sections  in  Hinneberg's  Die  Kultur  der  Gegenwart.  Further  references 
and  the  general  literary  character  of  each  of  the  sub-periods  noted  in  this 
division  are  given  below,  §  1 2,  iv.  For  an  arrangement  in  their  chrono- 
logical order  of  documents  from  the  first  to  the  eleventh  century  that 
allude  to  non-literary  poetry,  Latin  or  Romance,  see  F.  M.  Warren  in 
Pub.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  vol.  26  (1911).  Taylor's  Class.  Heritage  of  the 
M.A.  contains  helpful  criticism  and  bibliography. 

Throughout  the  Latin  poetry  of  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages 
several  important  facts  affecting  the  continuity  of  pagan  Latin, 
Christian  Latin,  and  medieval  vernacular  poetry  must  be  noted. 
(i)  The  Christian  Latin  poets  followed,  in  a  general  way, 
the  forms  or  kinds  of  ancient  poetry :  heroic  narrative  in  hex- 
ameters, philosophic-didactic  poems  in  hexameters,  many  varieties 
of  occasional  poems  in  elegiac  distichs  (including  panegyrics, 
epithalamia,  memorial  verses,  epistles,  etc. ;  see,  for  example, 
the  epithalamia  mentioned  by  Ebert,  i  :  306,  422,  434,  525, 
et  passim],  and  other  lyric  forms  in  iambics,  trochaics,  sapphics, 
etc.  But  the  application  of  these  forms  in  a  new  spirit  to  new 
subjects  produced  certain  remarkable  variations  that  were  con' 
served  as  new  types,  such  as  the  lyrical-narrative,  the  Biblical 
paraphrase,  the  Christian  hymn,  and  the*  Carmina  Burana  (songs 
of  wandering  students).  (2)  Christian  Latin  poetry  made  use 
of  ideas,  phrases,  and  ornaments  drawn  from  classic,  pagan 


196  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

poetry,  especially  from  Virgil  and  Horace.  The  extent  of  this 
practice  was  great  and  noteworthy ;  its  investigation  promises 
valuable  results.  (3)  The  gradual  prosodical  changes  in  Christian 
Latin  poetiy  by  which  it  passed  from  the  regulating  principle  of 
quantity  to  that  of  accent  are  particularly  significant  as  bearing 
upon  the  development  of  a  vernacular  art  lyric  of  accentual 
measures,  —  in  other  words,  upon  modern  verse.  These  changes 
are  associated  most  of  all  with  the  hymn ;  but  other  forms  as  well, 
both  epic  and  lyric,  exemplify  the  general  movement.  The  first 
Christian  poets  naturally  made  use  of  the  classical  metres ;  and 
the  irregular  use  of  these  metres  did  much  toward  preparing 
the  way  for  a  new  prosody.  But  a  tendency  to  keep  to  the 
word-accent  within  the  classical  metres  is  soon  noticeable.  It  is 
possible  that  this  change  was  in  reality  "  a  return  to  the  natural 
genius  of  the  language,"  for  it  is  certain  "  that  the  old  Latin 
(Saturnian)  rhythms,  before  the  Greek  forms  were  introduced, 
had  more  likeness  to  modern  verse  in  their  accent  than  Greek 
verse  has"  (Ker,  Dark  Ages,  p.  201 ;  cf.  Stengel,  Romanische 
Verslehre,  in  Grober,  II,  i;  W.  M.  Lindsay,  The  Accentual 
Element  in  Early  Latin  Verse,  in  Trans.  PhiloL  Soc.,  March  2, 
1894).  Rhyme  also  was  developed;  after  the  fifth  century  it 
becomes  especially  noticeable.  Slowly  the  accent  and  rhyme 
made  over  some  of  the  old  metrical  patterns.  To  be  sure  the 
hexameter,  elegiac  distich,  and  the  sapphic  "  did  not  lend  them- 
selves readily  to  the  change  from  quantity  to  accent.  Though 
continuing  in  rude  use  in  mediaeval  Latin  poetry,  they  did  not 
become  a  medium  for  the  evolution  of  accentual  verse  forms." 
But  other  patterns  had  more  affinity  with  the  new  tendencies. 
"  The  simple  iambic  and  trochaic  metres  readily  passed  through 
the  change  and  emerged  from  it  to  new  life  as  accentual  verse, 
with  the  added  element  of  rhyme.  From  this  accentual  and 
rhymed  verse  novel  verse-forms  were  developed  with  more  im- 
pressive rhymes"  (Taylbr,  Class.  Heritage  of  M.  A.,  p.  285). 
But  classical  metres  continued  to  be  written  along  with  rhythmic 
(accentual)  verse ;  the  Carolingian  renaissance  witnessed  a  revival 


V,  A]  OTHER  LATIN  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  197 

of  these  metres,  even  while  accentual  verse  and  rhyme  were 
developing  rapidly.  The  question  of  the  relation  of  Latin  ac- 
centual poetry  and  vernacular  accentual  verse  resolves  itself 
into  speculation  concerning  the  probable  interaction  or  reciprocal 
influence  of  the  two  strains.  Insufficiency  of  data  renders  deci- 
sion difficult.  For  references  on  the  transition  from  quantity  to 
accent,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§  22-24,  especially  pp.  492-494, 
and  Taylor,  Class.  Heritage  of  M.  A.,  p.  375  ff. ;  for  a  succinct 
account,  serving  as  an  introduction  to  the  subject,  see  Ker,  Dark 
Ages,  pp.  199-218.  (4)  Finally,  the  general  effect  of  Latin  poetry 
upon  literary  composition  in  the  European  languages  should  be 
investigated.  Professor  Saintsbury  writes: 

It  [this  Latin  poetry]  was  indirectly  as  well  as  directly,  unconsciously 
as  well  as  consciously,  a  schoolmaster  to  bring  the  vernacular  languages 
to  literary  accomplishment.  They  could  not  have  helped  imitating  it,  if 
they  would ;  and  they  did  not  think  of  avoiding  imitation  of  it,  if  they 
could.  It  modified,  to  a  very  large  extent,  their  grammar ;  it  influenced, 
to  an  extent  almost  impossible  to  overestimate,  the  prosody  of  their 
finished  literature ;  it  supplied  their  vocabulary ;  it  furnished  models 
for  all  their  first  conscious  literary  efforts  of  the  more  deliberate  kind, 
and  it  conditioned  those  which  were  more  or  less  spontaneous  (Flour, 
of  Romance,  p.  2 ;  cf .  Ebert,  i  :  xi). 

A.  To  the  Time  of  Charlemagne.  The  lyric  poetry  of  this  period 
is  less  extensive  than  the  epic.  The  hymns  of  St.  Ambrose  (c.  340- 
397)  are,  for  us  at  any  rate,  the  first  Christian  Latin  lyrics  in  the 
West,  for  though  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (c.  300-367)  is  reputed  the 
first  writer  of  Latin  hymns,  the  tradition  is  uncertain  and. there 
are  in  existence  no  hymns  that  are  indisputably  his.  We  may 
point  out,  by  the  way,  that  the  material  of  these  first  lyrics  was 
in  itself  somewhat  original  as  contrasted  with  the  metrical  para- 
phrases of  the  Bible  that  constitute  the  beginnings  of  the  Christian 
epic  (cf.  below,  §  12,  iv,  B).  For  lyric  verse  of  a  sort  other  than 
the  sacred  hymn  we  turn  first  to  the  epigrammatic  or  lyrical- 
narrative  panegyrics  addressed  to  various  martyrs  by  Damasus 
(Pope  from  366  to  384)  and  Prudentius  (348-c.  410).  The 
Peristephanon  (De  Coronis)  of  the  latter  is  especially  noteworthy 


198  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

as  the  definite  forerunner  of  much  lyrical  narrative  in  the  Middle 
Ages  and  even  more  modern  times.  The  student  should  observe 
that  the  church  hymns  and  the  Peristephanon  are  alike  in  that 
they  both  are  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  praise,  though  the  subjects 
of  praise  are  different.  Is  the  lyrical-narrative  panegyric  to  be 
regarded  as  a  new  species  that  arose  as  a  variation  from  the 
hymn,  by  change  in  subject-matter?  Or  is  it  to  be  traced  to 
Roman  panegyrical  verse  ?  Another  lyric  form  is  represented 
by  the  three  prayers  of  Ausonius  (c.  310-395)  mentioned  by 
Manitius  (Gesch.  christ.-lat.  Poesie,  pp.  107-110).  A  special 
study  of  the  rise  of  lyric  Christian  prayer,  and  its  relation  to 
hymn  and  panegyric,  would  prove  both  valuable  and  interesting. 
But  the  best  conception  of  the  nature  of  non-hymnal  lyric  poetry 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  may  be  gained  from  the  works 
of  Paulinus  of  Nola  (353-431).  Lyrical-narrative  poems,  prayers 
and  panegyrics,  an  epithalamium,  and  various  occasional  verses 
make  up  the  lyrical  part  of  Paulinus'  work.  In  the  fifth  century, 
and  especially  the  first  two  decades  of  the  sixth,  panegyrical  verse, 
occasional  in  character,  addressed  to  Caesars  and  consuls  or  dedi- 
cated to  marriages  and  jubilees,  was  much  in  vogue  (e.g.,  the 
works  of  Flavius  Merobaudes,  Apollinaris  Sidonius,  and  the 
African  poets  mentioned  by  Ebert  i  :  429-432).  The  deriva- 
tion of  these  poems  from  Roman  models  (see  the  poems  of 
Claudian,  second  half  of  the  fourth  century)  and  their  influence 
upon  similar  verse  in  the  Middle  Ages  should  be  investigated. 
In  the  sixth  century  lived  Venantius  Fortunatus,  one  of  the  chief 
Latin  poets  from  550  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  Among  his 
many  poetic  remains  are  panegyrics,  epitaphs,  elegies,  epigrams, 
and  hymns.  See  also  the  occasional  lyrics  of  Eugenius  II  (Ebert 
i  :  603).  Finally,  the  ever  popular  Riddle  and  Acrostic  offer 
other  fields  for  research  (cf.  Ebert  i:  650;  Manitius,  Gesch. 
d.  lat.  Lit.  des  Mittelalters,  187-207).  The  seventh  century  was 
one  of  singular  poetic  decline;  for  further  notice  of  the  period 
from  Justinian  to  Charlemagne,  see  Manitius,  Gesch.  d.  lat.  Lit 
des  M.,  153-207. 


V,  B]  OTHER  LATIN  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  199 

Texts  and  Monographs.  Bibliography  may  be  found  in  Manitius, 
Ebert,  Grdber,  and  Taylor.  Ampere's  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  avant 
Charlemagne  (2  vols.,  1870)  may  be  added  to  the  general  references 
on  the  period.  An  interesting,  popular  account  of  early  Christian  poetry, 
which  stimulates  disagreement  and  speculation,  is  contained  in  two  articles 
published  by  Gaston  Boissier  in  the  July  and  September  numbers  of 
the  Rev.  d.  Deux  Mondes  for  1875. 

B.  The  Carolingian  Renaissance.  The  general  character  of  the 
poetic  literature  of  this  period  is  indicated  below,  §  12,  iv,  D.  The 
secular  tendency  of  the  literature,  as  there  noted,  is  illustrated  by 
the  prevailingly  occasional  character  of  the  lyric.'  The  lyrics  of 
Alcuin  and  Paulus  Diaconus  (see  Ebert  2:  27-32,  51-56)  illus- 
trate the  court  lyric,  which  owed  its  life  to  the  training  in  the 
arts  and  sciences  encouraged  by  Charlemagne.  These  lyrics  are 
primarily  secular,  occasional,  and  didactic.  Elegiacs  and  sapphics 
are  the  favorite  measures.  Lyrics  of  wit,  epitaphs,  and  epigrams 
—  the  usual  lyric  by-play  —  are  also  to  be  found.  Alcuin's  poem 
to  a  nightingale  and  Paulus'  elegy  on  Lake  Comus  will  attract 
the  student  of  nature-poetry.  The  rhythmic  (non-quantitative) 
hymn-measure  is  also  used  by  Paulus  (see  Ebert  2  :  58 ;  cf. 
55-56).  Some  lyrical  episodes  may  be  found  in  the  epistles 
of  Theodulf,  who  occupies  perhaps  the  chief  place  among  the 
poets  of  the  age  (see,  e.g.,  the  opening  of  the  long  epistle  to 
Charlemagne).  He  is  the  author  of  the  last  part  of  the  hymn 
for  Palm  Sunday,  —  the  Gloria  Laus.  For  other  lyrics  of  his 
see  Ebert  2  :  84. 

Texts  and  Monographs.  Ebert  2  :  12,  27-32,  36,  51-56,  70,  79-84; 
also  in  Manitius,  Grober,  and  Taylor.  For  texts  see  bibliography  in  the 
histories  just  indicated.  Among  general  collections  we  may  mention 
particularly  Dummler  and  Traube's  Poetae  Latini  Aevi  Carolini  (3  vols. 
In  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica).  On  Theodulf  see  C.  Cuissard, 
The"odulphe  eveque  d'Orle'ans,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (Orleans:  1892); 
article  by  M.  Manitius  in  Neues  Archiv  der  Gesell.  filr  alt-deutsche 
Gesch.  (1886);  on  Paulus  Diaconus,  Ed.,  K.  Neff,  Die  Gedichte  des 
Paulus  Diaconus  (Miinchen:  1908);  F.  Dahn,  Langobardische  Studien, 
Bd.  I  (Leipz. :  1876).  On  the  variety  of  classical  metres  from  the  age 
of  Charlemagne  to  Charles  the  Bald,  see  below,  under  xxxiv,  A,  5,(£). 


200  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

C.  The  Decline  of  the  Carolingian  Renaissance,  from  the  death 
of  Charlemagne  to  the  accession  of  Otto  the  Great  (814-936). 
—  The  Latin  lyric  is  here  of  little  aesthetic  importance.  As  under 
Charlemagne,  it  is  primarily  occasional  in  character,  dealing  with 
both  sacred  and  secular  subjects.  The  versifications  of  Urbanus 
are  reminiscent  of  those  of  Alcuin.  Walafrid  Strabo's  lyrics,  epi- 
grams, and  eclogues  show  a  true  poetic  gift.  Gottschalk's  poems 
are  noticeable  for  the  employment  of  rhyme  and  accentual  rhythm 
(Ed.,  L.  Traube,  in  Monum.  Germ.  Hist.  Poet.  Lat,  III,  707-738). 
For  the  paraphrases  of  the  Psalms  by  Florus  of  Lyons,  and  the  im- 
portant lyrics  of  Godescalc,  see  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  566,  568-572. 
Some  poetic  power  is  evinced  by  Sedulius  Scotus  (elegiac,  panegyric, 
epistolary  verse),  and  the  Spaniard  Alvarus  did  some  little  things, 
mostly  mere  exercises.  The  chief  interest  of  the  study  of  these  lyrics 
and  others  of  the  same  period  lies  in  the  development  of  popular 
accentual  measures  and  of  rhyme  (see  Ebert,  2  :  311-328). 

During  the  second  half  of  this  period  one  development  of  some 
importance  occurred.  This  was  the  invention  of  rhythmic  prose 
passages  to  fit  the  musical  '  Sequences '  which  in  the  Church 
services  intervened  between  the  Graduale  and  the  Gospel.  "  The 
tunes  were  found  hard  to  remember,  and  experiments  were  made 
in  fitting  words  to  them,  possibly  by  Alcuin  among  others  "  (Ker, 
Dark  Ages,  p.  219).  It  was  during  this  period,  at  any  rate,  that 
the  composing  of  lyrical  prose  sequences  became  a  common 
exercise.  Notker  Balbulus  of  St.  Gall's  Monastery,  who  also 
wrote  hymns  and  occasional  lyrics,  was  especially  good  at  the 
new  device,  and  his  success  was  a  stimulus  to  others.  Much 
of  the  manner,  and  especially  the  parallelism  of  these  composi- 
tions, were  learned  from  the  Psalms  of  David,  with  which  they 
should  be  compared.  The  relation  of  these  sequences  to  the 
Leich  of  Middle  High  German  poetry  and  the  old  French  Motet 
offers  a  field  for  research.  Other  religious  and  occasional  lyrical 
compositions,  including  tropes,  litanies,  antiphons,  and  hymns, 
are  mentioned  by  Ebert,  3:  153-175.  See  also  Manitius,  G.  1. 
L.M.,  594-598,  605-607. 


V,  E]  OTHER  LATIN  CHRISTIAN  POETRY  2OI 

Texts  and  Monographs.  See  Ebert,  Manitius,  and  Grober.  On  the 
Sequences,  see  F.  Wolf,  Uber  die  Lais,  Sequenzen  und  Leiche  (Heidel- 
berg :  1 84 1 ) ;  K.  Bartsch,  Lateinische  Sequenzen  des  Mittelalters  ( 1 868) ; 
Ker,  Dark  Ages,  pp.  218-221  ;  Ebert,  2  :  I44ff. 

D.  From  the  age  of  Otto  the  Great  (936}  to  the  Eleventh  Century. 
The  occasional  lyric  and  the  epigram  still  hold  their  ground.    The 
composition  of  sequences  and  hymns  also  goes  forward.    It  is 
interesting  to  notice  that  secular  lyrics  and  Schwanken  take  on 
the  manner  of  the  sequences  (Ebert  3  :  343-348).    For  drinking 
songs,  see  Ebert  3  :   353.     For  Ekkehard's  lyrics,  see  Manitius, 
G.  1.  L.  M.,  610-611.    On  p.  635  of  his  work  Manitius  refers 
to  two  Latin  lyrics  from  Italy  that  belong  to  this  period. 

E.  Eleventh  to  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

For  references  on  this  difficult  period,  see  below,  §  1 2,  iv,  G. 

The  literature  of  this  period  is  primarily  a  prose  literature, — 
the  prose  of  the  Schoolmen.  Of  lyric  poetry  there  are  the  Latin 
hymns  and  metrical  sequences  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen- 
turies (many  of  our  finest  hymns,  such  as  the  Dies  Irae  and 
Stabat  Mater,  are  from  this  period ;  see  above,  iv),  and  the 
comic  Carmina  Burana  or  Goliardic  poems.  Though  other  forms 
of  Latin  poetry  are  now  on  the  wane,  these  are  full  of  vitality; 
and  meanwhile  new  lyric  and  narrative  life  is  flowering  in  the 
European  vernacular  tongues.  The  Goliardic  poems  (i2th  and 
1 3th  centuries)  consist  of  lively  and  popular,  satirical,  erotic, 
and  convivial  verse,  mostly  in  the  form  of  songs.  They  were 
composed  by  "  wandering  students  of  all  nations  who  traversed 
Germany,  France,  Italy,  Spain,  England,  seeking  special  knowl- 
edge at  the  great  centers  of  learning,  following  love-adventures, 
poor  and  careless,  coldly  greeted  by. the  feudal  nobility  and  clergy, 
attached  to  the  people  by  their  habits  but  separated  from  them 
by  their  science."  Symonds,  whom  we  have  just  quoted,  suggests 
that  the  frank  carnalism  and  moral  laxity  of  these  songs,  their 
satire  of  the  Church  but  conformity  to  its  doctrines,  "  reveal  the 
smoldering  embers  of  unextinguished  paganism,  which  underlay 
the  Christian  culture  of  the  middle  ages."  Whether  they  are 


202  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

to  be  viewed  thus,  or  as  a  reaction  against  the  asceticism  and 
hypocrisy  of  the  Church,  or  merely  as  "  indicative  of  the  wide 
diversity  of  temperament "  that  exists  in  every  age,  their  relation 
to  the  Renaissance,  with  whose  spirit  they  are  in  striking  affinity, 
affords  a  fascinating  subject  of  speculation.  They  at  least  are  the 
unfettered  expression  of  a  tendency  in  human  nature  that,  what- 
ever may  have  been  its  status  in  the  learned  and  religious  world 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  received  its  due  share  of  artistic  emphasis 
in  the  Renaissance,  especially  the  Italian  Renaissance.  Examples 
of  these  poems  are  at  hand  in  the  collection  from  the  Bavarian 
Monastery  at  Benedictbeuren  (ed.  Schmeller,  as  below)  and  in 
the  poems  of  "  Bishop  Golias  "attributed  to  Walter  Mapes. 

Texts,  Translations,  References,  For  the  hymns,  see  above,  iv ; 
for  examples  of  the  metrical  sequences  see  D.  S.  Wrangham,  The 
Liturgical  Poetry  of  Adam  of  St.  Victor  (3  vols.  Lond.:  1881),  which 
contains  an  introduction,  the  Latin  originals,  and  English  translations. 
—  For  the  Goliardic  poems  (Carmina  Burana,  Carmina  Vagorum),  see 
J.  A.  Schmeller,  Carmina  Burana  (Stuttgart:  1847;  3d  ed.  Breslau : 
1894);  T.  Wright,  The  Latin  Poems  commonly  attributed  to  Walter 
Mapes  (Camden  Soc.,  Lond.:  1841);  F.  Novati,  Carmina  Medii  Aevi 
(Firenze:  1883);  M.  G.  Grober,  Carmina  Clericorum,  etc.  (yth  ed. 
Heilbrunn :  1890);  A.  Bomer,  Eine  Vagantenliedersammlung  (in 
Zeitschr.  f.  deut.  Alt.  und  Lit.  49:  161.  1907-08);  for  selections  see 
Barnstein's  Carmina  Burana  Selecta  (Wiirzburg:  1879;  with  bibliog.) 
and  the  Teubner  Gaudeamus !  Carmina  Vagorum  Seleeta  (Leipz. :  1877); 
and  for  English  translations  of  a  few  see  the  charming  little  volume, 
Wine,  Women  and  Song  (1884)  of  J.  A.  Symonds.  O.  Hubatsch,  Die 
lateinischen  Vagantenlieder  des  Mittelaltefs  (Gorlitz :  1870),  contends 
for  a  French  origin  of  these  songs.  See,  also,  Spiegel,  Die  Vaganten 
und  ihr  "  Orden  "  (Spires:  1892);  M.  B.  Ogle  (in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes, 
Dec.  1912);  M.  Haessner,  Goliardendichtung  und  die  Satire  im  I3ten 
Jahrh.  in  England  (Leipz. :  1905);  Langlois,  La  litt.  goliardique  (in  Reinie 
Bleue,  Dec.  24,  1892,  and  Feb.  n,  1893);  the  article  in  La  Grande 
Encyclopedic ;  B.  Lundius,  Deutsche  Vagantenlieder  in  den  Carmina 
Burana  (in  Zeitschr.  f.  deut.  Phil.  39:  330.  1907);  J.  A.  Symonds, 
Introd.  to  the  translations  noted  above,  and  Italian  Lit.  (Renaiss.  in 
Italy),  vol.1,  pp.  9,  108,  156,  327  (N.Y. :  1882).  Most  of  these  con- 
tain further  bibliography.  —  Other  works  bearing  upon  this  period  are : 


VI]        LATIN  POETRY  (15TH  AND  16TH  CENTURIES)     203 

Robinson  Ellis,  Catullus  in  the  1 4th  Century  (Clarendon  Press,  Oxford) ; 
L.  Grilli,  Version!  poetiche  dai  lerici  latini  dei  secoli  XV  e  XVI  (Citta 
di  Castello:  1898)"  —  Italian  versions  of  poems  by  Poliziano,  Sannazaro, 
Bembo,  etc.,  with  an  introduction ;  Grimm  and  Schmeller,  Lateinische 
Gedichte  des  10.  and  II.  Jhdts.  (1838  ;  ed.  Althof,  1899),  containing  the 
Ruodlieb  (cf.  below,  xm,  B)  ;  Anselm's  Mariale,  poems  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin,  edited  by  P.  Ragey  (Tournai :  1885);  Ronca,  Metrica  e  ritmica 
latina  nel  medio  evo  (Roma :  1 890),  and  Cultura  medioevale  e  poesia 
latina  d'  Italia  nei  sec.  XI  e  XII  (Roma :  1892). 

F.  Popular  Latin  Poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  addition  to  the 
materials  already  cited  under  Hymns  (iv,  above)  and  the  Goliardic 
poems  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  see  E.  du  Me'ril,  Poesies 
populaires  latines  anterieures  au  douzieme  siecle  (Paris:  1843), 
containing  introduction,  text,  and  notes  ;  'and,  by  the  same,  Poe'sies 
populaires  latines  du  Moyen  Age  (Paris:  1847),  anc^  Poesies 
inedites  du  Moyen  Age  (Paris:  1854);  also,  A.  C.  Clark,  The  Cur- 
sus  in  Mediaeval  and  Vulgar  Latin  (Clarendon  Press).  For  earlier 
(first  century  to  eleventh)  references  to  popular  poetry  see  the  sum- 
mary by  F.  M.  Warren  in  Pub.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  vol.  26  (1911). 

VI.  On   Latin   Poetry  of   the   i$th  and   i6th   Centuries,    see 

Baumgartner,  as  noted  above,  iv ;  A.  Schroeter,  Beitrage  zur 
Geschichte  der  neulatemischen  Poesie  Deutschlands  und  Hollands 
(Palaestra  77,  Berlin:  1909),  —  especially  rich  in  accounts  of 
elegiac  verse,  discussing  the  poetical  works  of  Conrad  Celtes, 
Petrus  Lotichius,  Georg  Sabinus,  Johannes  Stigelius,  Johannes 
Secundus,  Hugo  Grotius,  Johannes  Posthius,  and  Caspar  von 
Barth ;  G.  Manacorda,  Geiger,  and  G.  Ellinger,  as  noted  below, 
xm,  D;  and  vols.  VII,  X,  XIV  of  the  Lateinische  Litteratur- 
denkmaler  des  XV.  and  XVI.  Jahrhunderts.  Of  the  last  refer- 
ence, vol.  VII  contains  an  edition,  by  G.  Ellinger,  of  certain 
German-Latin  poets  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  vol.  X,  the  De 
Poetis  Nostrorum  Temporum  (1551)  of  Lilius  Gregorius  Gyraldus, 
ed.  by  K.  Wotke;  vol.  XIV,  an  edition,  by  G.  Ellinger,  of  the 
Basia  (1531)  of  J.  Nicolai  Secundus,  the  introduction  to  which 
traces  the  history  of  this  little  lyric  kind  —  the  Basia  —  from  the 


204  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Greek  Anthology,  through  the  Latin  erotic  poets,  to  European 
imitations.  An  English  translation  of  the  Basia  of  Secundus 
was  published  by  George  Ogle,  in  1731  ;  it  has  been  edited 
by  W.  Rice  (Chicago:  1901).  A  very  convenient . collection  of 
Italian  Latin  lyrics  is  E.  Costa's  Antologia  della  lirica  latina  in 
Italia  nei  secoli  XV  e  XVI  (Citta  di  Castello :  1888).  It  contains 
an  introduction  and  selections  from  a  great  variety  of  poets.  The 
principal  lyric  kinds  represented  are  elegy,  epigram,  hymn,  carmen. 
For  Ariosto's  Latin  verse  see  Carducci,  Poesie  latine  edite  ed 
inedite  di  L.  Ariosto  (Bologna:  1875).  Poliziano's  Latin  poetry 
has  been  edited  by  Isidoro  Del  Lungo  (Firenze:  1867).  On  this 
same  period  see.  Leonardo  Bruni,  Dialogus  de  Tribus  Vatibus 
Florentinis  (Dante,  Petrarch,  Boccaccio)  in  Bruni's  works  (ed.  by 
Wotke,  Wien:  1889);  Arsilli,  De  Poetis  Urbanis  (cf.  Tiraboschi, 
Lett.  Ital.  VII,  3,  403  ff.  Napoli:  1781);  Giovio,  Elogia  virorum 
litteris  inlustria,  in  Opera,  vol.  VII  (Basel :  1577). 

VII.  The  French  (including  the  Prove^al)  Lyric. 

Aside  from  the  general  histories  of  French  literature  we  know  of  no 
comprehensive  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  French  lyric.  Excellent 
monographs  on  particular  periods  and  movements  exist  in  considerable 
number ;  they  are  mentioned  below  in  connection  with  different  periods. 
General  mention  may  be  made  here  of  two  series  of  short  critical  mono- 
graphs :  Les  grands  dcrivains  franqais,  and  the  Classiques  populaires. 
Of  the  histories,  that  edited  by  Petit  de  Julleville  and  the  Gesch.  der 
franz.  Litt.  of  H.  Suchier  and  A.  Birch-Hirschfeld  (2  vols.  Leipz. :  1913) 
are  at  present  standard.  "For  prosody,  consult  L.  E.  Kastner,  History 
of  French  Versification  (Clarendon  Press)  and  see  the  references  to 
French  versification  in  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  24.  Ph.  Martinon's  Les 
Strophes,  etc.  (noted  above,  §  5)  is  a  very  helpful  attempt  to  classify 
the  lyric  forms  and  suggest  their  development;  the  bibliographical  ac- 
count of  these  forms  is  particularly  valuable.  G.  Lanson's  Manuel  biblio- 
graphique  de  la  litt.  fr.  moderne,  1500-1900  (5  vols.  Paris:  1909-14) 
is  indispensable.  For  the  medieval  period  L.  Foulet's  Bibliography  of 
Medieval  French  Literature  for  College  Libraries  (Yale  Univ.  Press : 
1915)  is  a  compact,  convenient  guide.  J.  Le  Petit's  Bibliographic  des 
principales  Editions  originales  d'dcrivains  fran^ais  du  XVe  au  XVI Ie 
siecle  (Paris :  1 888)  and  F.  Lachevre's  Bibliographic  des  recueils  collectifs 
de  podsies  public's  de  1597  a  1700  (3  vols.  and  Suppl.  Paris:  1901-05) 


VII,  B]      FRENCH  (INCLUDING  PROVENgAL)  LYRIC     205 

are  helpful  works.  For  other  bibliographies  of  French  literature,  see 
H.  P.  Thieme,  Guide  bibliographique  de  la  litterature  franchise  de  1800 
a  1906,  and  C.  H.  C.  Wright,  Hist,  of  French  Literature  (191 2),  p.  883  ff. 
—  Of  anthologies  of  the  French  lyric,  Gustave  Masson's  La  lyre  fran- 
Qaise  (Lond. :  1 867)  and  Professor  Crane's  French  Lyrics  are  handy, 
well-edited,  and  easily  procurable.  A  smajl  but  representative  collection  is 
that  of  The  Oxford  Book  of  French  Verse,  XII Ith  Century-XIXth  Cen- 
tury (ed.  by  St.  John  Lucas,  Oxford :  1 908).  Other  anthologies  are  as 
follows:  Crepet,  Les  poetes  frangais  (4  vols.  Paris:  1887);  G.  Saintsbury, 
French  Lyrics  (N.Y. :  1883);  H.  Carrington,  Anthology  of  French 
Poetry,  loth  to  rgth  centuries  (Lond.:  1900);  A.  G.  Canfield,  French 
Lyrics  (N.  Y. :  1 899).  The  series  known  as  Grands  Ecrivains  de  la 
France  is  convenient  and  authoritative  and  is  supplied-  with  lives, 
lexica,  etc. 

A.  The  Beginnings.     On  traces  of  early  popular   dance   and 
festival  songs,  satirical  and  religious  lyrics,  see  Grober's  Grundriss, 
II,  i,  p.  444  (noted  above,  §  5) ;  G.  Paris,  La  litt.  fran9aise  au 
moyen  age  (3d  ed.    Paris  1905  ;  pp.  191-192).    Of  French  lyric 
poetry  before  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  little  is  known 
(Paris,  pp.  193-198;  Grober,  p.  475;   Ebert,  Gesch.  d.  Litt.  d. 
Mittelalters,  vol.  III). 

B.  The  Troubadours  (1150-0. 1286). 

For  the  English  student  the  best  introduction  to  the  Trouba'dours 
may  be  found  in  the  interesting  and  popular  work  of  J.  H.  Smith,  The 
Troubadours  at  Home  (2  vols.  N.Y. :  1899;  with  bibliographical  aids), 
in  the  concise  accounts  given  by  H.  J.  Chaytor,  The  Troubadours  (Camb. 
Manuals  of  Sci.  and  Lit.,  Camb.  and  N.  Y.),  and  Paul  Meyer,  Art.  Pro- 
vengal  Literature,  Encyc.  Brit.,  iith  ed.  The  most  important  treatises 
are  those  of  Bartsch,  Diez,  Gaston  Paris,  and  Jeanroy,  mentioned  below, 
under  References.  Other  convenient  introductions  will  be  found  in 
G.  Paris'  La  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age  (§§  125-130;  cf.  1 18-124),  J.  Anglade's 
Les  Troubadours,  etc.  (Paris :  1 908),  and  E.  Baret's  Les  Troubadours, 
etc.  (3d  ed.  Paris:  1867).  See  also  Grober's  Grundriss  II,  i,  659  ff., 
and  P.  A.  Becker's  Grundriss  der  altfranz.  Litt.  (1907).  For  troubadour 
verse,  in  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  England,  see  the  corresponding 
national  divisions,  below. 

For  general anthologies,  see:  C.  Appel,  Provenzalische  Chrestomathie 
(4th  ed.  Leipz. :  1912),  and  C.  A.  F.  Mahn,  Die  Werke  der  Troubadours 
(Berlin  :  1846)  and  Gedichte  der  Troubadours  (4  vols.  Berlin  :  1856-73 ; 


206  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

inaccurate  —  criticized  in  Romania  3:  303).  An  older  anthology  was 
published  by  F.  Raynouard,  Choix  des  poe"sies  originales  des  trouba- 
dours (6  vols.  Paris  :  1816-21).  A.  Jeanroy;  L.  Brandin,  and  P.  Aubry 
have  published  the  Lais  et  descorts  frangais  du  XIIIC  siecle,  including 
the  musical  scores  (Paris :  1901);  and  G.  Raynaud,  a  Recueil  de  motets 
frangais  des  XIIe  et  XIIIe  siecles  (2  vols.  Paris:  1881-84).  See  also 
the  Anciennes  poe*sies  provengales,  Les  derniers  troubadours  de  la 
Provence,  Recueil  d'anciens  textes,  etc.  of  P.  Meyer.  Extensive  collec- 
tions were  made  by  Auguis,  —  Les  poetes  frangois,  depuis  le  XIIe  siecle 
jusqu'k  Malherbe  (6  vols.  Paris  :  1824),  and  the  Tre"sor  des  vieux  poetes 
(14  vols.  in  12.  Paris:  1877-83).  The  6th  ed.  of  the  Chrestomathie 
provengal  (1904)  of  Bartsch  and  the  2d  ed.  of  V.  Crescini's  Manualetto 
provenzale  (1905)  furnish  smaller  but  convenient  and  excellent  antholo- 
gies. An  interesting  little  collection  of  translations  into  the  Italian,  by 
U.  A.  Canello,  with  a  preface  by  Carducci,  is  published  as  Fiorita  di 
liriche  provenzali  (Bologna:  1881).  For  translations  into  English  see 
J.  H.  Smith,  as  noted,  and  Barbara  Smythe,  Trobador  Poets  (Lond. : 
191  r).  Other  bibliographical  aid  will  be  found  in  C.  Wahlund's  Livres 
provengaux  rassembles  pendant  quelques  annees,  etc.  (Upsal :  1892). 
Further  account  of  texts  in  Chaytor,  pp.  142-144. 

It  is  difficult  to  separate  the  purely  French  lyric  from  the 
Provencal  variety,  so  closely  did  the  latter  influence  the  former. 
The  ^student  should  investigate  the  relation  between  the  natural 
popular  lyric  and  the  Provencal-French  troubadour  lyrics.  With 
the  latter  modern  European  literature  may  be  said  to  have  begun. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  origin  of  Provencal  troubadour 
poetry  (theje  are  three  theories :  Latin  poetry  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  Arabic  poetry  of  the  eighth  century,  and,  most  probable, 
early  popular  verse  in  the  vernacular),  it  is  as  we  know  it : 
(i)  primarily,  though  not  exclusively,  a  lyric  poetry  dealing  most 
of  all  with  love,  but  also  with,  social,  political,  and  religious  ques- 
tions ;  (2)  a  poetry  belonging  to  the  upper  classes,  and,  especially  in 
its  amatory  aspect,  expressing  a  highly  artificial  society-convention 
known  as  courtoisie\  (3)  a  poetry  that  in  its  capacity  for  lofty 
ideas  and  noble  sentiment  as  well  as  in  its  perfection  of  technique 
(almost  a  thousand  different  stanzaic  patterns  have  been  counted), 
is  clearly  of  high  artistic  worth,  thus  implying,  perhaps  (?),  a  long 


VII,  B]      FRENCH  (INCLUDING  PROVENQAL)  LYRIC     207 

period  of  anterior  development.  "  All  the  poetry  of  Europe  was 
penetrated,  pervaded,  transformed  under  the  action  of  [this]  poetry 
that  radiated  from  Provence "  (Gorra).  Its  influence  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  Italy,  the  north  of  France,  Germany,  and  England  was 
great,  often  dominant,  not  seldom  originative. 

The  earliest  lyric  poetry  of  Italy  is  Provencal  in  all  but  language ; 
almost  as  much  may  be  said  of  Portugal  and  Galicia ;  Catalonian  trouba- 
dours continued  to  write  in  Provengal  until  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  lyric  poetry  of  the  "  trouveres  "  in  Northern  France  was  deeply 
influenced  in  form  and  spirit  by  troubadour  poetry,  and  traces  of  this 
influence  are  perceptible  even  in  early  middle-English  lyrics.  Finally, 
the  German  minnesingers  knew  and  appreciated  troubadour  lyrics : 
imitations  or  even  translations  of  Provencal  poems  may  be  found  in 
Heinrich  von  Morungen,  Friedrich  von  Hausen,  and  many  others. 
Hence  the  poetry  of  the  troubadours  is  a  subject  of  first-rate  impor- 
tance to  the  student  of  comparative  literature  (Chaytor). 

For  a  brief  outline  of  its  influence,  see  J.  H.  Smith,  II,  374-375, 
op.  tit.  supra ;  and  paragraphs  below,  under  the  Italian,  English, 
and  German  lyric.  —  The  student  will  be  interested  to  note  the 
relation  of  Dante  to  the  troubadours,  whom  he  regarded  as  his 
teachers.  "  Dante  was  the  typical  troubadour  spiritualized."  For 
the  influence  of  the  troubadours  in  England,  see  J.  F.  Rowbotham's 
The  Troubadours  and  Courts  of  Love  (Loud :  1895)  and  Scho- 
field's  Eng.  Lit.  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  Chaucer  (1906). 
-  The  chief  lyric  forms  of  the  troubadours  were  the  chanson,  the 
aube,  the  pastourelle,  the  tenson  (debat\  the  rondet  and  ballete,  the 
sirventes,  the  motet,  the  tat,  the  virelai,  etc.  Most  of  these,  if  not 
all,  are  characterized  not  only  by  emotional  expression,  but  by 
such  a  strong  narrative  or  descriptive  content  that  their  lyrical 
quality  is  distinctly,  but  not  unduly,  affected.  Have  we  not 
here  (cf.  Greek  lyric)  an  additional  datum  for  the  study  of  the 
variations  by  which  one  type  develops  into  another  ?  In  connection 
with  this,  see  A.  Birch-Hirschfeld,  Ueber  die  den  .  .  .  Troubadours 
.  .  .  bekannten  epischen  Stoffe  (Halle:  1878).  For  references  on 
the  lyric  species  just  mentioned,  see  G.  Paris,  Litt.  fr.  moyen 


208  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

age,  pp.  309-310.  —  The  earliest  troubadour  of  whose  work  we 
possess  any  remains  is  Guillaume  IX,  Comte  de  Poitiers  (ed.  by 
Jeanroy,  Paris:  1913).  Professor  Ker  calls  him  "the  first  of  a 
school  that  includes  every  modern  poet,"  and  observes  that  "  every- 
thing that  is  commonly  called  poetry  in  the  modern  tongues  may 
in  some  way  or  other  trace  its  pedigree  back  to  William  of  Poitiers  " 
(Dark  Ages,  p.  6).  Among  the  chief  troubadours  were:  Bertran 
de  Born  (ed.  by  A.  Stimming,  2d  ed.  Paris :  1892  ;  by  A.  Thomas, 
Toulouse  :  1888)  ;  Cercamon  (ed.  by  Dejeanne,  Toulouse :  1905)  ; 
Peire  Vidal  (ed.  by  K.  Bartsch ;  by  J.  Anglade,  Paris:  1913); 
Jaufre  Rudel  (ed.  by  A.  Stimming,  Berlin:  1886);  Ponz  de 
Capdoill  (ed.  by  M.  von  Napolski,  1880) ;  Folquet  de  Romans 
(ed.  by  R.  Zenker,  1896);  Monk  of  Montaudon  (ed.  by  Klein, 
1885);  Arnaut  Daniel  (ed.  by  U.  A.  Canello,  1883);  Marcabrun 
(ed.  by  J.  M.  L.  Dejeanne,  Toulouse:  1909);  Guiraut  de  Bornelh 
(ed.  by  A.  Kolsen,  1894  etc.).  The  ancient  lives  of  the  troubadours, 
prefixed  to  early  manuscripts,  are  interesting  and  instructive.  They 
are  collected  in  Raynouard's  Choix  de  poesies  proven^ales,  Mahn's 
Die  Biographieen  der  Troubadours  (1878),  and  C.  Chabaneau's 
Les  biographies  des  troubadours  en  langue  provengale,  etc.  (Tou- 
louse :  1885  ;  with  bibliography  of  the  works  of  the  troubadours). 
An  English  translation  is  furnished  by  I.  Farnell,  The  Lives  of 
the  Troubadours  (Lond. :  1896),  which  also  includes  specimens  of 
the  lyrics  in  English  form.  —  Before  leaving  the  study  of  Trouba- 
dour poetry  the  student  should  consider  the  related  stream  of 
Latin  popular  poetry  of  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries,  the  Carmina 
Burana  (see  above,  v,  E),  noting  certain  similarities  of  sentiment 
beneath  differences  of  form  and  treatment.  In  the  similarities 
may  be  found,  perhaps,  harbingers  of  the  Renaissance  (cf.  M.  B. 
Ogle,  in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  Dec.  1912). 

Editions  and  References.  Besides  the  editions  already  cited  others 
are  mentioned  by  Bartsch,  Grober,  Petit  de  Julleville,  Foulet,  etc.  The 
chief  literary  histories  dealing  with  the  troubadours  are :  K.  Bartsch, 
Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  provenzalischen  Literatur  (Elberfeld : 
1872;  with  bibliography  of  the  works  of  Provencal  poets:  a  new  ed. 


VII,  B]      FRENCH  (INCLUDING  PROVENgAL)  LYRIC     209 

is  in  preparation) ;  F.  Diez,  Leben  und  Werke  der  Troubadours  (2d  ed. 
Ed.  by  K.  Bartsch,  Leipz. :  1882) ;  by  the  same,  Die  Poesie  der  Trouba- 
dours (2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1 883) ;  C.  Fauriel,  Histoire  de  la  poesie  proven- 
c,ale  (3  vols.  Paris:  1846;  English  trans,  by  G.  J.  Adler,  N.Y. :  1860, 
with  extended  bibliography,  including  works  on  Provencal  poetry),  — 
the  chapter  on  lyric  poetry  to  be  read  with  much  caution ;  A.  Jeanroy, 
Les  origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  (2d  ed.  Paris:  1904),— 
a  very  valuable  work  (noted  above,  §  5),  containing  bibliographical 
material,  and  bearing  upon  the  influence  of  the  troubadours  in  Italy, 
Germany,  etc. ;  A.  Slimming,  Provenzalische  Litt.  (Grober's  Grundriss). 
See  also  the  histories  of  French  literature  by  G.  Paris  (Lit.  fr.  au 
moyen  age,  Poesie  du  m.  age,  Orig.  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  Fr.  au 
m.  age),  Petit  de  Julleville,  Lintilhac,  Lanson,  Demogeot,  Brunetiere, 
etc.,  and  Korting's  Encyklopadie.  The  article  on  Provengal  language 
and  literature  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  is  by  P.  Meyer ;  with  which  compare 
the  same  author's  De  1'influence  des  troubadours  sur  la  poe"sie  des 
peuples  romans  (in  Romania,  5:  257-268;  cf.  Romania,  12:  521; 
19:  i).  A.  Restori's  Letteratura  provenzale  (Manual!  Hoepli,  Milan: 
1891)  is  small,  but  illuminating.  See  also  histories  of  other  European 
literatures.  Other  works  on  the  troubadours  and  their  influence,  and 
on  the  theory  of  courtoisie,  are:  J.  Anglade,  Le  troubadour  Guiraut 
Re"quier,  e"tude  sur  la  decadence  de  1'ancienne  poesie  provenzale  (Diss. 
Paris:  1905);  P.  Aubry,  Trouveres  and  Troubadours  (1909),  English 
trans,  by  C.  Aveling  (N.Y. :  1914),  —  a  helpful  introduction  to  the 
music  of  the  troubadours  and  trouveres ;  K.  Bartsch,  Nachahmung 
provenzalischer  Poesie  im  Deutschen  (in  Germania,  i  :  480  ff.  1856); 
J.  B.  Beck,  Die  Melodien  der  Troubadours,  etc.  (Strassburg:  1908); 
by  the  same,  La  musique  des  troubadours  (Paris:  1910;  Romania 
40:  119);  G.  Bertoni,  II  pianto  provenz.  in  morte  di  Re  Manfredi  (in 
Romania  43:  167.  1914);  H.  Binet,  Le  style  de  la  lyrique  courtoise 
en  France  au  XIIe  et  XIIIe  siecles  (Paris:  1891  ;  interesting  but  un- 
critical); H.  Chaytor,  The  Troubadours  of  Dante  (Oxford:  1902); 
L.  Cle"dat,  La  poe'sie  lyrique  et  satirique  en  France  au  moyen  age 
(Paris:  1893);  L.  Constans,  Chrestomathie  de  1'ancien  Franc.ais 
(IX<=-XVe  siecles)  (Paris:  1906),  —  see  pp.  18-19  for  a  tabulation  of 
the  lyric  and  pastoral ;  F.  Eichelkraut,  Der  Troub.  Folquet  de  Lunel 
(1872);  E.  Faral,  Les  debats  du  clerc  et  du  chevalier  dans  la  litt.  des 
I2e  et  I3e  siecles  (in  Romania  41  :  473.  1912);  C.  A.  Gidel,  Les 
troubadours  et  Pdtrarque  (Angers:  1857);  E.  Gorra,  Delle  orig.  della 
poesia  lirica  del  medio  evo  (1895);  J.  H.  Hanford,  as  noted  above,  §  5  ; 
H.  Hensel,  Die  Vogel  in  der  provenz.  und  nordfranz.  Lyrik  des 


210  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Mittelalters  (in  Romanische  Forsch.  26:  584.  1909);  F.  Hueffer,  The 
Troubadours  (Lond. :  1878), — a  helpful  work,  with  chapters  on  epic, 
pastorella,  alba,  serena,  balada,  sestina,  tenso,  sirventes,  canzo,  etc.; 
by  the  same,  Der  Trob.  Guilhem  de  Cabestanh  (1869);  Knobloch,  Die 
Streitgedichte  im  Provenz.  und  Altfranz.  (Diss.  Breslau :  1886); 
A.  Kolsen,  Guiraut  von  Bornelh  (1894);  J.  de  Lescurel,  Chansons, 
Ballades  et  Rondeaux  (Paris:  1855);  K.  Lewent,  Das  altprovenz. 
Kreuzlied  (in  Romanische  Forsch.  21:  321.  1908);  P.  Meyer,  Les 
derniers  troubadours  de  la  Provence,  —  collected,  edited,  etc.  (Paris : 
1871);  Milk  y  Fontanals,  Los  trovadores  en  Espafia  (Barcelona: 
1861),  the  best  work  on  its  subject;  A.  de  Montaiglon,  Chansons, 
Ballades  et  Rondeaux  (Paris:  1855);  L.  F.  Mott,  The  System  of 
Courtly  Love  (Boston:  1896),  and,  by  the  same,  The  Provencal  Lyric 
(N.Y. :  1901);  T.  L.  Neff,  La  satire  des  femmes  dans  la  poesie 
lyrique  frangaise  au  moyen  age  (Paris:  1900);  W.  A.  Neilson,  The 
Origins  of  the  Court  of  LoveJir\jSh^zes  and  Notes  in  Phil,  and  Lit. 
VI,  1900);  F.  Orth,  UeHer  Reim  und  Strophenbau  in  der  altfranz. 
Lyrik  (Cassel :  1882);  .E.  Philipson,  Der  Monch  von  Montaudon ; 
H.  W.  Preston,  Troubadours:  Their  Loves  and  their  Lyrics  (Lond.: 
1873);  C.  Sachs,  In  welchem  Zusammenhange  steht  die  lyrische  Kunst- 
poesie  der  Provenzalen  mit  der  mittelalterl.  Kunstpoesie  der  Franzosen, 
Italiener,  Spanier,  Portugiesen  und  Deutschen?  (Progr.  Berlin:  1854); 
M.  Sachse,  Ueber  das  Leben  und  die  Lieder  des  Tr.  Wilhelm  IX. 
(1882);  an  early,  quaint,  and  extremely  interesting  Histoire  litte'raire  des 
troubadours,  compiled  by  Sainte-Palaye,  edited  and  published  by  C.  F.  X. 
Millot  (Paris:  1774),  and  translated  into  English  by  S.  Dobson  as  the 
Literary  History  of  the  Troubadours  (Lond. :  1 779),  —  see  the  Discours 
Pre'liminaire  as  a  document  of  historical  interest;  O.  Schultz,  Das 
Verhaltniss  der  provenz.  Pastourelle  zur  altfranz.  (in  Z.  f.  roman. 
Philol.,  VIII,  1884);  L.  Selbach,  Das  Streitgedicht  in  der  altprovenzali- 
schen  Lyrik,  etc.  (in  Ausgaben  und  Abhand.  aus  dem  Gebiete  der 
roman.  Philol.,  LVII.  Marburg:  1886;  cf.  Zeitschr.  fur  -uergleich. 
Littgesch.,  N.F.,  I,  289);  R.  Schevill,  Ovid  and  the  Renascence  in 
Spain,  which  is  generally  valuable  for  its  proof  of  troubadour  indebted- 
ness to  Ovid — see  especially  p.  24  and  note  29 — (in  Univ.  of  California 
Pubs,  in  Mod.  Philol. ,vo\.  IV,  No.  I,  1913);  W.  Schrottner,  Ovid  und  die 
Troubadours  (Marburg:  1908);  H.  Springer,  Das  altprovenz.  Klagelied, 
etc.  (in  Berliner  Eeitrage  zurgerman.  und  roman.  Philol.,  VII.  Roman. 
Abt.  No.  2.  Berlin:  1895);  S.  Stronski,  Le  troubadour  Folquet  de 
Marseille,  —  critical  ed.,  with  studies  and  notes  (Cracovie :  1910); 
R.  Zenker,  Die  provenzalische  Tenzone  (Leipz,;  1888).  —  For  further 


VII,  C]  FRENCH   LYRIC  (THE  TROUVERES)  211 

bibliography  of  works  on  the  influence  of  Provencal  poetry,  see  Betz- 
Baldensperger,  La  litt.  comparee,  Essai  bibliog.,  Chap.  VIII  (2d  ed. 
Strasbourg :  1 904) ;'  also  the  proper  bibliographical  sections  below  under 
the  Italian,  Portuguese,  and  English  lyric. 

C.   The  Trouveres  (i2th-ijth  centuries,  north  of  France]. 

The  best  introductions  to  the  literature  of  the  Trouveres  will  be 
found  in  Petit  de  Julleville,  vol.  I,  Chap.  V  (by  A.  Jeanroy.  Paris: 
1896;  with  bibliography,  pp.  403-404);  G.  Paris,  Les  origines  de  la 
poesie  lyrique  en  France  au  moyen  age  (Paris:  1892;  being  extracts 
from  the  Journal  des  Savants,  nov.  et  de"c.  1891,  mars  et  juillet  1892); 
by  the  same,  La  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age  (§§  118-124);  P.  Paris,  L'His- 
toire  litt.  de  la  France,  vol.  XXIII,  pp.  512-831,  Les  Chansonniers 
(Paris:  1856),  —  a  mass  of  material  to  be  studied  in  connection  with 
more  recent  treatises.  For  bibliography  of  the  literature  itself,  see 
G.  Raynaud,  Bibliographic  des  chansonniers  francais  des  XIIIs  et 
XIVs  siecles,  comprenant  la  description  de  tous  les  manuscrits,  la  table 
des  chansons  classees  par  ordre  alphabetique  de  rimes  et  la  liste  des 
trouveres  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1 884). 

In  the  north  of  France,  epic  rather  than  lyric  was  the  popular 
literary  typeduring  the  Middle  Ages  (cf.  below,  §  12) ;  but  trouba- 
dour lyrics  were  sung  in  Paris,  Champagne,  and  Blois  under  the 
influence  of  Eleanor  of  Poitiers  and  her  daughters.  The  epic-lyric 
poets  of  the  north  were  known  as  Trouveres.  Some  of  the  more 
important  were  Conon  de  Bethune,  Adam  le  Bossu,  Grace  Brute, 
Tibaud  de  Champagne,  Gui  de  Couci,  Gautier  d'Espinaus,  Adam 
de  la  Halle,  Blondel  de  Nesle,  Richard  Cceur_de_  L,ion,  Gontier  de 
Soignies,  Chretien  de  Troyes,  etc.,  etc. 

Editions.  A  short  bibliography  of  editions  of  the  Trouvere  texts 
will  be  found  in  Julleville  or  Foulet  as  noted  above.  The  principal 
collections  and  editions  are :  K.  Bartsch,  Chrestomathie  de  1'ancien 
Francais  (VIIIe-XVe  siecles)  (nth  ed.  Leipz. :  1913);  by  the  same, 
Altfranzosische  Romanzen  und  Pastourellen  (Leipz.:  1870),  —  a  charm- 
ing and  scholarly  collection  of  the  two  earliest  kinds  of  Northern  French 
Lyric;  by  the  same,  La  langue  et  la  litt.  fr.  depuis  le  IX°  jusqu'au 
XI Ve  siecle,  textes,  glossaire,  grammaire  (Paris  :  1887);  J.  Brakelmann, 
Les  plus  anciens  chansonniers  francais  (Paris :  1870-1891),  and  another 
vol.,  ed.  by  F.  Stengel  (1896);  L.  Constans,  Chrestomathie  de  1'ancien 
Fran$ais  (IXe— XVe  siecles)  (Paris  :  1906);  E.  de  Coussemaker,  CEuvres 


212  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

completes  du  trouvere  Adam  de  la  Halle,  poesies  et  musique  (Paris : 
1872);  A.  Dinaux,  Trouveres,  jongleurs  et  menestrels  du  nord  de  la 
France  et  du  midi  de  la  Belgique  (4  vols. :  I,  Les  trouveres  cambresiens, 
1836;  II,  Les  trouveres  de  la  Flandre  et  du  Tournaisis,  1839;  III, 
Les  trouveres  artesiens,  1 843 ;  IV,  Les  trouveres  brabangons,  hai- 
nuyers,  liegeois  et  namurois,  1863),  —  a  very  important  and  inclusive 
work ;  A.  Jeanroy,  Melanges  d'ancienne  poesie  lyrique  (Toulouse  et 
Paris:  1902);  A.  Jubinal,  Jongleurs  et  trouveres,  etc.  (Paris :  1835); 
E.  Maetzner,  Altfranzosische  Lieder  (Berlin:  1853);  P.  Meyer,  Recueil 
d'anciens  textes  bas-latins,  provengaux  et  frangais  (2  pts.  Paris  :  1874- 
77), — especially  important;  G.  Paris  and  E.  Langlois,  Chrestomathie 
du  moyen  age  (8th  ed.  Paris:  1912),  —  also  important;  G.  Raynaud, 
Rondeaux  .  .  .  du  XVe  siecle,  etc.  (Paris:  1889;  in  Soci^te"  des  anciens 
textes  frangais,  with  a  masterly  introduction);  A.  Scheler,  Trouveres 
beiges  du  XIIe  au  XIVs  siecle  (1876),  and  Nouvelle  Serie  (Bruxelles : 
1879);  P.  Tarbe",  Chansons  de  Thibaut  IV,  Comte  de  Champagne  et 
de  Brie  (Reims:  1851);  by  the  same,  Les  chansonniers  de  Champagne 
aux  XIIe  et  XIIIe  siecles  (Reims:  1850);  by  the  same,  Les  ceuvres  de 
Blondel  de  Nesle  (Reims:  1862);  W.  Wackernagel,  Altfranzosische 
Lieder  und  Leiche  (Bale :  1 846).  See  also  P.  Aubry  et  A.  Jeanroy, 
Le  Chansonnier  de  1'Arsenal  (trouveres  du  XIIe-XIIIe  siecle):  Re- 
production photo-typique  du  manuscrit  5198  de  la  Bibliotheque  de 
1'Arsenal  (Paris:  1910). 

References.  For  bibliography  of  critical  works,  see  Julleville,  as  already 
noted;  Jeanroy,  Les  origines,  etc.,  2d  ed.,  pp.  IX-XIII,  515-527. 
Some  of  the  more  important  monographs,  etc.,  are  noted  here :  P.  A. 
Becker,  Grundriss  der  altfranz.  Litt.  (Heidelberg:  1907);  Be'dier,  Les 
fetes  de  mai  et  les  commencements  de  la  poe"sie  lyrique  au  moyen  age 
(in  Rev.  des  Deux  Mondes,  ier  mai,  1896);  J.  Brakelmann,  Die  Pas- 
tourelle  in  der  nord-  und  sudfranzosischen  Poesie  (in  Jahrbuch  fur 
rom.  und  engl.  Lift.,  IX,  1868,  pp.  155-189,  307-337);  Binet,  as 
noted  above,  under  the  Troubadours ;  G.  Grober,  Die  altfranzosischen 
Romanzen  und  Pastourellen  (Zurich  :  1872);  A.  Jeanroy,  De  nostratibus 
medii  aevi  poetis  qui  primum  lyrica  Aquitaniae  carmina  imitati  sunt 
(Paris:  1889);  by  the  same,  Les  origines  de  la  poe"sie  lyrique,  —  the 
scholarly  work  already  noted  in  §  5 ;  H.  Knobloch,  Die  Streitge- 
dichte  im  Provenzalischen  und  Altfranzosischen  (Diss.  Breslau:  1886); 
P.  Meyer,  Des  rapports  de  la  poesie  des  trouveres  avec  celle  des 
troubadours  (in  Romania,  19:  1-62),  —  all  works  by  Meyer  should 
be  consulted  carefully ;  A.  Pillet,  Studien  zur  Pastourelle  (Breslau : 
1902);  G.  Raynaud,  the  introduction  to  the  work  noted  above; 


VII,  F]      FRENCH  LYRIC  (14TH,  15TH  CENTURIES)       213 

Julian  Tiersot,  Histoire  de  la  chanson  populaire  en  France  (Paris:  1889); 
M.  Wilmotte,  Les  origines  de  la  chanson  populaire,  in  Etudes  critiques 
sur  la  tradition  litteraire  en  France,  vol.  I  (Paris :  1 909),  —  cf .  La 
chanson  populaire  au  moyen  age  (in  the  Bulletin  of  Folk-Lore,  I, 
1891).  For  bibliography  of  the  music  of  the  lyrics,  see  H.  Lavoix, 
Musique  au  siecle  de  Saint  Louis,  pp.  467-479  (in  the  2d  vol.  of 
G.  Raynaud's  Recueil  de  motets  franqais  des  XIIe  et  XIIIe  siecles, 
2  vols.,  Paris:  1881-1883);  J.  Tiersot,  Histoire  de  la  chanson  popu- 
laire en  France  (Paris:  1889);  P.  Aubry,  Trouveres  and  Troubadours, 
trans,  by  C.  Aveling  (N.Y. :  1914);  further  bibliography  may  be  found 
in  the  annual  bibliographical  tables  of  the  Vierteljahrsschrift  fur 
Musikwissenschaft.  » 

D.  Norman  Trouveres. 

On  Norman  literature  and  language,  Hermann  Suchier's  Bibliotheca 
Normannica  is  of  great  value  (Reimpredigt.  Ed.  by  Suchier.  Halle : 
1879).  Another  useful  collection  is  the  Altfranzosische  Bibliothek  (Ed. 
by  Wendelin  Foerster.  Heilbronn :  1879):  vols.  I-III  contain  poems 
in  the  Anglo-Norman  dialect  of  the  I3th  century;  vols.  IV- VI  the 
Lothringian  Psalter  of  the  I4th  century.  Bartsch  and  Homing's  La 
langue  et  la  litteVature  frangaises,  IXe-XIV°  siecle  (Paris :  1887)  covers 
best  the  period  indicated.  The  critical  student  is  referred  also  to  the 
authorities  cited  by  Bartsch  in  his  Geschichte  der  proven.  Literatur, 
and  to  the  excellent  studies  published  in  the  Zeitschr.  fiir  romanische 
Philologie,  and  in  Romania.  The  following  will  also  be  helpful : 
A.  Caste",  Chansons  normands  du  XVe  siecle  (Caen  :  1 866) ;  A.  Heron, 
Trouveres  normands  (Rouen:  1885);  G.  de  La  Rue,  Essais,  .  .  .  sur 
les  bardes,  les  jongleurs  et  les  trouveres  normands  et  anglo-normands 
(3  vols.  Caen:  1834). 

E.  Medieval  Religious  Lyric. 

See  G.  Paris,  Litt.  fr.  moyen  age,  pp.  257-260,  320;  and  his  La 
poe"sie  du  moyen  &ge  (2  vols.,  1887);  also,  Ebert,  vol.  Ill ;  and  Grober. 

F.  Fourteen^hand  Fifteenth  J^enturies. 

A  full  and  admirable  review  of  this  period  is  contained  in  Grober's 
article  on.  French  literature  in  his  Grundriss,  II,  i  ;  see  also  G.  Paris 
as  already  noted,  and  the  general  histories  of  French  literature.  Besant's 
Studies  in  Early  French  Poetry  (1868)  and  Petit  de  Julleville's  La  poe"sie 
lyrique  au  I4e  siecle  (in  Rev.  des  fours  et  conferences,  April,  May,  July, 
1893)  should  also  be  noted. 


214  HISTORY  OF  THE  .LYRIC  [§  6 

The  work  of  the  Troubadours  and  Trouveres  extends  into  this 
period,  but  the  acme  of  their  power  and  literary  production  was 
reached  in  the  earlier  century.  During  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries  a  loss  of  creative  power  is  to  be  noted,  an  elaboration  of 
verse  technique,  and  the  use  of  lyric  measures  in  didactic  and 
satirical  poems.  But  what  most  interests  the  student  is  the^  out- 
cropping  of  the  personal  note.  The  lyric  of  courtoisie  was  related 
to  narrative  and,  in  general,  objective  themes,  and  the  personality 
of  the  poet,  when  it  did  rarely  appear,  showed  more  by  accident 
than  by  design.  But  during  this  period  ppets  like  Machaut  arid 
Deschamps  begin  to  sing  of  their  own  affairs,  and  then,  as  a 
further  step  in  the  same  direction,  Villon  (CEuvres,  Paris:  1911) 
gives  an  ever-haunting  lyric  expression  to  self-analysis.  What  sig- 
nificance is  there  in  the  fact  that  the  personal  note  develops  in  an 
age  of  poetic  decline  ?  Can  the  same  be  shown  of  lyric  develop- 
ment in  other  nations  ?  The  chief  forms  of  the  lyric  of  this  age 
were  the  ballade  (especially  common  :  Deschamps  composed  more 
than  a  thousand),  fat,  virelai,  chant  royal,  rondeau,  rondel,  sirventes, 
and  villanelle.  The  other  chief  poets  were  Olivier  Basselin  (con- 
vivial songs,  vaux-de-vire,  whence  "vaudeville),  Christine  de  Pisan, 
Charles  d'Orle'ans  ("  last  of  the  trouveres  "),  Alain  Chartier,  and 
Guillaume  Cretin.  See  editions,  general  histories,  etc. 

An  informing  article  is  that  of  G.  Doutrepont,  La  litt.  fr.  a  la  cour 
des  Dues  de  Bourgogne  (Paris :  1 909 ;  in  the  Bibliotht-que  du  XVe  sihle, 
vol.  VIII).  V.  Chichmaref's  Guillaume  de  Machaut,  Poesies  lyriques 
(2  vols.  1910),  contains  a  good  introduction.1  On  Villon  see  G.  Paris, 
Francois  Villon  (Paris:  1901,  —  Coll.  des  grands  e"crivains),  and 
P.  Champion,  F.  Villon,  sa  vie  et  son  temps  (2  vols.  Paris:  1913). 
Champion  has  also  published  La  vie  de  Charles  d'Orle'ans  (Paris  :  191 1). 
The  Poesies  completes  of  D'Orle'ans  have  been  edited,  with  preface, 
notes,  and  glossary,  by  C.  d'Hdricault  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1896).  On  trouba- 
dour verse  see  A.  Parducci,  La  pastorella  in  Francia  nei  secoli  XV-XVI 
(in  Zeitschr.  f.  roman.  Phil.  34:  55.  1910).  On  Basselin's  reputed 
authorship  of  the  tiaux-de-vire  see  a  monograph  by  M.  V.  Patard  (1897). 
Most  of  the  material  of  a  recent  sort  on  this  period  is  contained  in 
the  various  periodicals,  for  which  see  Appendix.  For  the  imitation  of 
old  French  lyric  forms  in  English  poetry,  see  below,  xi,  F. 


VII,  G]  FRENCH   LYRIC  (16TH  CENTURY)  215 

G.   The  Sixteenth  Century. 

An  excellent  brief  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  lyric  of  the 
century  will  he  found  in  H.  Morf's  Geschichte  der  neuern  franzosi- 
schen  Litteratur,  vol.  I  (Strassburg:  1898).  See  §§9-13  of  the  work 
for  Marot,  Des  Periers,  M.  de  St.-Gelais  (who  perhaps  introduced  the 
sonnet  into  French  poetry),  Labe",  Heroet,  etc.,  and  the  popular  poetry 
of  the  time;  §§  16-23  for  the  Pldiade  and  later  folk-verse;  and 
p.  228  ff.  for  a  bibliographical  appendix.  A  later  and  exhaustive,  study 
has  been  begun  by  Henri  Guy  (Hist,  de  la  poe'sie  fr.  au  XVIe  siecle. 
Vol.  I,  Paris:  1910).  Tilley's  work,  in  English,  is  mentioned  below. 
General  collections  are  also  noted  below,  under  Editions. 

To  Clement  .Marat  (c.  1495-1544),  a  graceful  and  popular 
writer  of  occasional  .verse,  the  inventor  of  the  old  French  verse- 
form  of  the  -madrigal  (on  which  see  the  references  under  W.  A. 
Barrett  as  given  below,  xi,  c,  References)  and  sometimes  called 
the  father  of  modern  French  poetry,  has  been  attributed  by  a 
recent  writer  (see  above,  §  5,  Ph.  Martinon)  the  making  over  of 
medieval  French  prosody  into  the  instrument  of  the  modem  French 
lyric.  This  transformation  has  usually  been  attributed  to  Ronsard. 
At  any  rate,  the  work  of  Marot  and  his  contemporaries,  though 
reminiscent  of  both  the  vernacular  and  Latin  lyric  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  was  yet  so  different  and  so  modernized  as  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  next  step  in  advance.  This  was  taken  by  the  Ple'iade^ 
which  set  up  in  opposition  to  the  older  popular  lyric  forms,  now 
scornfully  denominated  episseries,  modified  forms  and  standards 
of  classical  derivation.  For  the  Pldiade,  see  above,  §  3,  iv,  B, 
and  below,  §  9,  vi,  A,  where  additional  references  are  indicated. 
The  manifesto  of  the  Pleiade  was  Du  Bellay's  La  deffence  et 
illustration  de  la  langue  franc.oyse  (1549),  which  is  described 
elsewhere.  What  is  particulajly  significant  is  the  fact  that 
with  this  assertion  of  classical  standards  the  evolution  of 
the  lyric  is  rendered  complex  by  what  might  be  called  cross- 
fertilization  from  foreign  models.  And  these  foreign  models  were 
even  more  highly  developed  than  the  native  French-Provencal 
lyric  itself,  by  which  many  hundreds  of  stanzaic  forms  had  been 
evolved.  In  other  words,  we  are  confronted  with  the  phenomenon, 


2l6  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC.  [§  6 

henceforth  to  be  common,  of  the  lyric  of  a  highly  advanced  stage 
influenced  in  turn  by  alien  lyric,  also  of  a  highly  developed  stage. 
The  results  in  such  cases  are  to  be  ascertained  by  induction  from 
authenticated  facts,  not  a  priori.  Special  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  rise  of  imitations  of  classic  forms,  such  as  the  ode,  epigram, 
and  elegy.  For  instance,  to  what  degree  did  Ronsard  misconceive 
the  character_of_the_Ei»4ar-ic  ode  ?  And  how  does  a  new  type,  or 
variety,  of  the  ode  develop  under  this  misconception  ?  What, 
exactly  stated,  are  the  details  of  variation,  —  in  terms  of  form, 
ornament,  idea,  etc.  ?  Can  it  be  shown  by  comparative  study  that 
these  details  are  parallelled  in  other  cases  of  cross-fertilization  ? 
In  other  words,  can  a  law  of  variation  be  determined  ?  How  is 
the  new  variety  expressive  of  its  age  ?  Does  it  appear,  when  set 
beside  Pindar's  sublime  strophes,  to  be  but  a  rustic  and  ridiculous 
imitation  ?  or  has  it  the  dignity  of  a  vital  creation,  expressive  of 
the  spiritual  outlook  of  a  new  age  ?  Was  Ronsard  familiar  with 
the  Pindaric  hymns  of  Luigi  Alamanni  (published  1533)?  Is  he 
at  all  indebted  for  the  form  of  his  Pindaric  odes  to  earlier  French 
poets  (see  Ph.  Martinon,  38  ff.)  ?  Extending  such  studies  the 
investigator  will  examine  the  indebtedness  of  the  Pleiade  to  the 
various  classical  poets,  particularly  Horace,  Virgil,  and  Ovid. 
What  also  of  an  indebtedness  to  Latin  Christian  poetry?  To 
what  extent  did  the  earlier  poets  of  the  century,  especially  Marot, 
employ  classical  forms  ?  From  the  ascertained  facts  of  imitation 
one  may  attempt  by  induction  to  come  at  the  laws  of  imitation 
that  govern  the  rise  of  the  new  variety  or  type.  —  Another  subject 
for  research  is  the  introduction  (by  Marot  or  Mellin  de  St.-Gelais  ? 
See  Tilley,  Lit.  of  French  Renaissance,  I,  152-153)  and  develop- 
ment of  the  sonnet.  This  opens  up  the  study  of  Italian  influences. 
The  century,  indeed,  is  the  period  of  Italian-Renaissance  influence, 
and  the  student  cannot  fully  understand  French  lyric  development 
until  he  has  paid  attention  to  the  influence  of  Petrarch  and 
other  Italian  lyrists.  —  In  this  period,  too,  the  historical  relation  of 
the  development  of  a  self-conscious  poetic  diction  to  the  advance 
and  sophistication  of  the  lyric  demands  systematic  investigation. 


VII,  G]  FRENCH  LYRIC  (16TH  CENTURY)  217 

Under  just  what  complex  of  contributing  causes  in  this  instance 
does  the  development  take  place  ?  Can  this  complex  of  causes  be 
shown  to  be  similar  to  that  which  has  elsewhere  operated  to  pro- 
duce like  results  ?  Is  there  any  relation  between  the  development 
of  the  personal  note  and  the  growth  of  this  self-conscious  diction  ? 
What  enriching  or  impoverishing  effect  has  such  cross-fertilization, 
or  such  invention  of  poetic  diction,  on  the  species  as  judged  from 
the  point  of  view  of  later  centuries  ? 

The  chief  lyric  writers  of  the  latter  half  of  the  period  were 
Ronsard,  Du  Bellay,  Remi  Belleau,  Daurat,  Bai'f,  Jodelle,  Pontus 
de  Tyard,  and  the  women  poets  of  the  Lyons  school.  For  a  list  of 
the  poets  before  the  Pleiade,  of  Marot  and  his  contemporaries,  see 
Saintsbury's  Short  Hist,  of  Fr.  Lit,  Bk.  II,  Chap.  II ;  for  some  of 
Ronsard's  followers  in  the  Pindaric  ode,  see  Ph.  Martinon,  p.  458. 

Editions  and  Translations.  Editions  of  the  various  poets  are  easily 
accessible  in  any  university  library ;  for  bibliography  see  Morf,  Tilley, 
Saintsbury,  etc.  A  convenient  anthology  is  G.  Pellissier's  Morceaux 
choisis  des  poetes  du  XVIe  siecle  (Paris:  1897).  A  larger  collection  is 
that  of  A.  de  Montaiglon  and  J.  de  Rothschild,  Anciennes  podsies 
frangaises,  etc.  (13  vols.  Paris:  1855-88).  English  collections  and 
translations  will  be  found  in  Besant's  Early  French  Poetry  (1868), 
H.  F.  Gary's  Early  French  Poets  (1846),  L.  S.  Costello's  Specimens 
of  the  Early  Poetry  of  France  (1835),  Father  Prout's  Reliques  (1836), 
and  A.  Lang's  Ballads  and  Lyrics  of  Old  France  (Lond. :  1872). 

References.  Among  the  monographs  that  deal  with  the  period  as  a 
whole  special  attention  may  be  called  to  Tilley's  The  Literature  of  the 
French  Renaissance,  which  contains  classified  bibliographies  in  addition 
to  excellent  historical  and  critical  material.  Concerning  one  of  the  most 
charming  of  the  works  on  the  period,  a  word  of  caution  should  be 
uttered.  Sainte-Beuve's  Tableau  historique  et  critique  de  la  poesie 
franchise  et  du  theatre  f ranc,ais  au  XVIe  siecle  (Paris :  1 828)  was 
written  under  the  inspiration  of  what  the  Germans  call  a  Tendenz. 
By  emphasizing  the  romantic  qualities  of  Du  Bellay,  Ronsard,  and  the 
other  Renaissance  poets,  Sainte-Beuve  aimed  to  afford  historical  sup- 
port to  the  French  romantic  school  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
student,  therefore,  will  be  careful  not  to  be  misled  by  the  enthusiasm 
and  by  the  colored  criticisms  of  the  work.  —  E.  Gandar's  Ronsard  con- 
sideVe  comme  imitateur  de  Homere  et  de  Pindare  (Metz:  1854)  is  of 


218  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

value  for  the  comparative  study  of  the  period,  as  is  also  E.  Stemplinger's 
Ronsard  und  der  Lyriker  Horaz  (in  Zeitschr.  fur  franz.  Sprache, 
26 :  70  ff.).  A  recent  work  is  G.  Wyndham's  Ronsard  and  the  Pleiade 
(1906).  See  also:  E.  Berthelin,  Etude  sur  Amadis  Jamyn,  poete  du 
XVIe  siecle,  etc.  (Troyes :  1859);  H.  Chamard,  loachim  du  Bellay 
(Lille:  1900);  by  the  same,  L'Invention  de  l'"Ode"  et  le  differend 
de  Ronsard  et  du  Bellay  (in  Rev.  d'hist.  litt.  de  la  France,  6:  21-54. 
1899);  L.  Clement,  Henri  Estienne,  etc.  (Paris:  1899);  C.  Comte  et 
P.  Laumonier,  Ronsard  et  les  musiciens  du  XV Ie  siecle  (Rev.  d'hist. 
litt.  de  la  France,  7  :  341-381.  1900);  F.  Flamini,  Du  r61e  de  Pontus 
de  Tyard  dans  le  pe"trarquisme  franc_ais  (Rev.  de  la  Renaissance,  1901, 
pp.  42-55  ;  also  Padova:  1902);  J.-B.  Fletcher,  Areopagus  and  Pleiade 
(in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil.,  2:  429.  1898);  H.  Guy,  De  fontibus 
dementis  Maroti  poetae  (Diss.  Paris:  1898);  by  the  same,  Les  sources 
f  rangaises  de  Ronsard  (Rev.  d'hist.  litt.  de  la  France,  I  o :  217- 
256.  1902);.  J.-P.-A.  Jeandet,  Etude  sur  le  i6e  siecle  (Paris:  1860); 
P.  Laumonier,  articles  on  Ronsard  in  Rev.  d^hist.  litt.  de  la  France 
(9  :  29-87, 441-447),  and  Rev.  de  la  Renaissance  (1901-2) ;  A.  Lefranc, 
Le  platonisme  dans  la  litterature  en  France  a  1'epoque  de  la  Renaissance, 
1500-1550  (Rev.  d'hist.  litt.  de  la  France,  3:  1-44.  1896);  cf.  by 
the  same,  Marguerite  de  Navarre  et  le  platonisme  de  la  Renaissance 
(Bibliotheque  de  VEcole  des  Chartes,  58:  259-292;  59:  712-757); 
H.  Longnon,  Pierre  de  Ronsard  (Paris:  1912);  Abbe  C.  Marchand,  De 
Graecarum  litterarum  studio  apud  Andegavos  in  XVI  saeculo  (Paris: 
1889),  —  see  Chap.  IV  on  the  imitation  of  Greek  poets  by  Bellay, 
Baif,  etc. ;  O.  Mucha,  Ueber  Stil  und  Sprache  von  Philippe  Desportes 
(Hamburg:  1896);  M.  Pieri,  Le  pe"trarquisme  au  XVIe  siecle,  Pe"trarque 
et  Ronsard  (Marseilles :  1 895) ;  C.-A.  Sainte-Beuve,  Joachim  du  Bellay 
(in  Nouveaux  Lundis,  XIII,  266-356.  Paris:  1870;  or  in  Journal  des 
Savants,  1867,  avril  205-221,  juin  344-359,  aout  483-503);  J.  Vianey, 
Le  modele  de  Ronsard  dans  1'ode  pindarique  (Rev.  d.  langues  rom., 
Sept.  Oct.,  1900),  L'Influence  italienne  chez  les  pre"curseurs  de  la  Pldiade 
(Ann.  Bordeaux,  Bull.  Ital.,  II.  1903),  and  Le  pdtrarquisme  en  France 
au  XVIe  siecle.  (Montpellier- Paris :  1909;  see  a  review  of  this  work,  by 
E.  Percopo,  in  Rassegna  crit.  della  left,  ital.,  14:  235-258).  Other 
articles  can  be  found  in  the  various  periodicals ;  see  especially  the 
Revue  de  la  Renaissance,  Organe  international  mensuel  des  amis 
de  la  PUiade. 

For  the  Sonnet  of  this  age,  see  the  works  of  Vaganay  and  Veyrieres, 
cited  above,  §  5 ;  also,  Morf,  on  M.  de  St.-Gelais,  in  his  Gesch.  der 
neuern  franz.  Litt.,  vol.  I ;  C.  Asselineau,  Histoire  du  sonnet  pour 


VII,  II]  FRENCH   LYRIC  (17TH  CENTURY)  219 

servir  a  1'histoire  de  la  poe'sie  francaise  (2d  ed.  Alengon :  1856); 
A.  Morel-Fatio,  Hist,  de  deux  sonnets,  in  Etudes  sur  1'Espagne, 
3e  Se"rie  (Paris:  1904),  —  on  the  derivation  of  a  sonnet  by  Du 
Bellay ;  M.  Pflanzel,  Ueber  die  Sonette  des  J.  Du  Bellay  nebst  einer 
Einleitung :  Die  Einfiihrung  des  Sonetts  in  Frankreich  (Inaug.  Diss. 
Leipz. :  1898);  A.  H.  Upham,  The  French  Influence  in  English  Lit- 
erature, Chap.  Ill  (N.Y. :  1908);  J.  Vianey,  Les  origines  du  sonnet 
re"gulier  (in  Rev.  de  la  Retiaissajice,  1903).  —  For  the  Popular  Lyric, 
see  J.  B.  Weckerlin,  L'Ancienne  chanson  populaire  en  France,  XVIe 
et  XVIIe  siecle  (Paris:  1877).  For  the  influence  of  the  Pleiade  in 
England,  S.  Lee,  The  French  Renaissance  in  England,  Book  IV 
(Lond. :  1910);  A.  H.  Upham,  French  Influence  in  English  Lit.  from 
the  Accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the  Restoration  (N.Y. :  1908);  L.  Char- 
lanne,  L'Influence  frangaise  en  Angleterre  au  17°  siecle  (Paris:  1906); 
papers  by  L.  E.  Kastner  (in  Mod.  Lang.  Rev.,  1907-10). 

H.  The  Seventeenth  Century. 

For  works  dealing  with  the  period,  consult  the  Appendix ;  and  com- 
pare the  outline  of  the  criticism  of  the  time  given  above,  §  3,  iv,  c. 
J.  Vianey's  Mathurin  Regnier  (Paris :  1 896)  is  an  important  work. 
See  also  Deschanel's  Le  romantisme  des  classiques,  Boileau  et  Perrault 
(Paris:  1883);  G.  Lanson's  Boileau  (Paris :  1892);  G.  Lafenestre's  La 
Fontaine  (1895);  E.  Faguet's  Les  grands  maitres  du  XVIIe  siecle 
(Paris:  1887),  and  Dix-sept.  siecle,  dtudes  litt.  (Paris:  1893);  and 
M.  Souriau's  L'Evolution  du  vers  frangais  au  XVIIIe  siecle  (Paris: 
1893).  The  Recueil  des  plus  belles  pieces  des  poetes  frangois,  by 
Bernard  de  Fontenelle  (5  vols.  Paris:  1692,  —  commonly  known, 
from  the  name  of  the  publisher,  as  the  Recueil  de  Barbin),  is  an  early 
collection  of  poems  from  Villon  to  Benserade.  Selections  from  the 
poets  may  be  found  in  Crepet's  Les  poetes  frangais. 

The  Pleiade  fell  into  extremes  and  absurdities,  and  Malherbe 
undertook  to  remedy  matters,  Under  his  severe  tenets  the  lyric 

***  !•!•••»••*••••  J 

became  mechanical  and  oratorical.  The  genius  of  Regnier,  how- 
ever, was  too  natural  and  original  to  be  fettered  by  the  gram- 
marian. The  second  half  of  the  century,  under  the  more  catholic 
sway  of  Boileau,  was  likewise  not  rich  in  lyric  production.  The 
ode,  fondly  called  Pindaric,  became  the  reigning  lyric  fashion. 
The  period  as  a  whole  was  cold  and  formal,  too  '  classical '  in 
its  literary  tendencies  to  admit  of  great  lyric  fervor.  The  critics 


220  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

were  fond  of  insisting  on  the  purity  of  poetic  genius  required  by 
the  ode,  and  on  the  reasoned  abandon  of  the  lyric  poet.  The 
poets  were  more  capable  of  the  reason  than  of  the  abandon.  La 
Fontaine's  '  lyric '  measures,  —  to  some  extent  an  exception  to 
these  general  statements  (see  Brunetiere's  Manual  of  French  Lit., 
p.  188.  N.Y.:  1898),  —  should  be  examined. 

I.   The  Eighteenth  Century. 

The  chief  aid  is  to  be  found  in  the  various  literary  histories  of  the 
period,  for  which  see  the  Appendix.  A  convenient  anthology  is  Poitevin's 
Petits  poetes  franc,ais  (2  vols.  Paris:  1838).  The  relation  of  the  En- 
cycloptdie  to  literary  movements  is  noted  in  Rocafort's  Les  doctrines 
litte"raires  de  1'Encyclope'die  (Paris :  1 890).  On  the  Salons,  and  their 
influence,  see  Julleville  (vol.  VI,  Chap.  VIII^  Bibliography,  p.  444). 
Sainte-Beuve  has  essays  upon  many  of  the  minor  poets  of  the  century 
(detailed  references  in  Julleville,  vol.  VI,  p.  677).  There  are  monographs 
on  J.-B.  Rousseau  by  Auger  and  by  Amar;  on  Cresset,  by  Cayrol  and 
by  Wogue ;  on  Boufflers,  by  Tascherau ;  on  Rouget  de  Lisle,  by  Tiersot. 
For  works  on  Che"nier,  see  Julleville  (vol.  VI,  p.  678). 

Interests  were  intellectual  rather  than  emotional,  and  the  eclipse 
of  the  lyric  lasted  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  (cf.,  above, 
§  3,  iv,  D).  The  student  may  regard  the  frigid  performances  of 
J.-B.  Rousseau  and  Lebrun,  whom  their  contemporaries  compared 
with  Pindar.  Nothing  better  reveals  the  aesthetic  temper  of  the 
time  than  this  perverted  conception  of  Pindar.  For  emotion, 
literary  emotion  is  substituted ;  and  neither  French  poet  nor  critic 
seems  to  be  aware  of  the  fact.  Is  there  not  in  such  a  circumstance 
a  suggestion  both  of  a  typical  stage  in  the  history  of  the  lyric  and 
of  a  basis  of  classification  for  the  type  ?  Such  a  stage  as  this  is 
found  in  many,  perhaps  all,  of  the  European  literatures.  Is  there 
anything  of  the  kind  in  Greek  lyric  history  ?  in  the  oriental  lyric  ? 

Artificiality  of  subject  and  passion  and  constant  triviality  char- 
acterize the  lyrics  of  Bernard,  Bernis,  Bertin,  Dorat,  Grecourt, 
Gresset,  Parny,  Piron,  etc.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century,  with 
the  song  of  battle  in  Marie-Joseph  Che'nier's  Chanson  du  Depart 
and  Rouget  de  Lisle's  La  Marseillaise  (1792),  the  natural  lyric 
again  emerged.  The  elegies  and  idyls  of  the  greater  Chenier 


VII,  J]  THE  FRENCH   LYRIC  221 

(Andre),  should  be  considered  under  the  types  to  which  they 
belong.  For  a  collection  of  some  of  the  popular  poetry  of  the. 
century,  see  IL  Raunie',  Chansonnier  historique  du  XVIII6  siecle, 
which  has  an  introduction,  commentary,  and  notes  (10  vols.  Paris  : 
1879-84). 

J.   The  Nineteenth  Century. 

The  best  introductions  to  the  absorbingly  interesting  lyric  develop- 
ments of  this  century  will  be  found  in  Brunetiere's  L'Evolution  de  la 
podsie  lyrique  en  France  au  XIXe  siecle  (2  vols.  Paris :  1 894)  and 
G.  Pellissier's  The  Literary  Movement  in  France  during  the  Nineteenth 
Century  (English  trans,  by  A.  C.  Brinton.  N.Y. :  1897;  pp.  150-213, 
339-384).  See  also,  G.  Brandes,  The  Romantic  School  in  France 
(being  vol.  V  of  the  author's  Main  Currents  in  Nineteenth  Century 
Literature.  Eng.  trans.  6  vols.  N.Y. :  1901-05);  and  the  suggestions 
and  references  given  above,  §  3,  iv,  E. 

After  a  few  uncertain  starts  during  the  first  Empire  (Fontanes, 
Chenedolle,  Millevoye,  etc.)  the  lyric,  from  1820  on,  was  fecun- 
dated by  the  subjectivity  and  creative  imagination  of  Romanti- 
cisiru— 3Phe-modern  flowering  of  the  French  lyric  followed.  This 
is  the  period  of  Lamartine,  Vigny,  Hugo,  Musset,  Gautier,  —  the 
period  of  revolt  against  classical  formulae,  magisterial  discipline  of 
the  emotions,  traditional  propriety  of  material  and  type,  ideal  and 
style,  —  the  period  of  democratic  sympathy  and  personal  freedom, 
of  imagination,  romantic  passion,  and  sometimes  sentimentality, 
of  vivid,  colored,  and  wayward  diction,  of  spiritual  yearnings  and 
sweeping  melodies  of  rhythm,  of  metres  novel  and  diversified. 
The  student  should  give  attention  to  the  lyrical  implications  of 
the  romantic  movement  as  a  whole,  —  its  essentially  lyric  genius. 
In  historical  survey  he  will  notice  particularly  the  relations  of  the 
early  romantic  lyric  (that  of  the  troubadours,  and  the  popular  lyric 
of  Villon)  to  the  more  consciously  artistic  lyric  of  the  romantic 
school ;  then  trace  the  process  by  which  the  latter,  opening  with 
the  spontaneity  and  deep  passion  of  Lamartine,  the  dynamic 
originality  of  Vigny,  the  democratic  idealism  and  power  of  Hugo, 
the  self-revealing  effrontery  of  Musset,  the  enthusiasm  of  Gautier, 
passed  through  intellectualism  and  imaginative  reaction  to  the 


222  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

ultra-refinement  and  straining  after  unnatural  effect  of  the  end 
of  the  century.  What  other  influences  —  political,  social,  com- 
mercial, religious,  philosophical  —  contributed  to  the  sophistication 
of  the  imagination,  and  in  what  degree  were  they,  in  their  general 
emotional  effect,  peculiarly  susceptible  of  lyric  expression  ?  This 
field  of  inquiry,  the  consideration  of  which  will  do  much  to  clear 
up  the  nature  of  lyric  development,  includes  a  host  of  subsidiary 
but  fascinating  questions  dealing  with  the  details  of  the  history  of 
the  romantic  school,  —  questions  of  initiative  in  this  and  that  phase 
of  the  movement,  of  derivation  from  this  or  that  author  of  the 
past,  of  international  influences,  of  relation  to  oriental  literatures, 
etc.  Unfortunately,  investigators  frequently  neglect  to  show  the 
relation  of  their  findings  to  the  larger  questions  of  literary  evolu- 
tion. Specific  studies  are  useful  in  themselves,  but  unless  a 
bearing  upon  the  greater  problems  is  established  there  results 
a  gossipy,  or  a  pedantic,  and  Alexandrian  scholarship  against 
which  the  student  must  be  constantly  on  his  guard. 

In  addition  to  the  lyrists  mentioned  above,  Delavigne  also  — 
though  but  a  half-hearted  romantic — should  be  studied.  Beranger 
occupies  a  place  of  his  own. 

From  about  1866  dates  a  classical  reaction  against  the  looseness 
of  form  and  content  that  had  prevailed  among  the  Romanticists. 
Of  the  Parnasse  Contemporain,  which  aimed  at  a  more  rational 
inspiration,  accuracy  of  form,  and  aesthetic  effects  in  style,  Leconte 
de  Lisle  and  Gautier  were  the  precursors ;  and  among  its  poets 
are  Baudelaire,  Banville,  the  Cuban  Jose-Maria  de  Heredia,  and, 
though  not  entirely  devoted  to  the  movement,  Sully  Prudhomme 
and  Coppee. 

Following  upon  the  Parnassiens,  about  1885,  came  the  Sym- 
bolistes  or  Decadents,  —  a  movement  of  dexterous  mysticism 
and  "  sentimental  religiosity,"  too  recent  for  satisfactory  historical 
investigation. 

Editions.  There  are  two  very  convenient  anthologies  of  the  lyrics 
of  the  century :  A.  van  Bever  and  P.  Le"autaud,  Poetes  d'aujourd'hui 
1880-1900  (i 9th  ed.  2  vols.  Paris:  1908);  G.  Walch,  Anthologie  des 


VII,  J]  THE  FRENCH  LYRIC  223 

poetes  frangais  contemporains  1866-1906  (3  vols.  Paris:  1906-07). 
Both  collections  are  provided  with  biographies,  and  with  bibliographical 
notes  by  means  of  which  editions  of  the  poets  of  the  age  are  easily  traced. 
References.  In  dealing  with  the  earlier  part  of  the  century  Sainte- 
Beuve's  Chateaubriand  et  son  groupe  litte"raire  sous  1'Empire  (Paris : 
1860)  will  be  found  intimate  and  stimulating,  but  not  directly  of  much 
aid  to  the  systematic  student.  See  also  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve,  Tableau 
historique  de  la  poe"sie  franc,aise  au  XVIe  siecle  (2d  ed.  2  vols.  1838: 
e"d.  definitive,  Paris:  1876),  Critiques  et  portraits  litteraires  (5  vols. 
1836-39),  Portraits  litteraires  (2  vols.  1844),  Portraits  contemporains 
(3  vols.  1847),  Causeries  du  Lundi  (2d  ed.  15  vols.  i852-62-[8i]), 
Nouveaux  Lundis  (13  vols.  1863-72),  Premiers  Lundis  (3  vols.  ^874- 
75);  De  Lescure,  Chateaubriand  (1892);  A.  Bardoux,  Chateaubriand 
(1893).  E.  Zyromski's  Lamartine,  poete  lyrique  (Paris  :  1897)  derives 
Lamartine's  lyric  genius  from  the  Bible,  Chateaubriand,  Ossian,  Petrarch, 
and  Italy ;  but  the  author  is  content  to  keep  close  to  his  particular 
poet.  Compare  G.  Brandes,  Lyric  Poetry,  Lamartine  and  Hugo  (being 
Chap.  IX  of  vol.  Ill  of  Brandes'  Main  Currents  in  igth  Cent.  Lit.); 
C.  de  Pomairols,  Lamartine,  Etude  de  morale  et  d'esthetique  (Paris : 
1889);  E.  Deschanel,  Lamartine (2  vols.  Paris:  1893);  E.  Rod,  Lamar- 
tine (Paris:  1893);  and  G.  Lanson's  valuable  introduction  and  notes 
to  his  edition  of  the  Meditations  (2  vols.  1916).  Material  on  Hugo's 
lyric  genius  will  be  found  in  E.  Dupuy,  Victor  Hugo  (New  ed.  Paris : 
1890),  and  C.  Renouvier,  Victor  Hugo  (4th  ed.  Paris:  1902);  com- 
pare Swinburne,  Hugo's  Toute  la  Lyre,  in  Studies  in  Prose  and  Verse 
(N.Y.:  1894).  See  also:  E.  Eire",  Victor  Hugo  avant  1830  (Paris: 
1883);  by  the  same,  Victor  Hugo  apres  1830  (Paris  :  1891);  J.  Sarrazin, 
Deutsche  Stimmen  iib.  d.  franz.  Lyrik,  etc.  (in  Franco-Gallta,  II, 
1885);  by  the  same,  Victor  Hugo  und  d.  deutsche  Kritik  (in  Archiv, 
1885);  L.  Mabilleau,  Victor  Hugo  (Paris  :  1893).  P.  de  Musset,  Bio- 
graphie  de  Alfred  de  Musset  (New  ed.  Paris:  1879);  A.  Claveau, 
Alfred  de  Musset;  and  A.  Barine's  Musset  (Paris:  1893).  A.  France, 
Alfred  de  Vigny  (1868);  E.  Tissot,  La  poe"sie  de  Vigny  (1887); 
M.  Pale"ologue,  Alfred  de  Vigny  (Paris:  1891);  Dorison,  Alfred  de 
Vigny:  poete  et  philosophe  (Paris:  1892).  E.  Bergerat,  T4he'ophile 
Gautier  (Paris:  1879);  M.  du  Camp,  Thdophile  Gautier  (Paris:  1890). 
A.  de  Grisy,  Lucilius  et  Bdranger,  etc.  (Nimes,  Paris:  1876);  R.  Giuriani, 
Be'ranger  und  die  deutsche  Lyrik  (Mailand:  1902).  Among  general 
references  may  also  be  consulted :  E.  Montdgut,  Nos  morts  contempo- 
rains (Paris:  1833);  G.  Planche,  Portraits  litte"raires  (Paris:  1836); 
H.  Leuthold,  Einfluss  der  deutschen  Litt.  auf  die  neuere  franz.  Lyrik 


224  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

(in  Suddeutsche  Ztg.,  14,  15.  Oct.  1859);  M.  Spronck,  Les  artistes 
litteraires  (Paris:  1889);  J.  Texte,  W.  Wordsworth  et  la  poe'sie  lakiste 
en  France  (in  Rev.  d.  D.  M.,  15  juillet  1896), — also  in  the  author's 
Etudes  de  litt.  europ.  (Paris :  1 898).  Other  works  on  the  Romanticists 
exist  in  profusion  and  are  not  difficult  of  location  in  any  library  of  fair 
size.  Much  material  will  be  found  in  the  literary  periodicals  of  the 
time.  Scholars  would  be  deeply  indebted  to  any  student  who  would 
compile  a  list,  properly  annotated  and  indexed,  of  the  literary  criticism 
of  the  French  magazines  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

On  the  Symbolistes  the  following  are  of  various  value,  many  of  them 
speaking  ex  parte :  A.  Beaunier,  La  poesie  nouvelle  (Paris:  1902); 
P.  de.  Bouchaud,  Consideration  sur  quelques  ^coles  poetiques  contem- 
poraines  (Paris:  1903)  —  considers  prosody;  R.  de  Gourmont,  Le  livre 
de  masques  :  portraits  symbolistes  (3d  ed.  2  vols.  Paris  :  1 896-98)  — 
appreciative;  J.  Huret,  Enquete  sur  Involution  litteraire  (Paris  :  1894); 
V.  Pica,  Letteratura  d'eccezione  (Milano :  1898);  A.  Symons,  The 
Symbolist  Movement  in  Literature  (Lond. :  1 899 ;  with  bibliography 
of  the  Symbolists);  V.  Thompson,  French  Portraits  (Boston:  1900); 
E.  Vigie'-Lecocq,  La  poesie  contemporaine  1884-1896  (Paris:  1897); 
M.  Wilmotte,  Etudes  critiques  sur  la  tradition  litte"raire  en  France 
(Paris:  1909). 

.  On  contemporary  lyric  poets,  see  T.  de  Visan,  L'attitude  du  lyrisme 
contemporain  (Paris:  1912),  —  notices  of  Francis  Vie'le'-Griffin,  Henri 
de  Regnier,  Emile  Verhaeren,  Maurice  Maeterlinck,  Paul  Fort,  Adrien 
Milhouard,  Robert  de  Souza,  Albert  Mockel,  Maurice  Barres,  Andre" 
Gide,  Novalis,  H.  Bergson. 

On  French  patriotic  poetry,  see  C.  Lenient,  La  poe'sie  patriotique  en 
France  au  moyen  age  (1891),  La  poe'sie  patriotique  en  France  (2  vols. 
1894). 

An  interesting  revival  of  Provencal  poetry  began  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  century  with  Jacques  Jasmin.  See  short  studies  of  his  works  by 
Sainte-Beuve,  Charles  Nodier,  and  Pontmartin.  See  also  the  organ  of 
the  revival,  the  Revue  Fttibre'enne  (Paris:  1885  +).  Mistral's  work 
also  belongs  to  this  revival,  but  it  is  epical  in  nature  :  see  C.  A.  Downer, 
Fre'de'ric  Mistral  (N.Y.,  Columbia  University:  1901);  W.  Sharp,  The 
Modern  Troubadours  (Quart.  Rev.,  1900). 

K.  French  Popular  Poetry.  Since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century  students  have  paid  much  attention  to  French  popular 
verse,  though  the  latter  has  never  affected  the  development  of 
literary  verse  as  the  popular  ballad  affected  English  and  German 

i 


VII,  K]  THE  FRENCH   LYRIC  225 

literary  verse.  A  very  brief  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  study 
is  prefixed  to  Professor  Crane's  Chansons  populaires  de  la  France 
(N.  Y. :  1905).  A  history  of  these  songs  and  ballads  has  been 
written  by  Julien  Tiersot  (Histoire  de  la  chanson  populaire  en 
France.  Paris:  1889).  See  also  W.  Scheffler,  Die  franz.  Volks- 
dichtung  u.  Sage  (2  vols.  Leipz. :  1885);  A.  Thimme,  Zur  Char- 
akteristik  der  franz.  und  deut.  Volkslieder  (in  Rev.  francoallem., 
Ill,  1901);  De  Beaurepaire-Froment,  Bibliog.  d.  chants  pop.  fr. 

There  are  many  collections,  some  of  which  have  already  been  men- 
tioned under  the  various  centuries  considered  above.  The  following 
will  afford  representative  material,  and  the  student  will  find  little  diffi- 
culty in  extending  the  list :  D.  Arbaud,  Chants  populaires  de  la  Provence 
(2  vols.  Aix  :  1 862-64),  and  L.  Lambert,  Chants  et  chansons  populaires 
du  Languedoc  (2  vols.  Paris:  1906);  J.  F.  Blade,  Poesies  populaires 
en  langue  franc.aise  recueillies  dans  1'Armagnac  et  1'Agenais  (Paris : 
1879);  by  the  same,  Poesies  populaires  de  la  Gascogne  (3  vols.  Paris  : 
1881);  J.  Bujeaud,  Chants  et  chansons  populaires  des  provinces  de 
1'ouest  (2  vols.  Niort :  1895);  Champfleury  et  Wekerlin,  Chansons 
populaires  des  provinces  de  France  (Paris:  1860);  H.  Carnoy,  Littera- 
ture  orale  dela  Picardie( Paris  :  1883);  L.  Decombe,  Chansons  populaires 
recueillies  dans  le  de'partement  d'llle-et-Vilaine  (Rennes :  1 884) ;  J.  Fleury, 
Litterature  orale  de  la  Basse-Normandie  (Paris:  1883);  C.  Guillon, 
Chansons  populaires  de  1'Ain  (Paris:  1883);  Ge'rard  du  Nerval,  Chan- 
sons et  ballades  populaires  du  Valois  (1885);  E.  Rolland,  Recueil  de 
chansons  populaires  (5  vols.  Paris:  1883-87);  J.  B.  T. ' Weckerlin, 
L'ancienne  chanson  populaire  en  France  (Paris  :  1887),  Chansons  popu- 
laires du  pays  de  France  (Paris:  1903),  and  other  works;  Doncieux, 
Romance'ro  populaire  de  la  France  (1904),  with  full  bibliography  of 
romance  ballad  poetry ;  and  others  by  Haupt,  Daymard,  Puymaigre, 
Soleville,  Tarbe',  Bujeaud,  Jeanroy,  etc.  The  Chansons  nationales  et 
populaires  de  France  of  Dumersan  and  Noel  Segur  (2  vols.  Paris:  1866) 
gives  a  collection  of  the  chansonniers ,  which  are  songs  mostly  of  bacchic 
revelry.  See  also  Dumersan's  Chants  et  chansons  pop.  de  la  France 
(Paris:  1890?). 

VIII.  The  Italian  Lyric. 

For  general  introduction  to  the  history  of  the  Italian  lyric,  see  the 
principal  histories  of  Italian  literature  mentioned  in  the  Appendix ;  and 
for  bibliography,  the  appropriate  sections  of  the  Notizia  Bibliografica 


226  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

in  F.  Flamini's  Compendio  di  storia  della  letteratura  italiana  (Livorno : 
1914),  pp.  327-392,  and  D' Ancona-Bacci  as  mentioned  below.  There 
is  no  one  work  of  any  size  or  importance  covering  exclusively  the  lyrical 
domain.  Monographs  on  particular  periods  and  movements  are  cited 
at  the  appropriate  places  in  the  following  outline.  Further  references 
may  be  found  in  the  periodical  reviews  of  Italian  literature,  mentioned 
in  the  Appendix.  A  valuable  anthology  of  the  Italian  lyric  from  the 
year  1200  on  is  furnished  in  The  Oxford  Book  of  Italian  Verse  (ed. 
St.  John  Lucas :  Clarendon  Press).  D'  Ancona  and  Bacci's  Manuale 
della  letteratura  italiana  (6  vols.  Firenze :  1 908),  with  its  admirable 
selections  and  exhaustive  bibliographical  notes,  is  indispensable  to  the 
student.  Several  collections  of  the  lyrics  of  the  earlier  centuries  have 
been  made,  such  as :  E.  Monachi,  Chrestomazia  ital.  dei  primi  secoli, 
etc.,  through  the  I3th  century  (Castello  :  1889);  G.  Carducci,  Primavera 
e'  fiore  d.  lirica  ital.  (Firenze:  1903),  and  Ant.  lirica  ital.,  I3th  to  I5th 
centuries  (Firenze:  1907);  Lirica  ital.  antica :  scelta  di  rime  dei  sec. 
XIII-XV,  etc.,  under  the  management  of  Levi  (Firenze:  1905),  and 
from  the  same,  Lirica  ital.  nel  Cinquecento  e  nel  Seicento  (1909);  older 
collections  by  L.  Allaci  (Napoli :  1661),  L.  Valeriani  (Firenze:  1816), 
March,  di  Villarosa  (Palermo:  1817),  F.  Trucchi  (Prato:  1846-47),  and 
Anon.,  Saggio  di  rime  (Firenze:  1825), — all  of  which,  together  with 
the  general  collections  of  Italian  texts,  are  noted  by  Flamini,  pp.  329-330. 
A  list  of  manuscripts  containing  ancient  lyrics  in  the  vernacular  is  com- 
piled in  G.  B.  Festa's  Bibliografia  delle  piu  antiche  rime  volgari  italiane 
(in  Roman.  Forsch.  25  :  2).  For  the  popular  verse  of  the  I3th  and  I4th 
centuries  see  G.  Carducci,  Cantilene  e  ballate,  strambotti  e  madrigali 
dei  sec.  XI*tI  e  XIV  (Pisa:  1871).  The  student  should  also  consult 
the  references  to  Italian  poetics  and  versification  in  Gayley  and  Scott, 
§§  21,  B,  5,  and  24,  B,  8,  and  to  the  historical  development  of  Italian 
theory  of  the  lyric,  §  3,  in  of  this  volume. 

A.  The  Beginnings.  On  the  existence  in  Italy  during  the  Middle 
Ages  of  popular  poetry  in  Latin  see  Rubieri,  Storia  della  poesia 
popolare  italiana  (1877)  and  F.  Novati,  Origini  della  lingua 
(vol.  II  of  Storia  lett.  d'  Italia)  ;  and  compare  other  works  on 
ancient  and  modern  Italian  popular  poetry  by  D' Ancona  (La 
poesia  popolare  italiana,  1878,  1906;  Studi  sulla  letteratura  dei 
primi  secoli,  1884),  O.  Badko»(Das  ital.  Volk  im  Spiegel  seiner 
Volkslieder,  1879),  A.  Bartoli  (I  primi  due  secoli  della  letteratura 
italiana,  1880),  G.  A.  Cesareo  (Le  origini  della  poesia  lirica  in  Italia, 


VIII,  C]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  22/ 

Catania:  1899),  E.  Gorra  (Delle  origin!  della  poesia  lirica  del 
medio  evo,  Torino :  1895),  Novati  (La  canzone  popolare  in 
Francia  e  Italia  nel  piu  alto  medio  evo,  in  Wilmotte's  Melanges. 
Paris:  1909),  F.  D' Ovidio  (Versificazione  ital.  e  arte  poetica 
medievale,  Milano :  1910),  and  C.  Pascal  (Poesia  latina  medie- 
vale,  Catania:  1907;  Letteratura  latina  medievale,  Catania: 
1909).  See  also  Ebert,  vol.  Ill ;  Manitius,  Gesch.  lat.  Litt. 
Mittelalt. ;  and  various  articles  on  neo-latin  medieval  lyrics  in 
the  Studi  Medievali. 

B.  The  TTvelfth  Century.    In  the  twelfth  century  we  find  Latin 
Goliardic  verse,  —  as  above,  v,  E  and   F.     But  this  interesting 
testimony  to  the  happy  sensuousness  of  medievalism  is   Euro- 
pean rather  than  Italian  in  its  scope.    Cipolla's  Catullo  nel  medio 
evo  (in  Archivio  Veneto,  1887)  suggests  another  line  of  research. 

C.  The  Thirteenth  Century. 

On  this  period  as  a  whole  see  G.  Bertoni,  II  Duecento  (in  Storia  lett. 
d'  Italia),  A.  Bartoli,  Primi  due  secoli  della  letteratura  italiana  (Milano : 
1 884).  and  the  various  histories  of  Italian  literature  cited  in  the  Appendix. 
Bertoni  and  Flamini  offer  convenient  bibliographical  aid.  On  the  origin 
of  the  Italian  lyric  see  the  references  given  above,  under  A ;  also 
G.  Bertoni,  Le  origini  della  lirica  italiana  (in  Nuova  antologia,  May  r, 
1910);  E.  Monaci,  Elementi  francesi  nella  piu  antica  lirica  italiana,  in 
Miscellanea  Fedele  (1907);  G.  A.  Cesareo,  Le  origini  della  poesia 
lirica  in  Italia  (Catania :  1 899 ;  cf.  A.  Jeanroy,  in  Romania  29 :  1 28). 
Torraca's  Studi  su  la  lirica  italiana  del  duecento  (Bologna:  1902) 
is  helpful. 

In  the  last  quarter  of  the  i2th  century  Provencal  influence 
had  begun  to  be  felt  in  northern  Italy.  Among  the  Italian  trouba- 
dours who  wrote  in  the  Proven9al  dialect  were  Alberto  Malaspina, 
Rambertino  Buvalelli,  Bonifacio  Calvo,  Lanfranco  Cigala,  Barto- 
lommeo  Zorzi,  and  the  famed  Bordello.  But  it  was  not  until  near 
the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  i3th  century,  at  the  court  of 
Frederick  II  at  Palermo,  that  lyrics  in  Italian  were  produced 
after  the  Proven9al  models,  —  "  the  earliest  undoubted  examples 
of  vernacular  Italian  literature."  Thus  the  native  Sicilian  school 
came  into  prominence :  see  the  troubadour  lyrics  of  Pier  delle 


228  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Vigne,  JacopO  d' Aquino,  Rugieri  Pugliese,  Jacopo  da  Lentino, 
Guido  and  Otto  delle  Colonne,  Arrigo  Testa  d'Arezzo,  etc.  The 
poetry  of  this  school  owes  to  its  imitative  origin  its  mechanical  uni- 
formity and  its  poverty  of  sentiment.  A  comparison  of  the  Sicilian 
lyric  with  Proven9al  poetry  at  its  best  will  reveal  some  of  the  signs 
that  may  uniformly  characterize  the  parasitic  lyric,  if  so  we  may 
name  all  slavishly  imitative  poetry  of  the  kind.  Also  worthy 
of  consideration  is  the  probability  of  the  early  Italian  canzone 
having  been  influenced  by  the  German  Minnelied.  With  the 
fall  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  the  Sicilian  school  came  to 
an  end,  a  little  after  the  middle  of  the  century.  But  its  influ- 
ence had  spread  to  the  north  of  Italy,  where  Dante  of  Majano, 
originator  (?)  of  the  sonnet,  headed  the  school  of  Sicilian  imitators. 
Here,  too,  under  the  hands  of  early  Tuscan  or  Bolognese  poets 
(Folgore  da  San  Gimignano,  Rustico  di  Filippo,  Guittone  d'  Arezzo, 
—  his  later  poems,  —  Guido  Guinizelli,  etc.)  the  lyric  began  to  lose 
something  of  its  courtly  troubadour  qualities,  and  to  take  on  a 
wider  scope  and  significance  as  the  expression  of  republican  insti- 
tutions. Moreover  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century,  the  poetic 
conception  of  love  changed  from  that  of  the  highly  conventional 
Provencal  code  to  a  philosophical  and  mystical  view  of  the  spiritual 
significance  of  the  emotion  :  "  the  noble  heart  cannot  but  love, 
and  love  inflames  and  purifies  its  nobility,  as  the  power  of  the 
Deity  is  transmitted  to  the  heavenly  beings."  With  such  high 
sentiment,  the  origin  of  which  should  be  studied, '  the  Tuscan 
school  of  the  Dolce  Stil  Nuovo  (cf.  Purgatorio,  24:  55-57)  was 
inspired.  By  its  sincerity  of  sentiment  and  naturalness  of  expres- 
sion this  school  elevated  the  Italian  lyric,  producing  for  the  first 
time  in  the  history  of  Italian  literature  a  poetry  of  true  inspiration, 
of  noble  ideas  clothed  in  approximately  perfect  form  :  see  the 
poems  of  Lapo  Gianni  (still  somewhat  Sicilian),  Cavalcanti,  Cino 
da  Pistoia,  Dante  (Vita  Nuova),  Dino  Frescobaldi,  etc.  —  The  reli- 
gious lyric  of  the  century  should  also  be  considered :  the  popular 
lyrico-narrative  poems  of  Giacomino  of  Verona  and  Bonvecino  of 
Riva,  as  well  as  the  Franciscan  poetry  attending  the  Franciscan 


VIII,  C]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  229 

• 

revival,  —  especially  the  laude  of  Jacopone  da  Todi  and  the  poetic 
compositions  attributed  to  St.  Francis  himself.  —  For  a  relic  of 
popular  poetry  see  the  Contrasto  of  Ciullo  d'Alcamo  (or  Cielo 
d'Alcamo,  or  dal  Camo,  or  dal  Carno),  —  a  dispute  between  a 
man  and  a  woman,  belonging  to  the  time  of  Frederick  II.  This 
poem  is  by  its  originality,  vigor,  and  occasional  coarseness  not 
only  characteristically  '  popular,'  but  the  very  opposite  of  the 
conventional  Sicilian  lyric. 

References.  On  Provenqal  influence  see,  as  a  brief  introduction, 
Chap.  IV  of  Grandgent's  Dante  (1916),  Medieval  Song;  Chap.  VII  of 
Chaytor's  The  Troubadours  ;  for  extended  treatment,  La  poesie  franchise 
en  Italie,  in,Jeanroy's  Origines  (pp.  cit.  supra,  §  5);  Jeanroy,  La  poesia 
francese  in  Italia  nel  periodo  delle  origini  (Firenze:  1897.  In  Bibl. 
critica  d.  lett.  ital.,  No.  1 8) ;  C.  de  Lollis,  Vita  e  poesia  di  Sordello 
(Halle:  1896);  H.  J.  Chaytor,  The  Troubadours  of  Dante  (Oxford: 
1902);  G.  Bertoni,  I  trovatori  minori  di  Genova  (Dresden:  1903, 
cf.  Giorn.  stor.,  47:  331-348);  E.  Levi,  Cantilene  e  ballate  dei  sec. 
13  e  14,  etc.  (Torino:  1913;  Romania  43:  271);  A.  Thomas,  Fran- 
cesco da  Barberino  et  la  litt.  provengale  en  Italie  au  moyen  age  (Paris : 
1883);  O.  Schultz,  Die  Lebensverhaltnisse  der  italienischen  Trobadors 
(Berlin:  1883);  Torraca,  Federico  II.  e  la  poesia  provenzale  (inJVu0va 
antologia,  May  15,  1895),  and  Studi  su  la  lirica  ital.  del  duecento 
(Bologna :  1902  ;  cf.  Giorn.  star.,  42  :  161  ff.);  Zingarelli,  Intorno  a  due 
trovatori  in  Italia  (Firenze:  1899). —  The  history  of  the  Sicilian  lyric 
has  received  much  attention.  See  F.  Flamini,  La  lirica  toscana  del  rinasci- 
mento  anteriore  ai  tempi  del  Magnifico  (Pisa:  1891),  —  with  exhaustive 
bibliography,  pp.  618-672;  Bertoni  (cited  above);  G.  A.  Cesareo,  La 
poesia  siciliana  sotto  gli  Svevi  (Catania:  1894),  and  Le  orig.  d.  lirica, 
cited  above;  S.  Friedmann,  Die  sizilianische  Dichterschule ( 1878;  trans- 
lated into  Italian,  La  scuola  poetica  siciliana  del  secolo  XIII,  by  A.  Gas- 
pary.  Livorno:  1882);  O.  de  Hassek,  La  lirica  italiana  nel  XIII  secolo 
(Trieste:  1875);  E.  Monaci,  Per  la  storia  della  scuola  poetica  siciliana, 
I-V  (Rendiconti  della  R.  Accad.  dei  Lincei,  V,  2,  6.  Rome :  1 896) ; 
F.  Scandone,  Appunti  biografici  su  due  rimatori  della  scuola  siciliana,  etc. 
(Napoli:  1897);  by  the  same,  Ricerche  novissime  sulla  scuola  siciliana 
(Ferrara:  1900);  A.  Zenatti,  La  scuola  poetica  siciliana  del  secolo  XIII 
(Messina :  1 894),  and  Arrigo  Testa  e  i  primordi  della  lirica  ital.  (whicli 
is  No.  4  in  the  series  of  monographs,  Biblioteca  crit.  della  lett.  ital., 
edited  by  F.  Torraca).  Much  information  is  contained  in  E.  F.  Langley's 


230  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

• 

critical  edition  of  the  poems  of  Giacomo  da  Lentino  (Harvard  Univ. 
Press).  —  On  Guitone  d'  Arezzo,  see  the  works,  ed.  F.  Pellegrini 
(Bologna:  1901  ;  cf.  Giorn.  stor.,  41  :  354-64),  and  A.  Pellizzari's  La 
vita  e  le  operi  di  G.  d'  A.  (Pisa :  1906 ;  cf.  Giorn.  star.,  53  :  346).  On 
Guinizelli,  see  G.  Salvadori  in  Rassegnauazion.,  1892;  A.  Bongioanni, 
Guido  Guinizelli  e  la  sua  riforma  poetica  (in  Giornale  dantesco,  \  896) ; 
his  poems  are  in  T.  Casini's  Rime  dei  poeti  bolognesi  del  sec.  XIII 
(Bologna:  1881). 

The  origin  of  the  sonnet  has  been  attributed  to  Provencal  poets, 
to  Pier  delle  Vigne  (see  Symonds,  Ital.  Lit.),  to  the  notary,  Giacomo 
da  Lentini  (Grandgent,  Dante,  pp.  131-2),  to  Fra  Guittone  (see 
S.  Waddington),  and  to-  Dante  of  Majano.  See  L.  Biadene,  Morfo- 
logia  del  sonetto  ital.  (in  Monad's  Studi  di  filol.  romanza,  vol.  IV) ; 
R.  Bunge,  Zur  Gesch.  des  italienischen  Sonetts  (in  Magazin  f.  d.  Litt. 
d.  In-  und  Auslandes,  1884:  537,  554,  566,  582);  and  other  references 
noted  in  Vollmoller's  Jahresfericht,  IV,  ii,  242-243.  For  a  strange  use 
of  the  sonnet,  see  F.  Castets,  "  II  Fiore,"  poeme  italien  du  XIIIe  siecle, 
en  232  sonnets,  imite'  du  "Roman  de  la  Rose"  (Montpellier :  1881): 
cf.  E.  Percopo,  II  Fiore  e  di  Rustico  di  Filippo?  (in  Rassegna  critica 
della  left,  italiana,  1 2 :  49-59,  with  further  bibliog.  p.  5 1 ,  note  2). 

To  Dante's  lyrical  poetry  in  the  Vita  Nuova  and  the  Canzoniere  a 
summary  but  excellent  introduction  is  furnished  by  E.  G.  Gardner's 
Dante  (The  Temple  Primers,  Lond. :  1900);  a  more  comprehensive 
criticism  will  be  found  in  F.  J.  SnelPs  Handbook  to  Dante's  Works 
(Lond.:  1909).  In  Gardner,  a  Bibliographical  Appendix  lists  the  more 
important  editions  and  English  translations,  and  some  useful  critical  trea- 
tises. The  student  will  find  Kannegiesser  and  Witte,  Dante  Alighieri's 
lyrische  Gedichte  (2  vols.  Leipz. :  1842)  and  Carducci's  article  on  the 
Canzoniere  (in  Studi  Letterari)  of  particular  service.  E.  G.  Gardner's 
Dante's  Lyrical  Poetry  is  announced  as  in  preparation.  On  Dante's 
relation  to  the  Minnesingers  see  F.  Sander,  Dante  als  Minnesinger  (in 
Archiv  f.  Littgesch.,  6 :  449.  1877),  and  later  monographs.  —  On  other 
poets  of  the  School  of  the  Dolce  Stil  Niiovo,  see :  I.  M.  Angeloni,  Dino 
Frescobaldi  e  le  sue  rime  (Torino :  1 907) :  cf.  E.  Rivalta,  Liriche  del 
"  dolce  stil  novo"  (Venezia:  1906),  pp.  63-91,  —  a  most  convenient 
collection  in  one  volume  of  the  poetry  of  the  '  dolce  stil ' ;  L.  Azzolina, 
II  dolce' stil  novo  (Palermo:  1903);  G.  Bertoni,  II  dolce  stil  nuovo  (in 
Studi  medievali  2:  352.  1906-07);  E.  Bindi  and  P.  Fanfani,  Le  rime 
di  Messer  Cino  da  Pistoia  (Pistoia:  1878);  V.  Cian,  I  contatti  letter, 
italo-provenzali  e  la  prima  rivoluz.  poetica  d.  lett.  ital.  (Messina:  1900); 
C.  de  Lollis,  Dolce  stil  nuovo,  etc.  (in  Studi  medievali,  i  :  5.  1904-05); 
P.  Ercole,  G.  Cavalcanti  e  le  sue  rime  (Livorno:  1885);  F.  Flamini, 


VIII,  C]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  231 

Dante  e  lo  stil  nuovo  (in  Rivista  d''  Italia,  June  15,  1900);  G.  Lega, 
II  cosi  detto  "  Trattato  della  Maniera  di  Servire "  (in  Giorn.  stor., 
vol.  48),  with  which  cf.  G.  Bertoni,  Una  raccolta  di  sonetti  del  secolo 
XIII  (in  Fanfulla  della  domenica,  XXX,  i);  G.  Salvadori,  II  problema 
storico  dello  stil  nuovo  (in  Nuova  antologia,  Series  IV,  vol.  LXV, 
1 896),  and  La  poesia  giovanile  e  la  canz.  d'  amore  di  G.  Cavalcanti 
(Roma:  1895);  P.  Savi-Lopez,  II  dolce  stil  nuovo,  in  his  Trovatori  e 
poeti  (Palermo:  1906);  K.  Vossler,  Die  philosophischen  Grundlagen 
zum  siissen  neuen  Stil  des  Guido  Guinicelli,  Guido  Cavalcanti,  und 
Dante  Alighieri  (Heidelberg.:  1904),  —  an  attempt  to  connect  the  dolce 
stil  nuovo  of  the  Italian  lyric  with  contemporary  philosophy.  With  this 
last  compare  J.  A.  Symonds  on  the  idea  of  love  in  Plato's  Dialogues  and 
in  Dante's  Vita  Nuova,  lyrics,  and  Divina  Commedia  (in  Cont.  Rev., 
Sept.  1890). 

The  most  illuminating  work  upon  the  religious  lyric  is  Frederic 
Ozanam's  famous  essay,  now  translated  into  English  (The  Franciscan 
Poets  in  Italy  of  the  I3th  Century.  Scribner's),  concerning  which  the 
following  may  be  quoted  from  the  introduction  to  the  English  transla- 
tion :  "  No  other  book  reproduces  so  sincerely  and 'truly  the  spirit  of  the 
Franciscan  movement,  with  all  the  glow  of  its  religious  ecstasy  and  all 
the  charm  of  its  innocent  simplicity ;  no  other  book  expounds  so  clearly 
the  gradual  evolution  of  that  spirit,  or  testifies  so  convincingly  to  its 
influence  on  all  aspects  of  human  life  and  art.  He  shows  it  to  us  as 
a  stream  issuing  from  the  bed-rock  of  religion,  in  the  sacred  art  of  the 
primitive  Christian  Church,  and  flowing  on  in. a  steadily  widening  channel 
through  the  earliest  beginnings  of  that  literature  which  was  to  have  a 
universal  appeal  and  gain  a  lasting  hold  on  the  mind  of  the  poor  and 
unlettered,  no  less  than  on  that  of  the  rich  and  cultured."  See  also 
A.  d'Ancona,  Jacopone  da  Todi  (in  the  author's  Studi  sulla  letteratura 
italiana dei  primi secoli,  1 884);  G.  Chiarini,-La lirica religiosanelP Umbria: 
Francesco  d'Assisi  e  Jacopone  da  Todi  (Ascoli :  1888);  A.  Tenneroni, 
Inizii  di  antiche  poesie  italiane  religiose  e  morali  con  prospetto  dei  condici 
che  le  contengono  e  introduzione  alle  laudi  spirituali  (Firenze :  1909),  — 
cf.  A.  Feist,  Mitteilungen  aus  alteren  Sammlungen  italienischer  geist- 
licher  Lieder  (in  Zeitschr.f.  roman.  Phil.,  13  :  1 15  ff.  1889).  Further 
references  in  Flamini,  pp.  335-336,  and  Bertoni  (Duecento),  pp.  275- 
277. —  For  the  humorous  lyric,  see  A.  F.  Massera,  Cecco  Angioleri, 
I  sonetti,  etc.  (Bologna:  1906),  —  cf.  A.  Momigliano,  L'anima  e  1'arte 
di  C.  Angioleri  (in  Italia  Afodema,  4:  678-684). —  Qn.  popular  poetry, 
see  the  references  given  above,  under  A.  On  Ciullo  d'Alcamo  much 
has  been  written :  see  D'  Ancona,  Studi  sulla  lett.  ital.  dei  primi  secoli 
(Ancona:  1884),  p.  241  ff. 


232  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Editions  and  Translations.  For  a  list  of  anthologies  covering  the 
earlier  centuries,  see  above,  the  first  paragraph  under  this  division  (vm); 
for  the  popular  lyric  see  Carducci's  Intorno  ad  alcune  rime  dei  secoli 
XIII  e  XIV,  etc.  (in  Opere,  18:  107-282),  and  his  Cantilene  e  ballate, 
strambotti  e  madrigali  dei  secoli  XIII  e  XIV  (Pisa:  1871).  Of  standard 
editions  of  Dante  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  E.  Moore,  Tutte  le 
Opere  (The  Oxford  Dante,  1894  and  1897) ;  Fraticelli,  the  Opere  Minori 
(vol.  I,  Canzonieri  and  Eclogues;  vol.  II,  Vita  Nuova);  G.  B.  Giuliani, 
Vita  Nuova  and  Canzonieri ;  of  English  translations,  the  Vita  Nuova 
by  D.  G.  Rossetti  (in  Dante  and  his  Circle;  and  reprinted,  Portland, 
Maine:  1896),  and  by  C.  E.  Norton  (Lond. :  1893);  of  the  Canzonieri, 
by  C.  Lyell  (Dante's  Lyrical  Poems,  London :  1 845),  and  by  Plumptre 
(Commedia  and  Canzoniere,  vol.  II,  Lond.:  1892).  Further  references 
to  texts  of  Dante  and  other  poets  of  the  period  may  be  found  in  Flamini 
and  Bertoni.^  The  most  famous  English  translations  of  the  lyrics  of  this 
age  are  by  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  —  The  Early  Italian  Poets  (ist  ed. 
1 86 1  ;  see  Temple  Classics). 

D.   The  Fourteenth  Century. 

Volpi's  Trecento,  in  the  Storia  letteraria  d'  Italia  series,  is  the  best 
introduction  to  this  period. 

The  study  of  the  Renaissance  lyric  will  naturally  begin  with 
an  examination  of  the  genius,  literary  derivations,  and  inventions 
of  Petrarch,  —  "  the  first  lyric  poet  of  the  modern  school "  and 
the  master-lyrist  of  his  time.  His  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  the  type  is  paramount  for  three  centuries  not  only  in 
Italy  but  in  France,  England,  and  other  European  countries. 
Professor  Oelsner  has  indicated  the  modernity  of  Petrarch's 
realistic,  personal  lyrics,  and  their  contrast  with  the  conventional 
troubadour  love-poems  and  the  metaphorical,  transcendental  lyrics 
of  Dante's  circle,  as  follows  : 

The  one  and  only  subject  of  these  poems  is  love ;  but  the  treatment 
is  full  of  variety  in  conception,  in  imagery  and  in  sentiment,  derived 
from  the  most  varied  impressions  of  nature.  Petrarch's  love  is  real 
and  deep,  and  to  this  is  due  the  merit  of  his  lyric  verse,  which  is  quite 
different,  not  only  from  that  of  the  Provencal  troubadours  and  of  the 
Italian  poets  before  him,  but  also  from  the  lyrics  of  Dante.  Petrarch 
is  a  psychological  poet,  who  dives  down  into  his  own  soul,  examines  all 
his  feelings,  and  knows  how  to  render  them  with  an  art  of  exquisite 


VIII,  D]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  233 

sweetness.  The  lyrics  of  Petrarch  are  no  longer  transcendental  like 
Dante's,  but  on  the  contrary  keep  entirely  within  human  limits.  In 
struggles,  in  doubts,  in  fears,  in  disappointments,  in  griefs,  in  joys, 
in  fact  in  everything,  the  poet  finds  material  for  his  poetry  (Art.,  Italian 
Lit.,  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.). 

Are  these  traits  original  with  Petrarch,  furnishing  an  example  of 
that  originative  variation  in  literary  development  that  is  due  to  the 
mystery  of  genius  ?  Did  Petrarch  in  giving  expression  to  these 
qualities  become  the  mouthpiece  of  his  age?  Can  careful  exami- 
nation show  a  closer  union  with  his  forerunners  than  is  suggested 
by  Professor  Oelsner  ?  Note  also  Petrarch's  devotion  to  the  file, 
by  which  he  anticipates  the  stylistic  formalism  of  the  next  cen- 
tury, and  the  interesting  fact  that  in  the  technique  of  verse  he 
is  by  no  means  an  innovator.  He  was  a  pioneer,  however,  in 
the  use  of  the  madrigal.  —  Some  of  the  minor  poets  worthy  of 
attention  are  Fazio  degli  Uberti,  Burchiello,  Giovanni  Fiorentino, 
Franco  Sacchetti,  and  others  as  in  references  below.  The  Dolce 
Stil  Nuovo  was  continued  by  Sennucio  Del  Bene,  Graziolo 
de'  Bambagliuoli,  Bindo  Bonichi,  and  Matteo  Frescobaldi ;  the 
popular  lyric  by  Antonio  Pucci ;  the  laude  by  Bianco  da  Siena 
and  many  others. 

Editions  and  References.  For  references  on  Petrarch,  see  Ferrazi's 
Bibliografia  petrarchesca  (Bassano :  1877),  continued  by  E.  Calvi,  Bib- 
liografia  analitica  petrarchesca  1877-1904  (Roma:  1904);  L.  Suttina, 
Bibliografia  delle  opere  a  stampa  intorno  a  Francesco  Petrarca,  etc. 
(Trieste  :  1908) ;  also,  W.  Fiske,  A  Catalogue  of  Petrarch  Books  (Ithaca, 
N.Y. :  1892).  The  authoritative  edition  of  the  poet's  lyrics  is  that  of 
G.  Mestica,  Rime  di  Petrarca  (Firenze  :  1896).  L'eopardi's  commentary 
is  the  best  thing  of  its  kind.  Of  biographical  and  critical  works  the 
following  may  be  mentioned  as  easily  accessible  and  useful :  G.  Finzi, 
Petrarca  (Firenze:  1900);  Ugo  Foscolo,  Ess.ays  on  Petrarch  (Lond. : 
1823);  H.  C.  Hollway-Calthrop,  Petrarch.  His  Life  and  Times  (N.Y.: 
1907);  M.  F.  Jerrold,  Francesco  Petrarca  (Lond. :  1909);  G.  Koerting, 
Petrarcas  Leben  und  Werke  (Leipz. :  1878);  A.  Me'zieres,  Pe"trarque 
(New  ed.  Paris:  1895);  Pierre  de  Nolhac,  Pe"trarque  et  1'humanisme 
(New  ed.  2  vols.  Paris :  1 907 ;  adapted  in  English  under  the  title 
Petrarch  and  the  Ancient  World.  Boston:  1907),  —  a  very  valuable 
and  readable  book ;  C.  M.  Phillimore,  Studies  in  Italian  Literature 


234  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

(Lond. :  1891);  A.  Piumati,  La  vita  e  le  opere  di  F.  Petrarca  (Torino : 
1885);  J.  H.  Robinson  and  H.  W.  Rolfe,  Petrarch,  the  First  Modern 
Scholar  and  Man  of  Letters  (N.Y.:  1898;  2d  ed.  1914);  De  Sanctis, 
Petrarca  e  la  critica  francese  (in  N.  antol.,  IX,  1868);  by  the  same, 
Saggio  critico  sul  Petrarca  (New  ed.  Napoli :  1907);  P.  Savj-Lopez, 
Ueber  die  provenzalischen  Quellen  der  Lyrik  Petrarcas  (in  Beilage  zur 
(Augsburger}  Munchener  Allgem.  Zeitg.,  283,  1901);  N.  Scarano, 
Fond  provenzali  e  italiani  della  lirica  petrarchesca  (in  Studi  d.  fil. 
romanza,  vol.  VIII, pp.  250-360);  C.  Segre,  Studi  petrarcheschi(Firenze : 
1903) ;  F.  J.  Snell,  The  Fourteenth  Century  (N.  Y. :  1 899),  pp.  1 48-1 5 1 , 
on  Petrarch's  indebtedness  to  his  predecessors ;  C.  Tomlinson  (see  above, 
§  2) ;  G.  Voigt,  Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alterthums  (2d  ed. 
2  vols.  Berlin:  1 880-81:  see  Bk.  i);  A.  Zingerle,  Petrarcas  Verhalt- 
niss  zu  den  romischen  Dichtern  (Progr.  Innsbruck:  1870);  I.  Zocco, 
Petrarchisme  e  Petrarchisti  in  I nghilterra( Palermo:  1906);  B.  Zumbini, 
Studi  sul  Petrarca  (Napoli :  1 878),  one  of  the  best  critical  essays.  Among 
the  many  histories  of  Italian  literature,  that  by  Garnett  (Chap.  VI)  is 
especially  commendable  in  its  treatment  of  Petrarch.  For  a  translation 
of  some  of  the  songs,  see  W.  D.  Foulke,  Some  Love  Songs  of  Petrarch 
(Lond.:  1915). 

The  best  aid  to  the  study  of  the  minor  poets  of  the  time  is  found  in 
the  histories  of  the  literature  of  the  period  and  in  special  articles  in  the 
periodicals.  See  G.  Bertoni  e  E.  P.  Vicini,  Poeti  modenesi  dei  secoli 
XIV-XV  (Modena:  1906);  by  the  same,  Sonetti  di  Pietro  della  Rocca 
e  Francesco  Vanozzo  (Modena:  1907);  F.  Flamini,  Gl'imitatori  della 
lirica  di  Dante  e  del  dolce  stil  nuovo  (in  the  author's  Studi  di  storia 
letteraria  e  straniera.  Livorno:  1895);  R.  Fornaciari,  on  Sacchetti  (in 
Nuova  antologia,  vol.  XV),  and  on  Pucci  and  popular  poetry  (in  the 
same,  Serie  II,  vol.  I,  1876);  E.  Levi,  F.  Vanozzo  e  la  lirica  nelle  corti 
lombarde  durante  la  seconda  meta  del  sec.  XIV  (Firenze:  1908);  on 
this  work,  see  R.  Renier,  II  Vanozzo  (in  Fanfulla  della  domenica,  30:  3), 
and  E.  Percopo's  review  (in  Rassegna  crit.  della  lett.  ital.,  16 :  57-77); 
R.  Renier,  Liriche  edite  ed  inedite  di  Fazio  degli  Uberti.( Firenze :  1883 ; 
see  the  introduction);  C.  Segre,  Carmi  latini  inediti  del  secolo  XIV 
intorno  alia  guerra  di  Ferrara  del  1309  (in  Nuovo  archi-vio  veneto,  N.  70); 
G.  Volpi,  Rime  di  trecentisti  minori  (Firenze:  1907);  C.  E.  Whitmore, 
Fazio  degli  Uberti  as  a  Lyric  Poet  (in  Romanic  Rev.  5  :  350.  1914). 

On  the  popular  lyric,  see  the  reference  under  Fornaciari,  above,  and 
the  references  given  above  under 'A,  The  Beginnings.  On  bucolic  poetry, 
see  F.  Macri- Leone,  La  bucolica  latina  nella  letteratura  italiana  del  secolo 
XIV  (Torino  :  1889).  —  Other  refs.  in  Flamini's  Compend.,  pp.  345-348. 


VIII,  E]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  235 

E.   The  Fifteenth  Century. 

A  convenient  guide  to  the  lyric  of  this  century  is  furnished  by 
V.  Pitni-Piraino's  La  lirica  italiana  nel  secolo  XV  (Palermo:  1886). 
See  also  F.  Flamini,  La  lirica  toscana  del  rinascimento  anteriore  ai 
tempi  del  Magnifico  (Pisa:  1891),  which  contains  a  bibliographical 
appendix;  P.  Monnier,  Le  Quattrocento  (Paris:  1891);  V.  Rossi,  II 
Quattrocento  (Milano :  1 897  ;  contains  bibliographical  notes  that  should 
be  consulted) ;  and  other  histories  mentioned  in  the  appendix.  Excellent 
material  is  contained  in  an  anthology  by  Carducci  (La  poesia  barbara  nei 
secoli  XV  e  XVI,  Bologna:  1881);  E.  Costa's  Antologia  della  lirica 
latina  in  Italia  nei  secoli  XV  e  XVI  (Citta  di  Castello:  1888)  has  a 
valuable  introduction. 

The  lyrists  of  the  period  lack  the  romantic  fervor  of  Petrarch. 
Coleridge  wrote  of  the  Italian  poets  of  this  and  the  next  century : 

They  placed  the  essence  of  poetry  in  the  art.  The  excellence  at 
which  they  aimed  consisted  in  the  exquisite  polish  of  the  diction  com- 
bined with  the  avoidance  of  every  word  which  a  gentleman  would  not 
use  in  dignified  conversation,  and  of  every  word  and  phrase  which  none 
but  a  learned  man  could  use. 

Much  attention  was  paid  to  elegance  and  finish  of  artistry  by 
Politian  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici.  Both  these  poets  turned  the 
materials  of  nature,  literary  tradition,  and  popular  poetry  into 
lyric  form.  In  the  production  of  popular  songs  they  were  assisted 
and  followed,  during  this  century  and  the  next,  by  Giuggiola,  Otto- 
naio,  Jacopo  Nardi,  Cardinal  di  Bibbiena,  Machiavelli,  Acciaiuoli, 
Antonio  Alamanni,  and  others.  These  popular  songs,  or  Canti 
carnas  dales  chi,  represent  a  most  interesting  lyric  development, 
analogues  of  which  may  be  searched  for  in  other  literatures, 
both  European  and  oriental.  They  are  described  as  follows : 

These  were  a  kind  of  choral  songs,  which  were  accompanied  with 
symbolical  masquerades,  common  in  Florence  at  the  carnival.  They 
were  written  in  a  metre  like  that  of  the  ballate ;  and  for  the  most  part 
they  were  put  into  the  mouth  of  a  party  of  workmen  and  tradesmen, 
who,  with  not  very  chaste  allusions,  sang  the  praises  of  their  art.  These 
triumphs  and  masquerades  were  directed  by  Lorenzo  himself.  At  even- 
tide there  set  out  into  the  city  large  companies  on  horseback,  playing 
and  singing  these  songs. 


236  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

In  this  century,  too,  belong  the  Rime  of  Boiardo,  the  Sonetti  and 
Beca  di  Dicomano  of  Luigi  Pulci  (his  Morgante,  also,  enshrines 
many  a  lyrical  gem),  and  the  later  part  of  the  work  of  Giusto  de' 
Conti  and  Burchiello.  —  Religious  poetry  is  represented  by  the 
Laude  of  Feo  Belcari  and  the  sacred  poems  of  Savonarola  and 
Benivieni.  Much  of  lyrical  worth  may  also  be  found  in  the  miracle 
plays  of  the  century,  the  Rappresentazioni. 

Texts.  Editions  of  the  various  authors  can  easily  be  found.  A 
standard  collection  of  canzoni  popolari  was  Lasca's  Raccolta  di  Trionfi 
.  .  .  e  Canti  Carnascialeschi  dal  tempo  di  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  (Firenze : 
1559),  —  reissued  with  additions  (Lucca:  1750).  An  evidently  interest- 
ing volume  of  religious  lyrics,  Canzonette  Spirituali,  written  to  popular 
airs  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  mentioned  by  Luigi  Settembrini  (Lezioni 
di  letteratura  italiana,  3  vols.,  Napoli:  1894, — vol.  I,  pp.  301-305).  Most 
of  these  Laudi  Spirituali  are  by  Feo  Belcari.  To  them  are  appended 
poems  in  ottava  rima  upon  the  Passion,  Resurrection,  etc.,  by  Bernardo 
Pulci  and  others.  Some  of  the  Rappresentazioni  were  published  as 
Rime  Sacre  del  Magnifico  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  il  vecchio  .  .  .  e  d'  altri 
della  stessa  famiglia,  .  .  .  corredate  per  Francesco  Cionacci  (2d  ed. 
Bergamo:  1760).  Others  entitled  Rappresentazioni  di  Feo  Belcari 
were  published  in  Florence,  1833. 

References.  References  may  be  found  in  Rossi.  To  those  in  Flamini's 
Compendio,  pp.  348-353,  the  following  may  be  added:  A.  Belloni,  Un 
lirico  (G.  F.  Suardi)  del  quattrocento  a  torto  inedito  e  dimenticato  (in 
Giorn.  storico  della  left,  ital.,  vol.  51);  N.  Campanini  (Ed.),  Studi  su 
M.  M.  Boiardo  (Bologna:  1894),  which  contains  an  essay  on  Boiardo's 
lyrics ;  A.  Cinquini,  Rime  edite  ed  inedite  di  ser  Benedetto  de'  Biffoli 
rimatore  del  secolo  XV  (in  Bullettino  storico  pistoiese,  X) ;  G.  Fabris, 
Sonetti  villaneschi  di  Giorgio  Sommariva  poeta  Veronese  del  secolo 
XV  (Udine:  1907);  L.  Frati,  Rimatori  bolognesi  del  quattrocento 
(Bologna :  1 908). 

F.   The  Sixteenth  Century. 

F.  Flamini's  II  Cinquecento  is  indispensable ;  its  bibliographical  notes 
furnish  the  student  with  copious  apparatus.  Further  helps  are  :  M.  Fieri, 
Le  Pdtrarquisme  au  XVIe  siecle  (Marseilles:  1895);  L.  Carrer,  I 
Petrarchisti,  in  the  2d  vol.  of  the  author's  Prose  (Firenze:  1855); 
E.  Levi,  Lirica  italiana  nel  cinquecento  e  del  seicento  fino  all'  Arcadia 
(Firenze :  1 908) :  compare  A.  Fantozzi,  Lirica  italiana  del  cinquecento 
e  nel  seicento  (in  Fanfulla  della  domenica,  31:  3) ;  G.  Mazzoni,  La 


VIII,  F]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  237 

lirica  nel  cinquecento  (in  the  author's  Glorie  e  memorie  dell'  arte,  etc. 
Firenze :  1905).  For  a  small  but  convenient  anthology,  see  Lirici  del 
secolo  XVI  (Milano :  1879).  Carducci's  anthology  has  already  been 
mentioned  above,  under  E. 

This  is  the  age  of  the  Petrarchan  Revival.  The  lyrists,  good 
and  bad,  took  the  master  of  the  fourteenth  century  as  their 
model.  With  one  or  two  exceptions  their  array  of  sonnets  and 
canzoni  lacks  passion  and  inspiration ;  the  execution  is  frequently 
graceful  but  with  the  grace  of  frigidity.  The  exceptions  are  to 
be  found  in  a  few  of  Michelangelo's  sonnets,  those  dealing  with 
ideal  beauty  and  with  the  love  of  Florence ;  in  the  sonnets,  espe- 
cially those  that  sing  his  patriotism,  of  Giovanni  Guidiccioni ;  and 
in  the  spontaneous  and  pathetic  verses  which  record  the  hopeless 
love  of  Gaspara  Stampa.  Among  the  other  writers  of  this  school 
may  be  mentioned  Bembo,  Caro,  Giovanni  della  Casa,  Vittoria 
Colonna,  Angelo  di  Costanzo,  Francesco  Molza,  and  Tansillo. 
The  lyrical  compositions  of  Ariosto,  also,  though  not  of  high 
merit  call  for  attention,  and  those  of  Bernardo  Tasso.  Of  more 
especial  importance  are  the  lyrical  quality  of  Torquato  Tasso's 
pastoral  drama,  Aminta,  of  his  heroic  romance,  the  Gerusalemme 
Liberata,  his  odes,  and  his  "  Coronal"  of  sonnets,  —  and  the  lyrical 
art  and  spirit  of  Guarini's  Pastor  Fido. 

References.  General  introductions  and  aid  of  a  more  particular  nature 
will  be  found  in  the  following :  D.  Alaleona,  Le  laudi  spiritual!  italiane 
nei  secoli  XVI  e  XVII  e  il  loro  rapporto  coi  canti  profani  (in  Rivista 
musicale  italiana,  16:  i);  A.  Borzelli,  Una  poetessa  italiana  del  secolo 
XVI,  Gaspara  Stampa,  1523-53  (Napoli :  1888);  N.  de  Sanctis,  La 
lirica  amorosa  di  Michelangelo  Buonarroti  (Palermo:  1898);  L.  Ferrai, 
L.  de'  Medici  e  la  societk  cortigiana  del  cinquecento,  etc.  (Milano  :  1891) ; 
S.  Ferrari,  Di  alcune  imitazioni  delle  Anacreontiche  in  Italia  nel  sec. 
XVI  (in  Giorn.  ligust.  20,  1890);  F.  Fiorentino,  Poesie  liriche  .  .  .  di 
L.  Tansillo,  etc.  (Napoli:  1882);  F.  Flamini,  Per  la  storia  della  lirica 
ital.  dal  Poliziano  al  Bembo,  in  the  author's  Spigolature  di  erudizione 
e  di  critica ;  by  the  same,  Sulle  poesie  del  Tansillo,  etc.  (Pisa :  1 888), 
L'egloga  e  i  poemetti  di  Luigi  Tansillo  (Napoli:  1893),  and  Studi  di 
storia  letteraria  italiana  e  straniera  (Livorno:  1895);  D.  Gnoli,  Vec- 
chie  odi  barbare  e  traduzioni  di  Orazio  (in  N.  antol.,  Dec.  15,  1878); 


238  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

A.  Graf,  Attraverso  il  Cinquecento  (Torino:    1888);   V.  Laurenza,  II 
canzonieri  di  L.  Tansillo  (Malta:   1908);  R.  Mazzone,  Vittoria  Colonna 
'.   .   .  e  il    suo   canzoniere  (Marsala:    1897);    A.   Morpurgo,    Vittoria 
Colonna  (Trieste :   1888);  E.  Percopo,  Madrigalisti  napoletani  anteriori 
al  MDXXXVI  (Napoli:    1887);  by  the  same,  Rime  inedite  di  Matteo 
Bandello  (in  Rassegna  critica  delta  lett.  italiana,  1 3 :  49-60) ;  F.  Pintor, 
Delle  liriche  di  T.  Tasso  (Pisa:    1899);    M.  Rossi,  Saggio  sui  tratti 
d' amore  del  Cinquecento  ( 1 889) ;  O.  Ferrini,  Saggio  sulle  rime  amorose 
di  T.  Tasso  (Perugia:  1886);  A.  Solerti,  Le  liriche  amorose  di  T.  Tasso 
(in  Nuova  antol.,  S.  Ill,  vol.  40);   A.  Sorrentino,  Delia  lirica  enco- 
miastica  di  T.  Tasso  (Salerno:   1910);  H.  Vaganay,  Le  sonnet  en  Italic 
et  en  France  au  XVIe  siecle  (Lyons:  1902),  —  a  bibliographical  account 
of  the  collections  of  Italian  and  French  sonnets  of  the  sixteenth  century; 
and,  in  general,  monographs  on  the  authors  mentioned  above.    Further 
references,  including  texts,  in  Flamini's  Compendio,  pp.  356-366. 

G.   The  Seventeenth  Century. 

Chapters  I,  II,  and  XII  of  A.  Belloni's  II  Seicento  deal  with  the  lyric 
and  with  the  exaggerated  mannerisms  ("  Secentismo  ")  of  the  time.  The 
corresponding  sections  of  the  bibliographical  appendix  are  most  helpful. 
See  also  Morsolin's  II  Seicento  (Milano :  1880),  B.  Croce's  Saggi  sulla 
lett.  italiana  del  Seicento  (Bari :  1911),  and  vols.  XII  and  XIV  of 
F.  Salfi's  Histoire  litte"raire  d'ltalie  (Paris:  1824-35),  the  continuation 
of  Ginguene.  Other  references  in  the  Appendix.  —  For  a  small  but 
convenient  anthology,  see  Lirici  del  secolo  XVII  (Milano:  1878). 

B.  Croce's  Lirici  marinisti  (Bari:   1910:  in  the  Scrittori  d' Italia  series) 
should  also  be  mentioned. 

A  period  of  blight  and  depression,  due  largely  to  civil  (Spanish) 
and  ecclesiastical  tyranny.  The  far-fetched,  antithetic,  extravagant 
('  euphuistic ')  style  of  Marino  (or  Marini)  —  his  Adone  and  son- 
nets —  induced  in  a  crowd  of  poetasters  a  false  poetic  taste  which 
influenced  Italian  poetry  for  many  a  decade,  in  fact  more  or 
less  infected  the  century.  Among  his  immediate  followers  were 
Achillini  and  Preti.  Marinism  was  combatted  by  Chiabrera,  who, 
while  still  seeking  novelty,  took  for  his  masters  in  style  Pindar 
and  Anacreon,  and  aimed  to  revolutionize  poetic  diction,  rhythm, 
and  structure  by  reproducing  in  the  ode  the  grand  manner  of  the 
former  and  in  canzonette  the  airy  elegance  of  the  latter.  Occa- 
sionally achieving  lyrical  nobility,  most  of  his  song  is  pompous, 


VIII,  G]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  239 

complicated,  and  artificial.  In  Testi  the  influence  both  of 
Marino  and  Chiabrera  is  manifest.  Though  his  lyrics  are 
dignified,  thoughtful,  and  sometimes  pretty,  the  tone  in  general 
is  one  of  affectation.  Redi  and  Filicaia  follow:  the  former  in 
his  Bacchus  in  Tuscany,  more  natural,  replete  with  pleasantry, 
bold  in  imagery  and  flights  of  fancy,  varied  in  metrical  perform- 
ance, and  regardful  of  common  sense ;  the  latter  attaining  some- 
times to  splendor  in  odes  and  sonnets  of  patriotism  and  religion, 
but  unable  to  shake  off  the  shackles  of  the  unnatural  style.  The 
purely  lyrical  poems  of  Guidi  di  Pavia,  born  in  the  middle  of 
the  century,  are  marked  by  the  Pindaric  ostentation  of  Chiabrera. 
In  his  pastoral  dramas,  however,  Guidi  is  the  forerunner  of  a 
new  school,  and  with  Gravina  and  Crescimbeni  was  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  Academy,  called  the  Arcadia.  This  association, 
formed  in  1690,  aimed  to  reform  Italian  poetry  by  substituting 
for  the  antithetic  extravagance  and  false  conceits  of  Marinism, 
and  the  turgidities  of  Pindaric  imitators,  the  truth  and  simple 
diction  of  pastoral  life.  Independently  of  the  Arcadia,  Maggi, 
who  died  in  1699,  and  Lemene  (d.  1704)  had  for  years  been 
working  toward  a  similar  affectation  of  naivete.  The  Arcadian 
school  dominates  the  earlier  part  of  the  next  century. 

Genuine  relief  from  the  obtaining  artificiality  of  poetic  compo- 
sition may  be  found  in  the  Poesie  filosofiche  of  Campanella  and 
the  satires  of  Salvator  Rosa  :  in  the  thought,  passion,  and  economy 
of  phrase  of  the  former ;  in  the  bursts  of  lyric  indignation,  moral 
fervor,  and  spontaneous  patriotism  of  the  latter. 

References.  A.  Aldini,  La  lirica  nel  Chiabrera  (Livorno :  1887),— 
cf.  G.  A.'Venturi  in  Giomale  storico,  n  :  432-442;  A.  Belloni,  Vita 
e  letteratura  nell' Italia  del  Seicento  (Napoli :  1906);  A.  Borzelli,  II 
cavalier  Giambattista  Marino  (Napoli :  1898);  E.  Canevari,  Lo  stile  del 
Marino  (Paris:  1901);  V.  Caravelli,  Pirro  Schettini  e  1' antimarinismo 
(in  Atti  deW Acad.  di  archeol.,  Napoli,  14:  inff.);  G.  Carducci, 
Dello  svolgimento  dell'  ode  in  Italia  (in  Opere,  16:  361-442);  Corradino, 
II  secentismo  e  1'  Adone  (Torino :  1 880) ;  G.  F.  Damiani,  Sopra  la  poesia 
del  cav.  Marino  (Torino:  1899);  S.  Ferrari,  Di  alcune  imitazioni  e 
rifioriture  delle  "  anacreontee "  in  Italia  nel  secolo  XVI  (in  Giornale 


240  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

storico,  20  :  395-424):  A.  Graf,  II  fenomeno  del  secentismo  (in  Nuova 
antol.,  Oct.  i,  1905);  G.  Imbert,  II  Bacco  in  Toscana  di  Fr.  Redi 
(Citta  di  Castello :  1 890 ;  cf.  Imbert's  article  on  Redi  in  Nuova 
antol.,  Oct.  15,  1895);  G.  Magrini,  Studio  su  B.  Menzini  (Napoli : 
1885);  by  the  same,  La  vita  italiana  nel  Seicento  (Milano :  1885); 

F.  Mango,  II  Marino  poeta  lirico  (Cagliari :   1887);   by  .the  same,  Le 
fonti  dell' Adone  (Torino:  1891),  Delia  fama  di  G.  B.  Marino  (Geneva: 
1898);     M.   Menghini,   La   vita   e   le   opere   di    Giambattista   Marino 
(Roma:   1888);   by  the  same,  T.  Stigliani  (in  Giorn.  ligustico,  XVII, 
fasc.  7,  8) ;    F.  d'  Ovidio,  Secentismo,  spagnolismo  (in  Nuo-va  antol., 
Oct.  15,  1892);  A.  Pagano,  Un  poeta  lirico  (G.  G.  Lavagna)del  Seicento 
(Napoli:   1907);    F.  Picco,  Salotti  francesi  e  poesia  ital.  nel  Seicento 
(Torino:   1905);  Studies  in  European  Literature  (being  the  Taylorian 
Lectures,  Oxford :  1889-1899),  for  sources  and  interrelations  in  general. 
For  further  references,  including  Editions  of  the  various  authors,  see 
Belloni  as  cited  at  the  head  of  this  century,  and  Flamini's  Compendio, 
pp.  366-367. 

H.  The  Eighteenth  Century. 

On  the  century  in  general  see  Tullo  Concari's  II  Settecento  (Milano : 
1899),  Chap.  VIII  of  which  is  concerned  with  the  lyric,  Chap.  I  with  the 
Arcadian  Academy,  Chap.  VI  with  humorous  and  didactic  verse ;  the 
corresponding1  sections  of  the  bibliographical  appendix  furnish  extensive 
aid.  M.  Landau's  Gesch.  der  ital.  Litt.  im  iSten  Jahrhundert  (Berlin: 
1 899)  is  a  large  and,  valuable  work.  In  Chap.  I  of  G.  Mazzoni's 
L'Ottocento  (cited  under  the  next  century)  is  a  good  re'sume'  of  the 
literature  of  the  second  half  of  the  i8th  century,  which  shows  how 
the  lyric  was  renovated  by  Parini,  narrative  verse  by  Cesarotti,  and 
tragedy  by  Alfieri.  A.  Lombardi's  Storia  della  lett.  ital.  nel  secolo  XVIII 
(Milano:  1827-30)  is  helpful  though  old.  Other  general  works  are 

G.  Mazzoni's  La  vita  ital.  nel  Settecento  (Milano:  1903);  G.  Guerzoni's 
II  terzo  rinascimento  (Verona:    1888);    and  G.  Maugain's  Etude  sur 
1'dvolution  intellectuelle  de TItalie  de  1657  k  1750  (Paris:   1910).    The 
great  Italian  poet  and  critic,  Carducci,  has  several  essays  dealing  with 
the  lyric  of  the  period :  see  his  Della  poesia  melica  italiana  e  di  alcuni 
poeti  erotici  del  secolo  XVIII,  being  the  preface  to  a  collection  of  Poeti 
erotici  del  secolo  XVIII  (Firenze :   1868);  also,  the  preface  to  his  Lirici 
del  secolo  XVIII  (Firenze:   1871),  —  dealing  with  the  classical  lyric  of 
the  second  half  of  the  century  (see  vol.  XIX  of  the  author's  Opere. 
20  vols.     Bologna:    iSSg-fgog).     Cf.   G.  Rossi,   Melica  e  lirica  del 
Settecento  (in  Fattfttlla  della  domenica,  31:3).    A  helpful  work  is 


VIII,  H]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  241 

V.  A.  Arullani's  Lirica  e  lirici  nel  settecento  (Torino-Palermo:  1893). 
—  On  the  Arcadians,  see  Vernon  Lee's  Studies  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
in  Italy  (1880);  I.  Carini,  L' Arcadia  dal  1690  al  1890  (Roma:  1891); 
and  Crescimbeni's  two  works,  —  the  Vite  degl'Arcadi  Illustri  (4  vols. 
Roma:  1708-27),  and  L' Arcadia  (1711). 

First  to  be  noticed  and  forced  upon  one's  notice  is  the  lyric 
deluge  poured  forth  by  the  Arcadians.  The  attempt  to  sing  of, 
and  with,  the  simplicity  of  shepherds  resulted  in  a  myriad  novel 
forms  of  literary  artifice  and  sentimentality.  The  conception  — 
as  shown  in  the  Jesus  Puer,  a  Latin  poem  by  Thomas  Ceva, 
1690,  and  in  the  organization  of  the  Academy,  based  upon 'the 
Instructions  of  Loyola  —  was  essentially  Jesuitical.  Humanity  is 
reduced  to  one  type,  the  sham  pastoral  and  childlike :  the  child 
Jesus  is  Patron  of  the  school ;  Crescimbeni,  the  literary  historian, 
is  its  President.  Poetry  becomes  the  art  of  versifying  with  an  eye 
to  pleasure  alone :  it  is  reduced  to  a  purely  mechanical  affair  in 
which  matter  and  thought  are  negligible  or  trivial.  Love  is  a 
simulacrum  of  ideal  beauty,  and  imagination  is  regulated  by 
rules  as  foolish  as  severe.  The  product  is  a  melange  of  emas- 
culated sonnets,  heroic,  sacred,  natal,  nuptial,  monastic,  mortuary, 
intellectually  amative ;  odes,  canzonette,  metrical  tales  and  toys. 
Among  the  perpetrators  of  this  stuff,  besides  Lemene  and  Maggi, 
are  Frugoni,  Casti,  Perfetti,  and  the  two  Zappis.  The  most 
harmonious,  fresh,  and  sometimes  natural,  of  Arcadians  before 
Metastasio  was  probably  Paolo  Rolli.  . 

The  reaction  against  the  Arcadia  may  be  traced  first  within 
the  movement  itself,  as  in  the  verses  of  Manfredi,  which  evince 
nobility,  beauty,  and  thought ;  in  the  Ricciardetto  of  Carteromaco 
(Forteguerri),  —  a  humorous  poem,  but  replete  with  novel  imagery, 
delicious  fancy,  and  lyric  spontaneity;  in  the  Visions  of  Alfonso 
Varano,  which  though  arid  in  style  aim  to  revive  the  biblical  and 
Dantesque  in  poetry ;  in  the  poets  of  the  last  Arcadian  manner,  — 
Bertbla,  under  the  German  influence,  Savioli  and  Vittorelli,  under 
that  of  Anacreon,  Horace,  and  Ovid.  The  reaction  gathers  full 
force  in  Giuseppe  Parini  (1729-1799),  who,  beginning  with  the 


242  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

frigidities  and  puerilities  of  the  Arcadia,  turns  about  the  middle 
of  the  century  to  the  realities  of  life;  and  in  his  odes  and  a  satiric 
poem,  1763,  II  Giorno  (lyrical  as  well  as  satiric),  shakes  himself 
almost  free  of  the  vapidities  and  metrical,  monotonies  of  the 
Arcadian  school  He  established  the  new  lyric,  social  and  moral, 
richer  in  thought  than  in  imagination,  —  in  form  reviving  what 
was  sane  of  the  classical  tradition  of  Chiabrera,  and  aiming  to 
reproduce  the  harmonies  and  rhythms  of  the  Horatian  ode.  For 
him  profit  is  inseparable  from  poetic  pleasure.  He  is  the  first 
great  poet  of  modern  Italy. 

The  reform  was  aided,  meanwhile,  by  writers  of  criticism.  In 
.his  journal,  Frusta  Letteraria  (Ed.,  A.  Serena,  Milano :  1897), 
Baretti  lashed  the  Arcadians  mercilessly.  And  Gozzi  continued 
the  process  in  satiric  prose  as  well  as  verse,  and  in  his  judicia) 
Defense  of  Dante  (Ed.,  A.  Serena,  Verona:  1895),  leveled  at 
the  silly  Virgilian  Letters  of  Bettinelli.  Among  the  forces  making 
for  a  new  period  of  Italian  literary  taste,  his  attack  upon  the. 
Jesuitical  movement  in  poetry  is  of  prime  importance. 

In  the  lyric  drama  of  the  century,  Apostolo  Zeno  and  Metastasic 
"  endeavored  to  make  melodrama  and  reason  compatible."  In  the 
operas  and  oratorios  of  the  former  (1668-1750),  love  and,  conse- 
quently, the  lyrical  episodes  are  supreme;  but  the  poetry  lacks 
inspiration  and  rhythmic  melody.  The  poetry  of  Metastasio 
(1698-1782),  on  the  other  hand,  is  of  genuine  lyric  genius. 
He  commenced  Arcadian,  but  after  the  death  of  his  patron, 
Gravina,  in  1718,  the  spirit  of  his  verse  changes:  his  odes 
leap  with  patriotism  and  passion ;  and  the  lyrics  imbedded  in 
his  long  series  of  operas  from  1721  on,  though  still  ideal,  aloof 
from  actual  existence,  idyllic  and  Arcadian,  are  full  of  pleasing 
pathos  and  sentiment,  and  novel  with  voluptuous  beauty  and 
musical  cadence.  He  is  the  most  charming,  popular,  and  repre- 
sentative lyrist  of  this  period. 

In  tragedy,  the  greatest  writer  that  Italy  has  had  is  also  of  this 
century.  Alfieri  (1749-1803)  by  his  odes  and  sonnets  no  less  than 
by  his  dramas,  throbbing  with  enthusiastic  patriotism,  did  for  the 
poetry  of  the  political  revival  what  Parini  performed  for  that  of 


VIII,  H]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  243 

the  moral.  Also,  like  Parini,  he  is  the  proponent  of  the  ancient 
classical  tradition  in  method  and  form.  This  tradition  was  con- 
tinued by  Monti  (1754-1828),  many  of  whose  panegyrics  and 
odes  were  written  before  the  close  of  the  century,  and  by  Foscolo, 
who  between  1797  and  1800  was  just  beginning  his*  career  in 
tragedy,  lyric,  and  romance. 

At  the  head  of  the  Sicilian  poets  of  the  century  stands  Giovanni 
Meli,  with  melodious  lyrics  in  the  native  dialect  but  of  Arcadian 
manner. 

References.  G.  Agnelli,  Precursor!  e  imitatori  del  Giorno  di  G.  Parini 
(Bologna :  1 888) ;  G.  Baccini,  G.  B.  Fagiuoli  poeta  faceto  fiorentino 
(Firenze ;  1 886) ;  E.  Bertana,  Studi  pariniani :  la  materia  e  il  fine  del 
Giorno  (Spezia:  1893,  and  Giorn.  storico,  27:  334);  by  the  same,  II 
Parini  tra  i  poeti  giocosi  del  Settecento  (in  Supplem.  No.  i  to  Giorn. 
storico),  V.  Alfieri  studiato  nella  vita,  nel  pensiero  e  nelP  arte  (2d  ed., 
Torino:  1904),  Intorno  al  Frugoni  (in  Giorn.  storico,  12:  354); 
V.  Bortolotti,  G.  Parini,  vita,  opere,  e  tempi  (Milano :  •  1900) ;  E.  Bouvy, 
Voltaire  et  1'Italie  (Paris:  1898);  G.  Bustico,  Bibliografica  di  V.  Alfieri 
(Salo  :  1907;  see  also  Giorn.  star.,  1 5  :  89-123,50:  225-226);  A.  Butti, 
Studi  pariniani  (Torino:  1895);  G.  Carducci,  Saggio  di  bibliografia 
pariniana  (in  Opere,  1 3  :  349),  and  other  essays  on  Parini,  included 
in  the  Opere ;  V.  Cian,  L'  immigraz.  dei  gesuiti  spagnuoli  letterati  in 
Italia  (Torino  :  1 895) ;  L.  Collison-Morley,  G.  Baretti  (Lond. :  1 909) ; 

F.  Flamini,  A.  Bertola  e  i  suoi  studi  intorno  alia  lett.  tedesca  (Roma : 
1895) ;  A.  Graf,  L'  anglomania  e  1'  influsso  inglese  in  Italia  nel  sec.  XVIII 
(Torino:    1911);    E.  Levi-Malvano,   L' elegia  amorosa  nel    Settecento 
(Torino:  1908),  mostly  concerned  with  Lodovico  Savioli;  A.  Malmignati, 

G.  Gozzi  e  i  suoi  tempi  (Padova:   1890);   G.  Muoni,  Poesia  notturna 
preromantica  (Milano:  1908);  G.  Natali,  La  mente  e  1'  anima  di  G.  Parini 
(Modena:    1900);    L.  Piccioni,   Studi  e  ricerche  intorno  a  G.  Baretti 
(Livorno:   1899);  A.  Simoni,  J.  Vittorelli,  La  vita  e  gli  scritti  (1907); 
G.  Zanella,  I  costumi  del  sec.  XVIII  e  la  poesia  del  Parini,  as  extracted 
from  Zanella's  Delia  lett.  ital.  nell'  ultimo  secolo  by  Morandi,  Antologia 
della  nostra  critica  lett.  moderna,  pp.  571-578.    See  also  on  Lemene, 
C.  Vignati  (in  Arch.  stor.  lombardo,  20  :  352);  on  Maratti,  L.  Morandi 
(in  Nuova  antol.,  Feb.  16,  1888);  on  Rolli,  Carducci's  preface  to  his 
Poeti  erotici  del  sec.  XVIII;  on  Frugoni,  E.  Bertana  in  In  Arcadia 
(Napoli :   1909),  and  G.  Mazzoni,  In  biblioteca  (2d  ed.    Bologna:   1886). 
Further  references  and  Editions  in  Flamini's  Compendio,  pp.  370-378, 
and  in  Concari  as  cited  at  the  head  of  this  century. 


244  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

I.   The  Nineteenth  Century. 

Guido  Mazzoni's  L'  Ottocento,  in  the  Storia  letteraria  d'  Italia,  is 
the  chief  authority  (see  especially  Chaps.  V,  VI,  VII,  IX)  and  is  well 
arranged  to  show  the  development  of  types ;  it  contains  extensive  critical 
apparatus.^  G.  Zanella's  Storia  della  lett.  ital.  dalla  meta  del  Settecento 
ai  giorni  nostri  (Milano :  1880)  and  F.  de  Sanctis'  La  lett.  ital.  nel 
secolo  XIX  (Napoli :  1897)  are  helpful.  J.  C.  Hobhouse  and  E.  Levati 
have  published  sketches  of  the  literature  of  the  first  quarter  of  the 
century  (see  Appendix).  See  also  G.  Mestica,  Manuale  della  lett.  ital. 
nel  secolo  XIX  (Firenze :  1882-87).  The  English  student  will  derive 
most  help  from  L.  Collison-Morley's  Modern  Italian  Lit.  (Lond. :  1911). 
See  also  W.  D.  Howells,  Modern  Italian  Poets  (in  N.  Am.  Rev. ; 
reprinted,  N.Y. :  1887);  the  introduction  to  F.  Sewall's  translations 
from  Carducci  (1892);  G.  A.  Greene,  Italian  Lyrists  of  To-Day  (1893); 
M.  Muret,  La  litt.  ital.  d'aujourd'hui  (Paris:  1906);  A.  Roux,  La  litt. 
contemp.  en  Italic,  1873-96  (2  vols.  Paris:  1883-96);  also  articles  in 
Nuo-va  antologia  and  Deutsche  Rundschau.  Some  of  the  best  articles 
on  contemporary  literature  are  B.  Croce's  in  La  critica. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  r8th  century  classicism,  romanticism, 
naturalism,  and  sentimentalism  were  apparent.  Classicism  was 
represented  in  Italy  by  Monti  and  Foscolo  (1778-1827),  who 
bring  us  well  into  the  igth  century.  Other  lyrists  of  the  neo- 
classic  tradition  were  Arici,  Benedetti,  Biondi,  Cassi,  Costa,  Maffei, 
Mamiani,  Marchetti,  Niccolini,  Nobile,  Perticari,  Strocchi.  At  the 
head  of  the  romantic  revolt  was  Alessandro  Manzoni  (1785— 
1873)  with  his  religious  and  patriotic  lyrics;  also  of  the  same 
school  were  Berchet,  Biava,  Carrer,  Carlo  Porta,  Grossi,  Niccolini 
(first  a  classicist),  Torti,  etc.  —  The  patriotic  poets  of  the  Risorgi- 
mento  deserve  attention :  Berchet,  Giannone,  Brofferio,  Giusti, 
Mameli,  Mercantini,  Poerio,  Prati,  Gabriele  Rossetti,  Parzanese,  etc. 

i 

Giusti's  satirical  lyrics  and  Belli's  sonnets  on  the  life  and  manners 
of  Rome  should  also  be  noted.  —  But  the  most  important  figure 
of  the  first  half  of  the  century,  and  the  chief  glory  of  all  Italian 
lyric  poetry,  as  well  as  one  of  Europe's  greatest  lyrists,  was 
Giacomo  Leopardi  (1798-1837),  whose  impeccable  verse  shows 
strong  classical  influence,  but  also  modern  spirit. 

In  the  middle  of  the  century  some  rather  faint  romantic  work 


VIII,  I]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  245 

was  accomplished.  See  Aleardi,  Carrer,  Fr.  dall'  Ongaro,  Prati, 
Rossetti,  Tommaseo.  With  Zanella  (1868)  the  tide  sets  again 
toward  classicism.  But  the  poet  of  note  of  the  second  half  of 
the  century,  who  overthrows  the  romantic  school  and  returns 
fully  to  the  classical,  which  is  after  all  native  to  the  Italian,  is 
Giosue  Carducci  (1835-1907).  The  poet  of  unified  Italy  and 
of  the  new  kingdom,  national  to  the  core,  he  celebrates  in  his 
Rime  nuove  (1861—1887)  the  historic  memories  of  his  country 
with  an  elegance  and  severity  purely  Hellenic,  and  a  personality 
of  emotion  vividly  modern.  In  his  Odi  barbare,  of  the  soil  and 
real,  neo-pagan  and  ideal,  he  victoriously  adapts  the  metres  of 
Horace  and  Catullus  to  the  speech  of  modern  Italy,  abandoning 
laws  of  quantity  and  substituting  rhythm  by  accent.  He  influences 
the  lyric  of  to-day  with  a  classicism  which  is  not  an  imitation,  but 
a  fusion  of  ancient  Italian  spirit  and  form  with  living  spontaneity, 
imagination,  and  natural  expression.  Among  his  followers  are 
Chiarini,  Gnoli,  Marradi,  Ferrari,  Guido  Mazzoni,  and  Pascoli. 
Opposed  to  the  Bolognese  school  of  Carducci  are  Cavallotti, 
who  returned  to  the  classical  prosody,  the  Sicilians  Cannizzaro, 
Rapisardi,  and  Cesareo.  Among  the  independents  must  be  men- 
tioned Graf,  Fogazzaro,  Ada  Negri,  Panzacchi,  Manni,  Bacelli, 
Pastonchi,  and  Guerrini.  The  last  mentioned,  with  his  Postuma 
di  Lorenzo  Stecchetti  (1877),  introduced  a  realist  school  of  poetry 
after  the  French  fashion,  especially  that  of  Baudelaire.  As  a 
novelist  and  poet,  passionately  despised  or  admired,  Gabriele 
D'  Annunzio  has  for  some  years  past  been  the  acknowledged 
leader  of  a  school  of  aesthetic  carnality  and  dilettantism.  Inspired 
in  the  first  instance  by  the  Odi  barbare  of  Carducci,  he  speedily 
betrayed  an  innate  preference  (in  the  Canto  nuovo,  1882)  for  the 
sensuality  of  Guerrini,  and  in  his  succeeding  lyrics  developed  to 
the  highest  degree  of  finish  the  poetry  of  heartless  eroticism, 
hedonistic  realism,  and  elaborate  beauty  of  form.  A  man  of 
startling  genius  and  resource,  he  has,  during  the  present  war 
by  speech  and  deed  wiped  out  all  condemnation  of  his  aesthetic 
career,  and  stands  the  idol  of  his  countrymen. 


246  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  L§  6 

References.  Italian  criticism  is  rich  in  works  on  the  literature  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  following  list  is  suggestive  only.  —  On  Monti, 
see  C.  Cantu,  V.  Monti  e-Peta  che  fu  sua  (Milano :  1879);  P."  Hazard, 
La  revolution  franchise  et  les  lettres  italiennes  (Paris :  1910);  B.  Zumbini, 
Sulle  poesie  di  V.  Monti  (Firenze:  1894);  M.  Kerbaker,  Shakesp.  e 
Goethe  nei  versi  di  V.  M.  (in  the  Bibl,  critica  of  Torraca,  No.  15); 
A.  Scrocca,  Studi  sul  Monti  e  sul  Manzoni  (Napoli :  1905).  —  On  Foscolo 
and  the  classical  movement:  E.  Donadoni,  Ugo  Foscolo  pensatore, 
critico,  poeta  (Palermo:  1910);  A.  Graf,  Foscolo,  Manzoni,  Leopardi 
(Torino :  1 898) ;  F.  de  Sanctis,  Ugo  Foscolo  (in  the  author's  Nuovi 
saggi  critici,  Napoli:  1879);  F.  G.  de  Winckels,  Vita  di  Ugo  Foscolo 
(Verona:  1858);  G.  Zanella,  Gray  e  Foscolo  (in  Nuova  antol.,  XXV, 
1881  ;  also  in  the  author's  Parallel!  letterari,  Verona:  1885);  B.  Zum- 
bini, Studi  di  letteratura  italiana  (Firenze:  1894).  For  further  bibliog- 
raphy of  Foscolo,  see  P.  Gori  in  his  Opere  poet,  del  Foscolo  (Firenze : 
1886).  — On  Manzoni:  as  below,  under  the  Romantic  Movement,  and 
the  following :  G.  Barzellotti,  Studi  e  ritratti  (Bologna :  1 893) ;  G.  Finzi, 
vol.  IV  of  his  Lezioni  di  storia  della  letteratura  italiana  (Torino:  1891); 
A.  Graf,  Foscolo,  Manzoni,  Leopardi  (Torino:  1898);  F.  D' Ovidio, 
Nuovi  studi  manzoniani  (Milano:  1908);  P.  Petrocchi,  Dell' opera  di 
A.  M.  (Milano :  1 886) ;  A.  Piumati,  La  vita  e  le  opere  di  A.  M.  (Torino  : 
1886);  A.  Vismara,  Bibliografia  manzoniana  (Milano :  1875).  For  further 
references  on  Monti,  Foscolo,  and  Manzoni,  see  Grober's  Grundriss 
2:  3:  199  etc.  (1896),  Flamini's  Compendio,  pp.  3 78-383,  and  D' Ancona- 
Bacci,  Manuale  della  lett.  ital.,  vols.  V,  VI.  —  On  the  Romantic  Move- 
ment: G.  Berchet,  Lettera  semiseria  di  Grisostomo  (Milano :  1816), — 
the  program  of  the  romantic  (literary  and  political)  movement  in  Italy; 
E.  Bertana,  Arcadia  lugubre,  in  In  Arcadia  (Napoli:  1909);  U.  A. 
Canello,  Saggi  di  critica  letteraria  (Bologna:  1877);  C.  Cantu,  II  Con- 
ciliatore  e  i  Carbonari  '(Milano:  1878);  F.  de  Sanctis,  La  letteratura 
italiana  nel  secolo  XIX  (Napoli:  1902);  U.  Foscolo,  Della  nuova  scuola 
romantica  in  Italia  (1827;  in  vol.  IV  of  the  author's  Opere,  Firenze: 
1850-62);  R.  Giovagnoli,  II  romanticismo  nella  storia  del  risorgimento 
italiano  (Roma:  1904);  V.  Imbriani,  G.  Berchet  e  il  romanticismo  ital. 
(ia  Nuova  antol.,  June,  Aug.,  1868);  C.  G.  Londonio,  Sulla  poesia 
romantica,  cenni  critici  (Milano:  1817);  G.  Mazzoni,  Le  origini  del 
romanticismo  (in  Nuova  antol.,  3  Serie,  vol.  47);  G.  Muoni,  Note  per 
una  poetica  stor.  del  romanticismo  (Milano:  1906);  F.  Orlandi,  Dis- 
sertazione  storio-critica  sopra  il  romanticismo  e  il  classicismo  (Firenze : 
1889);  A.  Pesenti,  II  romanticismo  in  Italia  (Milano:  1882);  G.  Piergili, 
II  foglio  azzur'ro  e  i  primi  romantici  (in  Nuova  antol.,  3  Serie,  vol.  4); 


VIII,  J]  THE  ITALIAN  LYRIC  247 

L.  Robecchi,  Saggio  d'  una  bibliografia  sulla  questione  classico-romantica 
(Milano:  1887);  G.  Trezza,  Classicismoe  romanticismo,  in  his  Studi  critici 
(Verona:  1878);  E.  Visconti,  Idee  elementari  sulla  poesia  romantica  (in 
Conciliatore,  Nos.  23-28,  1818);  G.  Zanella,  Scuola  romantica  e  scuola 
classica  (in  the  author's  Delia  letteratura  italiana  nelP  ultimo  secolo. 
Citta  di  Castello  :  1885).  —  On  Leopardi:  G.  Carducci,  Degli  spiriti  e 
delle  forme  nella  poesia  di  Giacomo  Leopardi ;  I.  della  Giovanna,  La 
ragione  poetica  dei  canti  di  G.  Leopardi  (Verona:  1892);  F.  de  Sanctis, 
Studio  su  G.  Leopardi  (Napoli :  1 894) ;  A.  Graf,  Foscolo,  Manzoni, 
Leopardi  (Torino  :  1898);  G.  Mestica,  Studi  leopardiani  (Firenze :  1901); 
E.  Rod,  Etudes  sur  le  XIXe  siecle  (2d  ed.  Paris:  1894);  B.  Zumbini, 
Studi  sul  Leopardi  (2  vols.  Firenze:  1902-04);  also,  an  article  in  the 
Quart.  Rev.,  86:  311.  Leopardi's  works  have  been  edited  by  Ranieri 
(Opere,  1 846-80),  and  Cugnoni  (Opere  Inedite,  1 878-80).  Victor  Hugo's 
influence  on  the  Italian  lyric  has  been  studied  by  M.  Valente  (Victor 
Hugo  e  la lirica  italiana.  Torino:  1907).  —  On  Carducci,  see  G.  L.  Bicker- 
steth,  Carducci :  Select,  of  his  Poems,  with  verse  translations  and  three 
introductory  essays ;  N.  Busetto,  L'  anima  e  1'  arte  di  G.  Carducci 
(Treviso:  1907);  G.  Chiarini,  G.  C.,  impressioni  e  ricordi  (Bologna: 
1901),  and  Memorie  della  vita  di  G.  C.  (2d  ed.  Firenze:  1907);  E. 
Cocchia,  L' ideale  .  .  .  di  G.  Carducci  (Napoli:  1907);  F.  D' Ovidio, 
La  versificaz.  delle  Odi  barbare  di  G.  C.,  in  Miscellanea  in  onore  di  A. 
Graf ;  D.  Ferrari,  Saggio  d'  interpretaz.  d.  Odi  barbare  (3  vols.  Cremona: 
1909-10) ;  A.  Jeanroy,  G.  C.,  I'homme  et  lepoete (Paris:  1911);  F.  Tor- 
raca,  G.  Carducci  (Napoli:  1907);  F.  Sewall,  as  mentioned  above;  and 
English  magazine  articles,  to  be  traced  through  Poole's  index.  —  On 
D"1  Annunzio,  see  G.  A.  Borgese,  G.  D' Annunzio  (Napoli:  1909); 
V.  Morello,  G.  D'  A.  (Roma :  1910);  Croce's  La  critica,  as  cited  above ; 
English  magazine  articles.  —  For  further  references  and  Editions,  see 
Flamini's  Compendio,  pp.  378-392.  For  Anthologies,  see  S.  Ferrari, 
Antologia  della  lirica  moderna  italiana  (Bologna:  1891;  ed.  riveduta, 
1908);  G.  Puccianti,  Antologia  della  poesia  italiana  moderna  (Firenze: 
1899);  G.  Rigutini,  Crestomazia  italiana  della  poesia  moderna  (Firenze: 
1886);  R.  Fornaciari,  Poesia  italiana  del  secolo  XIX  (Firenze:  i! 


J.  Italian  Popular  Lyric.  Some  works  dealing  with  Italian 
popular  verse  have  already  been  mentioned  above  (see  A,  The 
Beginnings).  Especial  account  should  be  taken  of  the  excellent 
works  of  Nigra  and  D'Ancona.  Nigra  (Canti  popolari  del 
Piemonte.  Torino:  1888)  has  much  of  great  value  on  the 


248  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

distribution  of  Italian  popular  literature ;  and  D'  Ancona  (La 
poesia  popolare  italiana.  2d  ed.  Livorno  :  1906)  gives  an  admir- 
able review  of  the  general  subject  and  contributes  a  very  helpful 
bibliography,  which  the  student  should  consult  for  references  not 
listed  here.  Some  representative  works  are  those  of  G.  Amalfi 
(collections  of  the  popular  lyrics  of  Sorrento,  etc.) ;  G.  Bernoni 
(for  the  lyrics  of  Venetia) ;  P.  Galiari  (for  Verona) ;  Dal  Medico 
(for  Venetia) ;  S.  Ferrari,  Biblioteca  di  lett.  popol.  ital.  (Firenze : 
1882)  ;  G.  Ferraro  (for  Ferrara,  Cento,  Basso  Monferrato,  etc.) ; 
G.  Giannini  (for  Tuscany) ;  Imbriani  (Calabria,  etc.) ;  Molinaro 
Del  Chiaro  (Naples,  etc.)  ;  Pitre  (Sicily)  ;  Tigri  (Tuscany)  ;  Tom- 
maseo,  Canti  popolari  toscani,  corsi,  illirici  e  greci  (1841-42); 
Vigo  (Sicily) ;  etc.  For  works  in  English  see  F.  Alexander 
(Roadside  Songs  of  Tuscany.  N.Y. :  1886);  J.  A.  Symonds 
(Sketches  and  Studies  in  Southern  Europe.  2  vols.  N.  Y. :  1880. 
See  vol.  I,  Popular  Italian  Poetry  of  the  Renaissance,  Popular 
Songs  of  Tuscany ;  cf .  Renaiss.  in  Italy,  Ital.  Lit,  Pt.  I, 
Chaps.  IV,  V);  Countess  Martinengo-Cesaresco,  Essays  in  the 
Study  of  Folk-Songs  (1886  :  Venetian,  Sicilian). 

IX.  The  Spanish  Lyric. 

The  most  complete  history  in  English  of  Spanish  literature  is  Tick- 
nor's ;  the  most  complete  in  Spanish  is  D.  Julio  Cejador  y  Franca's 
Historia  de  la  lengua  y  literatura  castellana  (6+  vols.  Madrid  :  1915  +  ). 
The  latest  Spanish  edition  (Madrid:  1916)  of  Fitzmaurice- Kelly's  his- 
tory contains  valuable  bibliographical  materials,  supplementing  the  older 
materials  noted  by  Ticknor.  The  proper  articles  in  Grdber's  Grundriss 
must  not  be  neglected.  Other  histories  are  mentioned  in  the  Appendix. 
Best  of  all  for  the  student  of  the  lyric  is  Mendndez  y  Pelayo's  Antologia 
de  poetas  liricos  castellanos  desde  la  formacion  del  idioma  hasta  nuestros 
dias  (13  vols.  Madrid:  1890-1908):  the  various  prefaces  give  lists  of 
collections  of  Spanish  lyrics,  and  with  profound  knowledge  treat  many 
interesting  questions  regarding  the  origin  and  growth  of  the  Spanish 
lyric.  Bibliographical  works  are  given  by  Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  as  noted 
above,  and  in  the  article  Spanish  Lit.,  Encyc.  Brit.,  i  rth  ed.  —  Spain  is 
rich  in  general  collections  of  its  literature.  In  the  following  the  student 
will  almost  always  be  able  to  find  the  texts  with  which  he  wishes  to 
work :  Rivadeneyra's  great  Biblioteca  de  autores  espafloles  (78  vols. 


IX]  THE  SPANISH  LYRIC  249 

Madrid:  1842-80);  Murillo's  Coleccidn  de  escri tores  castellanos  (100  + 
vols.  Madrid:  1880  +  );  Brockhaus' Collection (48  vols.  Leipz.:  1863-87); 
Mene"ndez  y  Pelayo's  collection  of  lyric  poetry,  as  mentioned  above ; 
J.  M.  Maury's  Choix  de  poesies  castellanes  depuis  Charles  V.  jusqu'k 
nos  jours  (2  yols.  Paris  :  .1826) ;  F.  J.  Wolf's  Floresta  de  rimas  modernas 
castellanas  (2  vols.  Paris:  1837);  Quintana's  Poesias  selectas  castellanas ; 
and  F.  R.  Marin's  Cantos  populares  espafioles,  etc.  (5  vols.  Sevilla: 
1882-83),  with  text  and  bibliography.  —  The  Oxford  Book  of  Spanish 
Verse  (ed.  J.  Fitzmaurice-Kelly)  gives  an  admirable  selection  of  verse 
from  the  I3th  century  to  the  2Oth.  In  Longfellow's  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
Europe  will  be  found  English  translations  of  many  Spanish  lyrics,  —  an 
excellent  introduction  for  the  general  student  who  does  not  read  Spanish. 

On  Catalan  literature,  see  A.  Morel-Fatio's  Katalanische  Litt.  in 
Grober's  Grundriss,  and  his  articles  in  Romania ;  F.  R.  Camboulin, 
Essai  sur  1'hist.  de  la  litt.  catalane  (Paris:  1858);  E.  Cardona,  Dell' 
antica  letteratura  catalana  (Napoli :  1878);  V.  M.  O.  Denk,  Einfuhrung 
in  die  Gesch.  der  altcat.  Litt.  (Miinchen :  1893);  Mila  y  Fontanals, 
Estudios  sobre  historia,  lengua  y  literatura  de  Cataluna  (being  vol.  Ill 
of  the  Obras  Completas,  Barcelona:  1888-96). 

On  Galician  literature,  see  in  Grober's  Grundriss,  M.  de  Vasconcellos, 
Gesch.  der  portugiesischen  Lit.  (Strassburg:  1897);  the  introduction  to 
H.  R.  Lang's  Liederbuch  des  Konigs  Denis  von  Portugal  (Halle  :  1894) ; 
and  references  under  x,  below. 

In  the  passionate  yet  predominantly  imitative  lyrics  of  Spain, 
whether  pulsing  with  the  robust  eloquence  of  the  most  sonorous 
of  the  Romance  tongues,  or  fluttering  with  the  tenderest  and  most 
beautiful  of  cadences,  the  student  will  find  recurrent  delight.  In 
Spanish  literature  three  strains  must  be  considered  more  or  less 
separately :  (tf)  the  Spanish  strain  proper,  or  the  Castilian,  which 
derives  from  the  north-central,  central,  and  southern  parts  of  the 
Peninsula,  including  Aragon  —  always  inclined  toward  the  Castilian 
in  speech,  though  for  a  while  using  Catalan  as  the  official  language 
of  its  court ;  (£)  the  Galician  strain  of  the  northwest,  closely  allied 
in  language  and  development  to  Portuguese  literature ;  (f)  the 
Catalan  strain  deriving  from  the  eastern  littoral,  closely  allied  in 
language  and  development  to  Proven£al  literature.  First  it  will 
be  proper  to  consider  the  presence  of  the  troubadour  lyric  in  each 
of  these  divisions ;  then  the  development  of  each  division  may  be 


250  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

followed  century  by  century.  Only  the  barest  historical  outlines 
are  presented  here :  further  material  is  readily  afforded  by  the 
larger  histories  of  the  literature. 

A.  The  Trottbadour  Lyric  in  Spain  (i2th  century  to  close  of 
the  I5th\ 

The  best  work  on  this  subject  is  Mild  y  Fontanals'  Los  trovadores 
en  Espana  (Barcelona:  1861  ;  1887;  vol.  II  of  Obras  Completas, 
8  vols.,  1888-96);  for  brief  introductions  see  Chap.  VIII  of  Chaytor's 
The  Troubadours  (Camb.  Manuals  of  Science  and  Lit.  1912)  and  the 
article  on  Spanish  literature  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.  See  also 
Grober's  Grundriss.  F.  J.  Wolf's  Studien  zur  Gesch.  der  spanischen 
und  portugiesischen  Nationalliteratur  (Berlin:  1859)  is  still  a  most 
important  work ;  its  errors  are  corrected  in  the  Castilian  translation  by 
D.  Miguel  de  Unamuno,  with  notes  by  Menendez  y  Pelayo  (1895-96). 
Jose  Amador  de  los  Rios'  Histolria  critica  de  la  lit.  espanbla  (7  vols. 
Madrid:  1861-65)  and  L.  Clarus'  Darstellung  der  spanischen  Lit.  im 
Mittelalter  (Mainz  :  1846)  must  be  used  with  care. 

i.  Castilian  (i2th  century  to  the  end  of  the  isth).  During  the 
1 2th  and  1 3th  centuries  Provencal  poetry  exerted  less  influence 
on  the  native  literature  of  Spain  proper  than  on  that  of  Galicia  or 
Catalonia,  probably  because  the  luxurious  courtoisie  of  the  langue 
(foe  had  less  in  common  with  the  martial  habits  of  Northern  and 
Central  Spain  than  with  the  more  peaceful  inclinations  of  the 
other  districts.  Indeed  the  Castilian  tongue  found  its  native  and 
sincerest  expression  in  epical  verse,  in  the  cantares  de  gesta  and 
the  romanceros,  thus  displaying  an  affinity  with  the  literature  of 
Northern  rather  than  Southern  France.  Nevertheless,  during  these 
two  centuries  the  kings  of  Aragon  and  Castile,  Leon  and  Navarre, 
were  famous  as  patrons  of  the  Provengal  troilbadours,  and  we 
know  of  between  thirty  and  forty  Spanish  poets  who  wrote  court 
poetry  in  the  Provencal  tongue.  Aragon  and  Provence  for  a  time 
were  even  under  the  same  king,  Alfonso  II  of  Aragon  (1162- 
1196),  and  to  his  interests  were  devoted  many  troubadours,  such 
as  Peire  Vidal,  Peire  Ramon  of  Toulouse,  Uc  Brunet,  Uc  de  San 
Circ,  and  the  Monk  of  Montaudon.  Alfonso  himself  practised  the 


IX,  A]  THE  SPANISH  LYRIC  251 

art.  At  the  court  of  Castile  the  lyrics  of  Provence  were  particularly 
in  evidence  during  the. reigns  of  Alfonso  VIII  (1158-1214)  and 
Alfonso  it  (1252-1284). 

But  all  this  verse-making  was  in  the  foreign  tongue,  and  most 
of  it  in  the  form  of  poems  actually  imported  from  abroad.  Upon 
poetry  in  the  Castilian  tongue  it  had  little  or  no  effect,  though 
what  has  been  called  the  oldest  Castilian  lyric,  the  La  Rezon  feite 
d'amor,  by  some  attributed  to  Lope  de  Moros,  does  show  foreign 
influence.  The  other  remains  of  Castilian  lyrism,  such  as  the 
lyric  (?)  qualities  of  Gonzalo  de  Berceo's  wooden  Virgin's  Lament, 
or  of  other  religious  poetry,  should  be  studied  as  an  aspect  of  the 
medieval  religious  lyric. 

Castilian  poetry  of  the  i4th  century  offers  little  to  the  student 
of  the  lyric.  The  works  of  Juan  Ruiz,  the  foremost  of  Spanish 
medieval  poets,  Pero  Lopez,  and  the  Jew,  Sem  Tob  of  Carrion, 
may  be  explored  for  lyrical  qualities,  and  their  relation  to  foreign 
sources  may  be  considered.  But  with  the  i5th  centuiy  occurred 
a  revival  of  troubadour  influence.  In  the  first  half  of  the  century 
arose  an  affected,  pretentious  court  poetry,  called  arte  de  trobar, 
made  up  of  innumerable  brief  poems  in  Proven9al  vein,  occasional 
(amatory,  satirical,  epigrammatic,  didactic)  in  scope,  and  intricate 
in  pattern.  Collections  of  these  ephemerae,  called  cancioneros, 
were  made,  such  as  Juan  Alfonso  de  Baena's  cancionero  of  the 
lyrics  of  the  court  of  John  II,  or  the  collection,  known  as  the 
Cancionero  de  Stuniga,  of  the  verse  of  those  trobadores  who 
attended  Alfonso  V  of  Aragon  to  Naples.  In  the  i6th  century 
more  general  collections  were  made  {Cancioneros  generates)  :  see, 
the  collections  of  Juan  Fernandez  de  Constantia  and  of  Hernando 
del  Castillo,  the  latter  issued  at  Valencia  in  1511.  These  and  the* 
like  collections  afford  a  mass  of  material,  from  the  hands  of  several 
hundred  poets,  which  may  be  studied  in  comparison  with  the  Pro- 
vengal  lyric  with  a  view  to  determining  extent  and  methods  of 
variation  in  subject,  treatment,  and  metrical  form.  There  is  here 
a  definite  and  rich  field  for  systematic  observation  of  literary 
individuality  and  evolution. 


252  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

This  court  lyric  shows  traces  also  of  a  study  of  the  ancients, 
—  particularly  and  naturally  of  Ovid,  as  the  amatory  poet  of 
Rome  par  excellence.  The  investigation  of  such  traces  of  antiquity 
affords  a  further  opportunity  for  determining  the  methods  of  liter- 
ary evolution.  Nor  should  the  low  satiric  poems  of  the  age,  such 
as  Pero  Torrellas'  poem  on  women  (Coplas  de  las  calidades  de 
las  donas),  or  the  anonymous  (Rodrigo  Cota  ?)  and  scurrilous 
Coplas  del  provincial  and  Coplas  de  mingo  revulgo,  be  forgotten. 
During  the  same  period  (i5th  century),  the  imitation  of  Italian 
models  became  pronounced,  —  the  beginning  of  that  literary  de- 
velopment which  culminated  in  the  next  two  centuries  as  the  golden 
age  of  the  Spanish  lyric. 

It  is  impossible  to  cite  here  an  adequate  list  of  the  hundreds 
of  poets  represented  in  the  Cancioneros  and  the  Italian  school. 
Among  the  greater  lyrists  were  Inigo  Lopez  de  Mendoza  (Marquis 
of  Santillana)  and  Juan  de  Mena,  both  leaders  in  the  Italian  move- 
ment, Gomez  and  Jorge  Manrique  ;  among  the  minor  poets  were 
Sanchez  Talavera,  Fernan  Pe'rez  de  Guzman,  Villasandino,  Fran- 
cisco Imperial,  Ruy  Paez  de  Ribera,  Martinez  de  Medina,  Carva- 
jales,  Pero  Torrellas,  Juan  Alvarez  Gato,  Hernan  Mexia,  Rodrigo 
Cota,  and  a  host  of  others  who  may  be  met  in  the  canrioneros. 

2.  Galician  (1200—1385).  The  Provencal  influence  was  much 
stronger  upon  poetry  written  in  the  Galician-Portuguese  dialect, 
perhaps  because  it  found  itself  in  natural  affinity  with  a  popular 
lyric  poetry  already  in  existence  in  the  West  At.  any  rate  the 
native  lyric  was  remodelled  under  the  new  influence. 

The  most  popular  of  the  types  thus  developed  were  Cantigas  de 
amor  e  de  amigo  and  Cantigas  de  escarnho  e  de  maldizer ;  the  former 
'were  love  songs :  when  the  poet  speaks  the  song  was  one  de  amor ; 
when  the  lady  speaks  (and  she  is  unmarried,  in  contrast  to  the  Provencal 
usage)  the  song  was  de  amigo.  This  latter  is  a  type  developed  independ- 
ently by  the  Portuguese  school.  Cantigas  de  escarnho  correspond  in 
intention  to  the  Provencal  simentes ;  if  their  satire  was  open  and  un- 
restrained they  were  cantigas  de  maldizer.  They  dealt  for  the  most 
part  with  trivial  court  and  personal  affairs,  and  not  with  questions  of 
national  policy  upon  which  the  troubadours  so  often  expressed  their 


IX,  A]  THE  SPANISH  LYRIC  253 

opinions.  Changes  in  taste  and  political  upheavals  brought  this  literature 
to  an  end  about  1385  and  the  progress  of  Portuguese  poetry  then 
ceases  for  some  fifty  years  (Chaytor,  125-126). 

In  all,  about  2000  poems  from  more  than  150  poets  remain  from 
the  Galician-Portuguese  ramification  of  troubadour  art.  Its  flores- 
cence was  during  the  reigns  of  Alfonso  X  of  Castile  (1252-84), 
who  wrote  much  in  the  Western  dialect,  and  King  Denis  of  Por- 
tugal (1279-1325).  Alfonso's  Cantigas  e  Loores  de  Nuestra 
Sefiora  (or  Cantigas  de  Santa  Marfa)  and  the  Querellas  which 
are  doubtfully  attributed  to  him  make  a  collection  of  several 
hundred  lyrics  of  considerable  power  and  sincerity. 

3.  Catalan  (i  2th  century  to  the  end  of  the  i5th).  Early  Catalan 
literature  is  an  appendage  of  Provencal  letters.  "  Until  about  the 
second  half  of  the  i3th  century  there  existed  in  the  Catalan  dis- 
tricts no  other  literature  than  the  Proven9al,  and  the  poets  of 
north-eastern  Spain  used  no  other  language  than  that  of  the 
troubadours."  Thus  it  may  be  seen  that  in  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula Provencal  poetry  exerted  its  strongest  influence  in  the  Catalan 
district.  Among  the  earlier  Catalan  troubadours  were  Ramon 
Vidal  de  Besalii,  Guillem  de  Bergadan,  Uc  de  Mataplana,  Guillem 
de  Cervera,  and  Serveri  de  Gerona.  These  and  many  others  pro- 
duced the  deft  but  rather  vapid  varieties  of  the  troubadour  lyric. 
But  in  the  verse,  some  of  it  lyrical  in  character,  of  the  famous 
Ramon  Lull  (Raymond  Lully,  .c.  1235-1315)  a  combination  of 
the  spoken  Catalan  dialect  and  the  Provencal  dialect  is  noticeable ; 
and  the  founding  in  1393  at  Barcelona,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  King  of  Aragon,  of  a  consistory  of  the  "  Gay  Saber,"  modelled 
on  that  of  Toulouse,  marked  the  further  development  of  a  poetry 
somewhat  more  original  and  Catalan  in  character.  The  following 
century,  the  isth,  was  the  chief  period  of  Catalan  poetry.  The 
new  school,  at  the  head  of  which  was  Auzias  March  of  Valencia, 
the  greatest  of  Catalan  poets,  and  to  which  belonged,  for  example, 
Pau  de  Bellviure,  Fran.  Ferrer,  Jordi  de  Sant  Jordi,  Pere  and 
Jaume  March,  Pere  Torroella,  and  Antoni  Vallmanya,  though,  fol- 
lowing the  general  character  of  Provencal  verse,  is  distinguished 


254  HISTORY   OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

by  a  peculiar  stanza  and  by  a  diction  approaching  that  of  ordinary 
Catalan  conversation.  But  by  the  end  of  the  i5th  century  this 
literature  had  bloomed  and  faded. 

The  union  of  Aragon  with  Castile,  and  the  resulting  predominance 
of  Castilian  throughout  Spain,  inflicted  a  death-blow  6n  Catalan  litera- 
ture, especially  on  its  artistic  poetry,  a  kind  of  composition  more  ready 
than  any  other  to  avail  itself  of  the  triumphant  idiom  which  soon  came 
to  be  regarded  by  men  of  letters  as  the  only  noble  one,  and  alone  fit  to 
be  the  vehicle  of  elevated  or  refined  thoughts.  The  fact  that  a  Catalan, 
Juan  Boscan,  inaugurates  in  the  Castilian  language  a  new  kind  of  poetry, 
and  that  the  Castilians  themselves  regard  him  as  the  head  of  a  school, 
is  important  and  characteristic ;  the  date  of  the  publication  of  the  works 
of  Boscan  (i  543)  marks  the  end  of  Catalan  poetry  (Encyc.  Brit.,  I  ith  ed., 
Art.  Spanish  Lit.). 

It  is  interesting  also  to  note  that  the  first  printed  Spanish  book 
(Les  trobes  en  labors  de  la  Verge  Maria,  1474;  reprinted  by 
F.  M.  Grajales,  Valencia:  1894)  is  a  collection  of  sacred  verses 
written  by  forty-four  poets  who  are  mostly  Catalan,  though  four 
write  in  Castilian. 

Texts.  The  student  will  of  course  turn  to  the  general  collections  of 
Spanish  authors  already  mentioned,  particularly  to  Mene"ndez  y  Pelayo's 
Antologfa  de  poetas  liricos,  etc.  See  also  Antonio  Paz  y  Melia,  Opusculos 
literarios  de  los  siglos  XIV-XVI  (1892).  For  the  Provengal  lyric  see 
above,  vn,  B.  The  best  edition  of  the  Libro  de  buen  Amor  of  Juan 
Ruiz  is  that  published  by  Jean  Ducamin  (Toulouse:  1901.  In  Biblio- 
theque  meridionale,  Ire  se"rie,  tome  VI).  Baena's  Cancionero  has  been 
issued  with  an  introductory  essay  on  Castilian  poetry  of  the  I4th  and 
1 5th  centuries  by  Francisque  Michel  (2  vols.  Leipz. :  1 860) ;  the  Can- 
cionero de  Stuniga  is  in  the  Coleccidn  de  libros  espaftoles  raros  6  curiosos 
(vol.  IV.  Madrid:  1872).  The  Cancionero  general  of  Hernando  del 
Castillo  has  been  published  by  La  Sociedad  de  biblidfilos  espanoles 
(2  vols.  Madrid:  1882);  the  Cancionero  castellano  del  siglo  XV,  by 
FoulcheVDelbosc  (2  vols.  Madrid:  1912-15).  See  also  the  edition  of  the 
Cancionero  de  Gomez  Manrique  by  D.  Antonio  Paz  y  Me"lia  (2  vols. 
Madrid:  1885);  T.  Braga's  Cancioneiro  portuguez  da  Vaticana  (Lisboa : 
1878);  E.  G.  Molteni's  II  Canzonieri  portoghese  Colocchi-Brancuti,  in 
the  second  vol.  of  the  Communicazioni  delle  biblioteche  di  Roma  (Halle: 


IX,  A]  THE  SPANISH  LYRIC  25$ 

1875-80);  H.  R.  Lang's  Liederbuch  des  Konigs  Denis  von  Portugal 
(Halle :  1 894),  and  the  same  author's  Cancioneiro  gallego-castelhano,  — 
the  extant  Galician  poems  of  that  lyric  school  (1350-1450),  collected 
and  edited  with  a  literary  study,  etc.  (N.Y. :  1902;  Yale  Bicentennial 
Pubs.).  —  The  satirical  Coplas  are  printed  in  the  Rev.  hispanique,  vol.  V, 
and  in  Mene"ndez  y  Pelayo's  Antologia,  vols.  Ill,  IV.  Santillana's 
poems  have  been  edited  by  Amador  de  los  Rios  (Obras  de  Lopez  de 
Mendoza,  etc.  Madrid:  1852);  for  Mena's  verse  see  Las  CCC  del 
famosissimo  poeta  Juan  de  Mena  (Sevilla:  1512),  or  the  1804  edition 
published  by  F.  Sanchez.  The  handsome  edition  of  Alfonso's  Cantigas 
published  by  the  Spanish  Academy  (2  vols.  1889)  should  also  be  noted. 
For  texts  of  other  authors  see  the  bibliographical  appendix  to  the  latest 
French  or,  Spanish  edition  of  Fitzmaurice-Kelly's  history  of  Spanish 
literature.  For  the  ballad  see  Mild,  y  Fontanals,  Romancerillo  Catalan 
(1882)  and  Lockhart's  Spanish  (Castilian)  Ballads. 

References.  In  addition  to  the  more  general  works  mentioned  above, 
we  may  note  here,  for  the  classical  influence  upon  Juan  Ruiz  and  the 
lyrists  of  the  I5th  century,  Rudolf  Schevill's  valuable  Ovid  and  the 
Renascence  in  Spain  (Univ.  of  California  Pubs,  in  Mod.  PhiloL, 
vol.  IV.  No.  I,  1913,  pp.  28-86);  compare  W.  Schrottner,  Ovid  und 
die  Troubadours  (Diss.  Marburg:  1908),  and  Schevill's  Studies  in 
Cervantes  :  The  Influence  of  Virgil  (Trans.  Connecticut  Acad.  of  Arts 
and  Sciences.  XIII,  1908).  On  Mena's  poetry  there  are  studies  by 
R.  Foulche-Delbosc  (in  Rev.  hispanique,  vol.  IX,  1902)  and  C.  R.  Post 
(in  Romanic  Rev.,  vol.  Ill,  Nos.  2,  3,  1912);  on  Berceo  see  an  article 
by  F.  Fernandez  y  Gonzdlez  in  La  Raz0n(i8$j).  See  also  V.  Balaguer, 
De  la  poesia  provenzal  en  Castilla  y  en  Leon  (Madrid:  1877,  cf.  Rev. 
d.  langues  romanes,  13);  E.  Baret,  Espagne  et  Provence  (Paris: 
J^S?),  —  "pleasing  but  superficial";  B.  Croce,  Primi  cor.tatti  fra 
Spagna  e  Italia  (Napoli :  1 894) ;  by  the  same,  La  lingua  spagnuola  in 
Italia  (Roma:  1895);  by  the  same,  Ricerche  ispano-italiane  (Napoli: 
1898);  A.  Helfferich,  Raymund  Lull  und  die  Anfange  der  catalonischen 
Lit. ;  A.  Jeanroy,  Les  origines,  etc.,  as  noted  above,  §  5 ;  A.  Pages, 
Auzias  March  et  ses  pre"decesseurs  (Paris:  1912;  Romania  41  :  426); 
Count  Theodore  de  Puymaigre,  Les  vieux  auteurs  castillans  (Paris : 
1861-62;  2d  ed.,  incomplete,  2  vols.  Paris:  1889-90);  by  the  same, 
La  cour  litte'raire  de  Don  Juan  II.  roi  de  Castille  [1419-1454]  (2  vols. 
Paris:  1893);  B.  Sanvisenti,  I  primi  influssi  di  Dante,  del  Petrarca  e 
del  Boccaccio  sulla  letteratura  spagnuola  (Milano :  1902);  P.  Savj- 
Lopez,  La  lirica  spagnuola  in  Italia  nel  sec.  XV  (in  Giorn.  storico,  41  : 
I,  i903)- 


256  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

B.  The  Golden  Age  of  Castilian  Literature  (i6th  and  ijth 
centuries). 

The  chief  work  of  reference  for  this  period  is  Morel-Fatio's  L'Espagne 
au  i6e  et  I7e  siecle  (Heilbronn :  1878).  A  convenient  English  view  of 
the  period  is  included  in  D/Hannay's  Later  Renaissance  (N.Y. :  1898). 
F.  Wolf's  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Bibliographic  der  Cancioneros  und  zur  Gesch. 
der  span.  Kunstlyrik  am  Hofe  Karls  V  [1516-66]  (Wien :  1853)  is 
valuable  for  the  part  of  the  period  precedent  to  the  full  splendor  of  the 
age  (1550-1650).  Most  of  the  lyric  material  of  these  two  centuries  will 
be  found  in  Rivadeneyra's  Biblioteca  de  autores  espanoles  (see  the 
volumes  entitled  Poetas  Kricos  de  los  siglos  XVI  y  XVII);  further 
bibliography  of  texts  is  mentioned  at  the  head  of  this  section.  See 
Longfellow's  Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  for  translations  of  selected 
poems.  Wiffen  has  translated  some  of  G.  de  la  Vega's  poems  in  his 
now  antiquated  life  of  that  poet  (1823). 

Two  main  movements,  more  or  less  antagonistic,  but  both 
symptomatic  of  literary  vitality,  characterize  the  history  of  the 
Spanish  lyric  during  the  i6th  century.  The  first  of  these,  the 
Italian  or  Petrarchist  school,  has  already  been  foreshadowed 
in  the  influence  of  Italian  models  in  i5th  century  Castilian 
poetry ;  and  we  have  spoken  of  the  great  Catalan,  Juan  Boscan, 
who  by  his  Castilian  lyrics  in  the  Italian  manner  marked  at  once 
the  surrender  of  Catalan  to  Castilian  as  a  literary  language  and 
the  florescence  of  the  great  Italian  movement  of  Spain's  Golden 
Age.  Since  it  followed  the  writers  of  the  Italian  renaissance,  par- 
ticularly Petrarch,  the  new  school  was  largely  amatory,  pastoral, 
and  epistolary  in  character.  To  the  grace  and  ardor  of  Italian 
models  the  Spanish  imitators  were  by  no  means  blind,  but  their 
devotion  had  in  it  much  of  aristocratic  fashion,  much  of  self- 
gratulation  on  being  learned,  comme  il  faut,  in  the  new  way. 
A  profitable  study  is  the  means  by  which  the  Italian  models 
entered  Spain  and  the  steps  of  their  progress  there ;  and  careful 
attention  may  be  given  to  the  earlier  (i5th  century)  introduction 
of  new  prosodical  forms  (hendecasyllabics,  sonnets,  candones 
(canzoni\  tercets,  octaves,  etc.),  the  growth  of  new,  methods  of 
appreciation  and  poetic  treatment,  the  vitality  of  the  new  modes, 


IX,  B]  THE  SPANISH   LYRIC  257 

and  the  variation  of  the  Spanish  creations  from  the  Italian  models 
("refraction").  Of  especial  interest  in  this  connection  is  Ticknor's 
statement,  referred  to  by  Hannay,  op.  at.,  p.  30,  that  it  is  possible 
to  see  exactly  how  at  least  one  literary  revolution  —  this  of  the 
Italian  school  —  began.  For  Boscan's  letter  on  the  matter  see 
the  reference  as  given  by  Hannay.  To  what  degree  did  this 
school  go  directly  to  the  ancients,  particularly  Horace,  Virgil, 
and  Ovid,  for  inspiration  and  '  color '  ?  Did  it  show  a  more 
mature  understanding  of  poetic  aims  and  a  more  facile  adapta- 
tion of  classical  models  than  the  classical  imitators  of  the  previous 
century  ?  The  leaders  of  the  Italian  school  were  Boscan,  Garcilaso 
de  la  Vega,  and  Diego  Hurtado  de  Mendoza.  Lyrists  who  followed 
in  their  lead,  and  made  truer  and  more  technically  perfect  their 
way  of  poetic  progression,  were  Gutierre  de  Cetina,  Fernando 
de  Herrera,  Juan  de  Arguijo,^  Manuel  de  Villegas,  Gregorio 
Silvestre,  Hernando  de  Acufta,  Luis  Ponce  de  Leon,  etc. 

The  other  movement  of  the  1 6th  century  sprang  from  a  protest 
against  the  imitation  of  foreign  models.  Under  the  guidance  of 
Cristobal  de  Castillejo  the  national  school  bitterly  opposed  the 
Petrarchists  and  stuck  manfully  to  the  native  Castilian  measures ; 
but  the  innovators  were  the  party  of  growth  and  so  completely  did 
they  finally  assimilate  the  poetic  vigor  of  the  age  that  by  the  end 
of  the  century  their  verse  was  no  longer  regarded  as  a  foreign 
graft  on  the  national  stock. 

The  i  yth  century  luxuriated  in  a  riot  of  lyrism,  the  outstanding 
novel  feature  of  which  is  the  intricate  and  far-fetched  style  of 
Gdngora  and  his  followers,  the  '  cultist '  school.  The  source 
of  this  movement,  its  relation  to  Marinism  in  Italy,  to  the  French 
school  of  preciosity,  and  to  English  Euphuism  is  the  topic  of 
considerable  research.  The  wider  significance  of  such  highly 
artificial  play  with  words  and  ideas  (consider  similar  movements 
in  Greek,  Roman,  and  Oriental  literatures)  may  be  studied  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  psychology  of  literary  fads  or  fashions. 
What  of  the  social  and  economic  environment  in  which  such  play 
thrives,  the  seriousness  of  its  endeavor,  or  the  patronizing  attitude 


258  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

and  self-conceit  of  its  devotees  ?  The  list  of  the  Spanish  poetasters 
of  this  style  (culto  or  Gongorism)  is  a  long  one  that  need  not  be 
cited  here ;  the  multitude  of  their  poems  has  fortunately  been 
somewhat  thinned  by  time.  In  the  very  immensity  of  their  in- 
dustry as  well  as  by  the  artificiality  of  their  conceptions  and 
methods  they  marked  the  first  falling  away  from  the  acme  of 
lyric  creation  that  had  been  reached  in  the  previous  century. 

References.  M.  Catalina,  La  poesfa  lirica  en  el  teatro  antigua  (7  vols. 
Madrid:  1909-11);  E.  Churton,  Gdngora  (Lond. :  1862);  B.  Croce, 
Intorno  al  soggiorno  di  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  in  Italia  (Napoli :  1 894) ; 
Edinb.  Rev.,  40:  443  (1823),  an  article  in  review  of  Wiffen's  transla- 
tion of  G.  de  la  Vega's  poems ;  F.  Flamini,  a  valuable  study  of  Boscan 
contained  in  the  author's  Studi  di  storia  letteraria  italiana  e  straniera 
(Livorno:  1895);  by  the  same,  an  article  on  G.  de  la  Vega's  Italian 
imitations  (in  La  biblioteca  delle  Scuole  italiane,  Milano,  July  1899); 
E.  Me'rime'e,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  les  oeuvres  de  Fr.  de  Quevedo  ( 1 886) ; 
C.  Michaelis  de  Vasconcellos,  Investigates  sobre  sonetos  e  sonetistas 
Portugueses  e  castelhanos  (in  Rev.  hispanique,  22.  1910) —  Petrarchism 
in  Spain,  pp.  509-614;  R.  Mitzana,  Cincuenta  y  cuatro  canciones 
espanolas  del  siglo  XVI,  etc.  (Upsala:  1909);  C.  L.  Nicolay,  The  Life 
and  Works  of  Cristdbal  de  Castillejo  (Philadelphia:  1910);  Rev.  his- 
pantque,  vols.  IV,  VII,  materials  re  Gdngora;  P.  Savj-Lopez,  Un 
petrarchista  spagnuolo,  Gutierre  de  Cetina  (Vecchi :  1896);  R.  Schevill, 
Ovid  and  the  Renascence  in  Spain  (cited  above,  under  A,  References), 
—  chapter  on  the  influence  of  Ovid  on  the  Spanish  lyric  of  the  i6th  cen- 
tury ;  A.  Schneider,  Spaniens  Antheil  an  der  deutschen  Litt.  des  1 6. 
und  17.  Jahrhdts.  (Strassburg:  1898);  L.  P.  Thomas,  Le  lyrisme  et  la 
preciosit^  cultistes  en  Espagne  (Beiheft  z.  Zeitschr.  f.  roman.  Phitol., 
No.  1 8.  Halle:  1909);  by  the  same,  Gongora  et  le  gongorisme  con- 
side"re"s  dans  leurs  rapports  avec  le  marinisme  (Paris:  1911);  A.  L.  de 
la  Vega  y  Arguelles,  Historia  y  juicio  crftico  de  la  Escuela  Podtica 
Sevillana  (1871), — "useful,  and  even  exhaustive,  but  far  too  eulogistic 
in  tone";  B.  Sanvisenti,  as  noted  above,  p.  255.  —  Further  references 
in  Ticknor,  Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  etc. 

Many  valuable  suggestions  on  the  psychology  of  fashion,  which  may 
be  applied  to  such  literary  movements  as  Gongorism,  Marinism,  and 
Euphuism,  are  to  be  found  in  E.  A.  Ross'  Social  Psychology  (N.Y.: 
1908):  compare  Tarde's  Laws  of  Imitation  and  McDougall's  Introd. 
to  Social  Psychology. 


IX,  C]  THE  SPANISH  LYRIC  259 

» 

C.  Castilian  Lyric  of  the  i8th  Century. 

For  this  century  a  satisfactory  guide  will  be  found  in  L.  A.  de  Cueto's 
Poesia  castellana  en  el  siglo  XVIII,  being  the  preface  to  vol.  I  of  Poet. 
Kricos  del  siglo  XVIII  in  Rivadeneyra's  Biblioteca;  use  the  revised 
edition  of  this  article,  Historia  critica  de  la  poesia  castellana,  etc. 
(Madrid:  1893).  A.  M.  A.  Galiano's  Hist,  de  la  lit.  espan.,  francesa, 
inglesa,  6  ital.  en  el  siglo  XVIII  (1845)  is  "acute,  but  somewhat 
obsolete."  Menendez  y  Pelayo's  Historia  de  las  ideas  este'ticas  en 
Espafta  (vol.  Ill,  part  ii,  1886)  contains  valuable  and  illuminating  ma- 
terial on  the  period. 

The  1 8th  century  in  Spain  was  a  period  of  national  decline,  and 
the  lyric,  already  vitiated  by  Gongorism,  showed  but  little  power 
under  the  French  influences  that  now  invaded  Spain  to  see  or 
feel  life  deeply  and  imaginatively.  Ignacio  de  Luzan,  the  critic 
of  the  period,  whose  Poetica  appeared  in  1737,  acknowledged 
Boileau  as  his  master,  and  it  was  under  such  auspices  that  the 
stream  of  lyrism  wound  its  way  through  this  period.  The  ode,  of 
course,  had  its  devotees  under  this  regime  and  once  more  paradoxi- 
cally marked  a  decrease  in  poetic  vigor.  One  may  pause  here  to 
question  whether  the  Spanish  lyric  is  not  characterized  by  a 
certain  absence  of  national  originality.  In  the  earlier  period, 
the  Proven9al  troubadour  influence  usurped  the  field ;  then 
came  the  Petrarchist  renaissance,  victorious  over  the  nationalist 
school;  Gongorism  can  hardly  illustrate  a  striking  lyric  originality; 
and  here,  in  the  i8th  century,  even  a  lyric  decline  proceeds  under 
foreign  tutelage.  What  has  constituted  Spanish  originality  during 
these  centuries?  some  national  habits -of  treatment,  diction,  or 
range  of  thought  and  feeling  ?  merely  some  national  "  refraction  " 
of  foreign  rays  ?  Is  it  true  that  the  Spanish  temperament  is  on 
the  whole  more  at  home  in  romance  and  epical  narrative,  in 
dramatic  and  novelistic  composition,  in  the  portrayal  of  events 
and  conflicts,  and  the  analysis  of  character  than  in  the  ex- 
pression of  a  deeply  personal  and  individually  passionate  view 
of  life  ?  Does  the  national  character  prefer  the  representation 
of  passion  to  its  individual  presentation  ?  Or  should  we  turn  to 


260  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

popular  poetry  if  we  wish  to  find  the  true  lyrical  output  of  the 
Spanish  people,  to  those  brief  lyrics  of  four  or  eight  lines  which 
time  out  of  mind  have  been  the  traditional  Spanish  method  of 
expressing  the  spontaneous  emotion  of  the  throng  (see  Marin's 
Cantos  populares,  mentioned  at  the  head  of  this  division)  ?  Such 
considerations  as  these  may  serve  to  illumine  the  general  history 
of  the  type.  Among  the  poets  of  this  century  Melendez  Valde's, 
Diego  Gonzales,  Jose  Iglesias  de  la  Casa,  and  Leandro  Fernandez 
de  Moratm  (dramatist)  may  be  taken  as  representative  of  the 
French  school. 

D.  Castilian  Lyric  of  the  igth  Century. 

F.  Blanco  Garcfa's  Lit.  espanola  en  el  siglo  XIX  (3  vols.  Madrid : 
1891-94;  later  editions  also)  is  regarded  as  uncritical.  J.  Amador  de 
los  Rios  published  in  1876  his  Del  estado  actual  de  la  poesfa  h'rica  en 
Espana.  Enrique  Pineyro's  El  romanticismo  en  Espana  (Paris:  1904) 
is  helpful. .  See  also  M.  G.  Hubbard,  Histoire  de  la  lit.  contemporaine  en 
Espagne  (Paris :  1 876) ;  B.  de  Tannenberg,  La  poe'sie  castellane  con- 
temporaine (1892).  For  a  very  brief  but  appreciative  account  see  the 
article  Spanish  Lit.  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  iith  ed.,  25:  586  b.  For  an 
anthology  see  J.  Valera,  Florilegio  de  poesias  castellanas  del  siglo  XIX 
(5  vols.  Madrid:  1901-04). 

Here,  too,  the  artistic  lyric  betrays  the  imitative  tendency. 
In  spite  even  of  the  national  outburst  in  defiance  of  Napoleon 
the  literature  of  the  century  continued  in  the  French  manner, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  patriotic  odes  of  Quintana  and  the 
classical  verse  of  Martinez  de  la  Rosa.  Romanticism  next  made 
its  appearance,  the  romanticism  of  the  French  followers  of  Byron: 
Espronceda  and  Zorilla  are  the  Spanish  followers  in  this  lead.  In 
poets  of  a  later  generation :  V.  W.  Querol,  F.  Balart,  J.  M.  Bartrina, 
M.  Reina,  M.  del  Palacio,  A.  de  Escalante  y  Prieto  ("Juan  Garcia"), 
L.  R.  Martfnez  y  Guertero,  etc.,  other  French  influences,  natural- 
ism, materialism,  Parnassianism,  etc.,  may  be  traced.  The  popular 
measures  of  Campoamor,  on  the  other  hand,  and  the  patriotic 
verse  of  Nunez  de  Arce,  as  well  as  the  delightful  Andalusian 
lyrics  of  Salvador  Rueda,  the  Murcian  airs  of  Vicente  Medina, 


IX,  E]  THE  SPANISH  LYRIC  261 

the  Majorcan  pictures  of  Juan  Alcover  and  Miguel  Costa,  and 
the  Catalan  spirit  of  R.  D.  Peres  bear  witness  to  a  truly  national 
inspiration :  they  are  a  promise  of  what  Spain  may  yet  accomplish 
if  her  poets  will  but  sing  simply,  and  yet  with  something  more 
than  popular  naivete,  of  that  which  is  closest  to  the  heart. 

E.   Catalan  Decline  and  Revival  (i6th  century  to  the  present]. 

On  the  Catalan  revival  see  the  following,  taken  from  the  Encyc.  Brit., 
nth  ed.,  25  :  591  a:  J.  Rubio  y  Ors,  Breve  resena  del  actual  renaci- 
miento  de  la  lengua  y  literatura  catalanas  (2  vols.  Barcelona:  1880); 
F.  M.  Tubino,  Histpria  del  renacimiento  contemporaneo  en  Cataluna, 
Baleares  y  Valencia  (Madrid :  1 880) ;  A.  de  Molins,  Diccionario  bio- 
grdfico  y  bibliogrcifico  de  escri tores  y  artistas  catalanes  del  siglo  XIX 
(Barcelona:  1891-96);  E.  Toda,  La  poesia  catalana  £.  Sardenya  (Barce- 
lona :  i  < 


Of  the  fall  of  Catalan  and  Catalan  literature  at  the  close  of  the 
1 5th  century  we  have  already  spoken.  During  the  next  three 
centuries  Catalan  ceased  to  be  a  literary  language  of  any  moment. 
The  1 6th  century  produced  only  one  poet  of  note,  Pere  Serafi, 
who  wrote  in  somewhat  the  style  of  the  greatest  Catalan  poet, 
Auzias  March.  The  early  iyth  century  produced  the  over-rated 
Vicent  Garcia;  the  i8th,  practically  nothing  of  lyric  value.  But 
during  the  igth,  an  enthusiastic  revival  occurred,  which  speaks  well 
for  the  future. 

X.  The  Portuguese  Lyric. ' 

The  lyric  of  Portugal  may  be  approached  through  Grober  (the 
admirable  Gesch.  der  port.  Litt.,  by  Mme.  Michaelis  de  Vasconcellos) 
and  Korting,  and  through  the  literary  histories  of  Braga,  Loiseau, 
Bouterwek,  and  Mendes  dos  Remedies,  cited  in  the  Appendix.  The 
English  reader  may  turn  to  the  article  on  Portuguese  Lit.,  by  Edgar 
Prestage,  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  i  ith  ed. ;  Ross'  translation  of  Bouterwek, 
and  to  the  brief  notices  in  the  various  volumes  of  the  series,  Periods  of 
European  Lit.,  edited  by  Professor  Saintsbury ;  see  also  Articles  in  the 
Quarterly  Rev.  i  :  235  and  the  Foreign  Quart.  Rev.  10  :  437,  Long- 
fellow's Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe  will  be  an  aid  here  as  it  was  in 
the  case  of  the  Spanish  lyric  (see  pp.  730-760).  The  student  should  also 
consult  the  Bosquejo  da  histdria  da  poesia  e  lingua  portugueza,  by 


262  HISTORY'OF  THE  LYRIC  [§6 

Almeida  Garrett,  in  Fonseca's  Parnaso  lusitano,  —  the  principal  collec- 
tion of  Portuguese  poetry  (6  vols.  Paris:  1826),  A.  Fenix  Renascida, 
Obras  poe"ticas  dos  melhores  engenhos  Portugueses  (2d  ed.  3  Vols. 
Lisbon  :  1746),  and  J.  J.'  Nunes,  Chrestomathia  archaica(i9O5).  Biblio- 
graphical works  are  cited  in  the  article  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  and  in  Grober. 

Portuguese  poetry  is  famous  for  the  extent  and  excellence  of 
its  lyric  and  pastoral  verse.  The  history  of  this  literature  shows 
a  succession  of  foreign  influences  similar  to  that  noted  in  Spanish 
poetry.  But  in  spite  of  Provencal,  Castilian,  Italian,  and  French 
'influences,  the  Portuguese  lyric  developed  a  very  considerable 
originality.  Examination  of  the  kind  and  degree  of  such  origi- 
nality, and  of  its  relation  to  environment,  may,  if  assisted  by  com- 
parative study  of  the  environment  of  the  less  original  Spanish 
lyric,  lead  to  some  hypothesis  concerning  the  conditions  (psycho* 
logical,  social,  economic,  etc.)  which  favor  strong  variation,  or 
invention,  within  generally  imitative  movements. 

(i)  Of  the  original  contribution  (Cantares  de  antigo)  of  the 
Portuguese  troubadours  (end  of  the  i2th  century  to  c.  1385), 
resulting  probably  from  an  amalgamation  of  a  lost  indigenous 
lyrism  of  love  witto  the  imported  Provencal  forms,  we  have 
already  spoken  (see  above  ix,  A,  2).  Of  this  palace  poetry  we 
possess  the  famous  collection,  oldest  of  the  Iberian  peninsula 
and  illustrative  of  the  poetic  vitality  of  the  age  of  Alfonso  III 
(1248-79),  known  as  the  Candoneiro  da  Ajuda.  From  the  age 
of  King  Diniz  (or  Denis;  1279-1325)  we  have  the  Candoneiro 
da  Vaticana.  See  also  the  romancdro  (ed.  V.  E.  Hardung)  for 
lyrical  material.  Notice  the  variety  of  subjects,  and,  especially, 
the  excellence  of  the  satirical  verse  of  this  body  of  poetry,  the 
degree  of  individuality  shown  by  various  authors,  such  as  King 
Diniz,  D.  Alfonso  Sanches,  D.  Pedro,  etc.,  the  variety  of  Pro- 
venc.al  metres  and  the  attempts  to  invent  others,  and  the  absence  of 
heroic  subjects,  as  compared  with  early  Castilian  poetry.  —  (2)  The 
lyric  remains  of  the  i5th  century  —  revealing  a  Spanish-Italian 
influence  (decay  of  Provensal  forms,  rise  of  allegorical  tenden- 
cies and  classicism)  —  are  to  be  found  in  the  Candoneiro  Gerat, 


X]  THE  PORTUGUESE  LYRIC 

collected  by  Garcia  de  Resende  and  printed  in  1516.  Some  of 
the  hundreds  of  poets  here  represented  are:  D.  Pedro  of  Portugal, 
D.  Joao  Manuel,  D.  Joao  de  Menezes,  Joao  Rodrigues  de  Sa  e 
Menezes,  Diogo  Brandao,  Duarte  de  Brite,  Fernao  da  Silveira, 
and  Garcia  de  Resende.  Another  group  in  the  same  collection 
(Bernardim  Ribeiro,  Christovam  Falcao,  Gil  Vicente,  and  Sa  de 
Miranda)  marks  the  transition  to  the  Italian  school  of  the  next 
century.  Ribeiro  and  Falcao  introduced  the  bucolic  style ;  their 
verse  reveals  exceptional  charm  of  imagery,  feeling,  and  diction. — 
(3)  The  classical  -renaissance  of  the  i6th  century,  carried  on 
under  Italian  influence  and  initiated  by  Sa  de  Miranda,  was  a 
most  vital,  complete,  and  permanent  revolution,  involving  the 
practice  of  canzons,  sonnets,  octaves  and  tercets,  epigrams,  odes, 
and  pastoral  forms.  In  -the  last  sort  considerable  initiative  was 
displayed  early  in  the  century.  But  the  national  measure,  a 
redondilha  metre  (cf.  popular  poetry  of  Spain,  as  noted  above, 
ix),  was  also  employed  with  fine  effect,  and  in  the  greatest 
poet  of  this  period  of  efflorescence,  Luiz  de  Camoens,  the  classical 
and  native  influences  were  amalgamated,  and  transfused  with  a 
dignity,  significance,  and  universality  that  show  us  the  Portuguese 
lyric  (and  epic)  at  its  best.  Thus,  as  in  previous  centuries,  the 
literature  of  this  people  manages  to  achieve  from  the  union  of 
native  vigor  and  form  with  foreign  learning  and  style  a  surprising 
degree  of  inventive  spontaneity.  Among  the  poets  of  the  period 
Prestage  (pp.  #'/.)  mentions,  in  addition  to  Camoens,  Sa  de 
Miranda,  Ant.  Ferreira,  D.  Manoel  de  Portugal,  Pero  de  Andrade 
Caminha,  Diego  Bernardes,  Frei  Agos,tinho  da  Cruz,  and  Andre' 
Falcao  de  Resende.  —  (4)  The  lyth  century  was  an  age  of  decline,. 
—  Castilian  in  influence,  rhetorical  and  precious  in  conception  and 
expression.  Gongorism  (see  above,  under  Spanish  Lyric)  appears, 
learned  and  absurd  but  on  the  whole  helpful,  and  academies  are 
founded.  Thus  the  two  European  fads  of  the  age  produce  in 
Portugal 'as  elsewhere  a  mass  of  extravagant,  artificial  lyrism. — 
(5)  During  the  i8th  century  several  attempts,  under  French  in- 
fluence, were  made  to  improve  the  quality  of  Portuguese  poetry. 


264  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Of  these  one  of  the  chief  centered  in  the  school  known  as  the 
Arcadia  Ulysiponense  (founded  1756)  and,  later,  in  the  New 
Arcadia  (from  1790  on).  As  respects  the  lyric,  some  correction 
of  the  extravagances  of  the  previous  century  was  attained :  from 
the  study  of  the  classics,  a  reinstatement  of  balance  and  restraint, 
and  a  developed  appreciation  —  formal  and  conventional,  to  be 
sure  —  of  the  worth  of  honest  construction. — (6)  The  romantic 
revival  of  the  igth  century,  under  French,  English,  and  German 
influence,  produced  the  poetic  and  liberal  patriots  Garrett  and 
Herculano,  who  broke  with  Arcadian  rules  and  produced  lyrics 
at  once  individual  in  form,  personal  in  feeling,  and  national  in 
inspiration.  The  romantic  extremist,  A.  F.  de  Castilho,  and  his, 
followers  were  checked,  however,  by  a  celebrated  dispute,  the 
Coimbran ;  and  from  this  in  turn  arose  a  new  poetic  school 
of  much  creative  energy  (Joao  de  Deus,  Anthero  de  Quental, 
and  the  other  Coimbrans).  The  other  igth-century  influences, 
intellectual  and  aesthetic  —  pantheism  and  skepticism,  materialism 
and  naturalism,  symbolism  and  Parnassianism — may  be  discovered 
in  the  undiminished  tide  of  native  lyrical  and  enthusiastic  ex- 
pression. No  lover  of  the  lyric  will  feel  that  the  difficulty  —  but 
slight  —  of  learning  to  read  this  poetry  in  the  original  js  not  amply 
repaid  by  the  pleasure  gained.  In  this  most  lyrical  of  national 
literatures  the  horizons  are  not  always  new,  but  they  repeatedly 
disclose  realms  of  fresh  color  and  marvellous  fertility. 

References  and  Texts.  For  the  study  of  the  earlier  periods,  in 
addition  to  the  orientation  afforded  by  general  histories,  special  assist- 
ance is  afforded  by  F.  Wolf's  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  spanischen 
und  portugiesischen  Nationalliteratur  (Berlin:  1859);  T.  Braga,  Can- 
cioneiro  portuguez  da  Vaticana  (Lisbon:  1878),  which  contains  a  valu- 
able introduction  treating  of  the  origin  and  diffusion  of  Provencal  poetry 
in  modern  Europe,  the  Italian-Provensal  period  (11 14-1245),  Provencal 
poetry  at  the  courts  of  Alfonso  III  (1246-1279)  and  Dom  Diniz  (1279- 
1325),  and  the  Cancioneiros  of  the  I3th  and  I4th  centuries  (the  body 
of  the  work  consists  of  a  critical  edition  of  the  Vatican  cancioneiro). 
See  also  the  same  author's  collection  of  lyrics  in  his  Cancioneiro  e 
romanceiro  geral  portuguez ;  and  the  Trovadores  Gallecio-Portuguezes 


XI]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  265 

in  his  Historia  da  Litteratura  Portugueza,  vol.  VIII  (1871);  F.  Diez, 
Ueber  die  erste  portugiesische  Kunst  und  Hofpoesie  (Bonn:  1863); 
H.  R.  Lang,  Das  Liederbuch  des  Konigs  Denis  von  Portugal  (Halle : 
1894),  and  his  Zum  Cancioneiro  da  Ajuda  (in  Zeitschr.  fur  romanische 
Philol.  32:  129-160,  290-311,  385-399.  1908);  also  by  the  same, 
The  Relations  of  the  Earliest  Portuguese  Lyric  School  with  the  Trouba- 
dours and  Trouveres  (in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  X.  1895);  O.  Nobiling, 
Die  Lieder  des  Trobadors  D.  Joan  Garcia  de  Guilhade,  13.  Jahrhdt. 
(Erlangen:  1907);  by  the  same,  Introducc.6a  ao  estudo  da  mais  antiga 
poesia  portugueza  (in  Revista  da  Sociedade  scientifica  de  Sao  Paulo, 
vol.  II,  1907,  pp.  153-158,  and  vol.  III,.  1908,  pp.  1-9).  See,  also, 
articles  in  the  Revue  hispanique.  —  For  texts  of  Portuguese-troubadour 
poetry,  see  Lang's  Liederbuch,  etc.,  mentioned  above';  E.  Monaci, 
Canzoniere  portoghese  della  Bibliotheca  Vaticana  (1875);  E.  Molteni, 
Canzoniere  portoghese  Colocci-Brancuti  (1880);  C.  Michaelis  de  Vas- 
concellos,  Cancioneiro  da  Ajuda  (1904).  Some  notice  of  this  period  will 
be  found  above  (ix,  Spanish  Lyric)  under  the  account  of  the  early 
Galician- Portuguese  lyric. 

For  the  modern  lyric,  see  Lopes  de  Mendonga,  Memoiras  da  litt. 
contemporanea  (1855) ;  Romero  Ortiz,  La  lit.  portugueza  en  el  siglo  XIX 
(1869);  M.  Formont,  Le  mouvement  poetique  contemporain  en  Por- 
tugal ;  M.  Barreto,  Litt.  port,  contemporanea  (in  Revista  de  Portugal, 
July  1889);  T.  Braga,  Parnaso  portuguez  moderno  (Lisbon:  1877). — 
On  the  Portuguese  popular  lyric,  see  C.  F.  Bellermann,  Portugies. 
Volkslieder  und  Romanzen  (Leipz. :  1 864),  and  the  same  author's  Die 
alten  Liederbiicher  der  Port'ug.,  etc.  (Berlin:  1840). 

XL  The  English  Lyric. 

For  general  introductions  to  the  history  of  the  English  lyric,  see 
the  works  of  Schelling  (The  English  Lyric)  and  Rhys,  noted  above, 
§§  2,  5;  Reed,  §  2;  F.  I.  Carpenter's  Outline  Guide  to  the  Study  of 
English  Lyric  Poetry  (Chicago :  1 897 ;  cf .  Carpenter's  English  Lyric 
Poetry,  1500-1700);  and  the  sketches  of  Beers,  Chambers,  Dennis, 
as^noted  above,  §  5.  The  more  important  histories  of  English  prosody, 
for  instance  Saintsbury's,  offer  much  material  (for  other  references,  see 
Gayley  and  Scott,  §§  23,  24  (3)).  In  the  various  volumes  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.  will  be  found  chapters  dealing  with  the  lyric 
and  valuable  bibliographical  appendixes  (indicated,  below,  under  periods, 
subjects,  and  authors).  Morley's  English  Writers  contains  bibliogra- 
phies covering  the  literature  to  the  time  of  King  James.  Courthope's 
History  of  Eng.  Poetry  and  the  several  literary  histories  mentioned  in 


266  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

the  Appendix  to  this  volume  should  be  consulted.  See  also  Bray's 
History  of  English  Critical  Terms,  under  '  Lyrical,'  and  Hepple's  Lyrical 
Forms  in  English. 

For  criticisrrt  of  works  as  they  appear,  the  student  will  of  course  turn 
to  such  Reviews  as  are  cited  in  the  Appendix.  Special  mention 
may  be  made  of  the  Anglia  Beiblatt  and  fat  Jahresbericht  uberdie  Er- 
scheinungen  auf  dent  Gebiete  der  germanischen  Philologie.  Valuable 
monographs,  especially  for  the  earlier  periods,  will  be  found  in 
Anglia,  Englische  Studien,  Palaestra,  Anglistische  Forschungen,  Stu- 
dien  zur  Englischen  Philologie,  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  and  other 
philological  journals. 

For  references  on  Scottish  poetry,  see  the  Appendix,  and  the  works 
of  Veitch,  Cunningham,  Ritson,  Scott,  Blackie,  Motherwell,  noted 
above,  §  5  ;  a  valuable  bibliography  of  Scottish  literature  from  the 
seventeenth  century  onwards,  by  H.  G.  Aldis,  is  appended  to  vol.  IX 
of  the  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.  (1913). 

For  a  convenient  list  of  General  Anthologies  of  English  Poetry,  se& 
Schelling's  Eng.  Lyric,  pp.  307-308.  Some  of  the  more  important  are: 
Arber's  British  Anthologies  (to  vols.  1899-1901;  from  Dunbar  to 
Cowper);  Chalmers'  English  Poets  (21  vols.  1810);  Henley's  English 
Lyrics  (1897);  Hunt  and  Lee's  Book  of  the  Sonnet  (2  vols.  Boston  ed. 
1867);  Locker- Lampson's  Lyra  Elegantiarum  (1867;  enlarged  ed.  by 
C.  Kernahan,  1891  ;  the  best  collection  of  Vers  de  Societd);  Palgrave's 
Golden  Treasury  (1882;  unsurpassed),  and  Treasury  of  Sacred  Song 
(1889);  Quiller-Couch's  English  Sonnets  (1910);  Ward's  English  Poets 
(4  vols.  1885);  and  the  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse,  1250-1900, 
the  Oxford  Book  of  Victorian  Verse  (both  edited  by  Sir  Arthur  Quiller- 
Couch),  the  Oxford  Book  of  Canadian  Verse  (edited  by  W.  Campbell), 
the  Edinburgh  Book  'of  Scottish  Verse,  1300-1900  (ed.  by  W.  M. 
Dixon),  the  Dublin  Book  of  Irish  Verse,  1728-1909  (ed.  by  John 
Cooke),  and  other  Oxford  anthologies  of  poems  of  war,  patriotism,  the 
sea,  etc. 

A.  Anglo-Saxon  Lyrics  (to  1150). 

As  general  introductions  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  lyric,  see  especially  the 
proper  sections  in  Courthope,  in  the  Camb.  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  in 
A.  Brandl's  Englische  Lit.  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  1901,  II,  i,  p.  941  ff.), 
in  the  histories  of  the  English  lyric  just  given,  and  Chap.  II  of  Erskine's 
Elizabethan  Lyric.  Excellent  bibliographical  appendixes  in  the  Camb. 
Hisf.  Eng.  Lit. ;  see  also  H.  M.  Ayres,  Bibliog.  Sketch  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  Lit.  (Columbia  Univ.  N.Y. :  1910).  The  great  collection  of 


XI,  A]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  267 

Anglo-Saxon  poetry  is  that  of  C.  W.  M.  Grein  and  R.  P.  Wiilker  (Bib- 
liothek  der  angelsachsischen  Poesie,  new  ed.,  2  vols.  Leipz. :  1894). 
For  other  collections,  see  Schelling's  English  Lyric,  pp.  309-311. 

Study  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  lyric  must  be  concerned  with  Anglo- 
Saxon  lyrics  that  show  no  Christian  influence,  with  early  Christian 
or  Christianized  lyrics,  and  with  the  lyrical  qualities  contained  in 
other,  especially  narrative,  poetry  of  the  period.  Elegies,  riddles, 
charm-songs,  war-songs,  religious  lyrics,  and  the- lyric  of  subjective 
personality  (  Widsith  and  Dear ;  see  Chap.  II  of  Erskine's  Eliza- 
bethan Lyric)  are  comprised  within  the  lyric'  field  proper, ;  but 
certain  aspects  of  Cynewulf's  poems  and  the  pseudo-Cynewulfian 
poems  offer  valuable  testimony  to  the  lyrical  quality  of  the  ages 
before  the  Conquest.  The  following  topics  of  historical  study  are 
suggestive,  not  exhaustive :  sources  of  the  various  kinds,  and  of 
the  individual  lyrics ;  probable  conditions  of  authorship  (relative 
force  of  communal  and  individual  factors)  ;  methods  of  diffusion 
or  "  publication  "  (by  minstrels,  etc.)  ;  relative  ages  of  the  different 
kinds,  and  generalizations,  based  on  such  inquiry,  as  to  laws  of 
historical  sequence ;  the  evidence  for  general  stages  of  lyric  growth, 
as  derived  from  a  study  of  sequence  in  metrical  forms,  or  of  the 
relation  of  the  lyrics  to  magic  and  successive  forms  of  religion, 
or  of  the  order  in  which  objective  and  subjective  materials  were 
used,  or  of  the  priority  of  communal  to  personal  interests,  etc.  — 
All  these  topics,  moreover,  should  be  studied  comparatively,  that 
is,  in  connection  with  analogous  materials  in  other  literatures. 

References.  R.  Burton,  Nature  in  Old  English  Poetry  (in  Atlantic 
Mo.,  April,  1894);  F.  B.  Gummere,  The  Popular  Ballad  (Boston: 
1907),  Chap.  I,  §  3,  and  Chap.  II,  §  i,  also  Index,  under  Lyric;  by 
the  same,  Germanic  Origins  (N.Y. :  1892),  and  The  Beginnings  of 
Poetry  (N.Y. :  1901);.  E.  D.  Hanscom,  Feeling  for  Nature  in  O.  E. 
Yoe.\.ry(n\Journ.Etig.andGerm.Philol.$:  439.  1903-05);  H.Paul, 
Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie  (2  Aufl.,  Bd.  II,  Abt.  i,  Strass- 
burg:  1901-1909,  p.  973  ff.,  and  1034,  early  A.-S.  lyric,  and  later 
A.-S.  sacred  lyric;  references  on  pp. .980,  1035.  ro36);  L.  L.  Schiicking, 
Das  angelsachsfsche  Totenklagelied  (in  Englische  Studien  39 :  i .  1 908); 


268  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

W.  O.  Stevens,  The  Cross  in  the  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  (in  Yale  Studies  in  English,  No.  23.  1904);  R.  Wiilker, 
Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  angelsachsischen  Litteratur  (Leipz. : 
1885):  under  the  proper  headings  may  be  found  notes  of  the  older 
editions,  translations,  and  dissertations;  on  the  Riddles,  see  §  71  ;  the 
Wanderer,  §137;  the  Seafarer,  §144;  the  Ruin,  §150;  "Riming 
Poem,"  §  158;  (Widsith,  §  300  ff.);  Charms,  §  352  ff. ;  religious  poems, 
§  397  ff. ;  etc.;  later  bibliography  is  given  in  vol.  I  of  the  Camb.  Hist, 
of  Eng.  Lit.,  pp.  473-475  ;  for  further  references  the  student  should 
examine  the  periodicals  mentioned  in  the  Appendix. 

B.  Middle  English  Lyrics  (to  1506). 

For  general  introductions  to  the  Middle  English  lyric  see  the  works 
already  cited  above  as  general  introductions  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  lyric. 
Professor  Schofield's  English  Lit.  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
Chaucer  (Lond.  and  N.Y. :  1906)  is  indispensable  for  this  period;  see 
especially  pp.  133-136  (Anglo-Norman  and  Anglo-French  Lyrics  and 
Debates),  Chap.  X  (English  Songs  and  Lyrics :  Religious  and  Didactic, 
Secular),  and  the  corresponding  sections  of  the  bibliographical  Appendix. 
See  also  J.  E.  Wells,  A  Manual  of  the  Writings  in  Middle  English  (1916), 
and  C.  S.  Baldwin,  Introd.  to  Eng.  Medieval  Lit,  Chap.  V  (N.Y.: 
1914).  —  For  collections  of  Middle  English  lyrics,  see  Schelling's  English 
Lyric,  pp.  309-3 1 1  ;  Schofield,  p.  486.  K.  Boddeker's  Altenglische 
Dichtungen  des  MS.  Harl.  2253  (Berlin:  1878),  or  Thomas  Weight's 
publication  of  the  same  MS.  for  the  Percy  Society  (Specimens  of  Lyric 
Poetry,  1842),  R.  Jordan's  Kleinere  Dichtungen  der  Hs.  Harley  3810 
(in  Eng.  Studien  41  :  253.  1910),  J.  L.  Weston's  The  Chief  Middle 
English  Poets  (Boston:  191.4),  Neilson  and  Webster's  Chief  British 
Poets  of  the  I4th  and  ijth  Centuries  (1916),  and  Chambers  and  Sidg- 
wick's  Early  English  Lyrics  (1907)  afford  representative  materials.  Ellis' 
Specimens  of  the  Early  English  Poets  (3  vols.  1 790)  made  popular 
many  of  the  older  lyrics.  See  also  Sir  John  Stainer's  Early  Bodleian 
Music  (Lond.:  1901). 

The  history  of  the  lyric  after  the  Conquest  resolves  itself 
practically  into  the  introduction  of  new  themes  and  forms,  usually 
from  abroad,  and  the  gradual  acclimatization  or  rejection  of  these 
novelties.  Among  the  new  or  nearly  new  themes  are  those  of 
love,  of  satire  as  directed  against  women,  of  the  lullaby,  of  the 
pastoral  (Henryson's  Robene  and  Makyne),  and  of  national,  as 


XI,  B]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  269 

distinct  from  feudal,  patriotism  (Laurence  Minot)  ;  among  the 
new  forms  are  the  ballade,  rondel,  pastourelle,  debat,  etc.  It  is 
obvious  that  under  the  circumstances  the  chief  task  of  historical 
research  becomes  the  study  of  the  nature  of  the  foreign  influences, 
the  means  by  which  they  became  effective  in  England,  the  trans- 
formations they  produced  or  underwent,  and  the  methods  by 
which  these  transformations  were  accomplished.  Foreign  influ- 
ences came  for  the  most  part  from  the  French  troubadours  and 
trouveres  and  from  Italianized  Proven9al  poems.  For  references 
to  these  the  student  should  turn  to  the  notes  on  the  French  and 
the  Italian  lyric  in  this  section.  The  influence  of  Latin  lyrics, 
including  hymns  and  Goliardic  poems  (for  which  see  above,  iv ;  v, 
E),  is  also  of  significance.  Most  of  the  new  influences  may  be 
traced  in  the  works  of  Chaucer  and  his  followers,  and  in  the 
Scottish  poets  of  the  time. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  student  concern  himself  with  the 
purely  native  lyric,  he  will .  turn  to  the  folk  songs  and  carols  of 
the  age ;  and  to  more  pretentious  poems  that  show  a  modicum 
of  foreign  influence,  —  the  work,  for  instance,  of  Skelton.  The 
effect  upon  the  lyric  of  the  growing  sense  of  nationality  from  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  on  suggests  also  a  vital  subject 
of  study.  Can  the  lyric  of  feudalism  be  distinguished  in  any  sys- 
tematic fashion  from  the  lyric  of  Englishry  and  genuine  folk  feeling  ? 
What  testimony  do  other  literatures,  ancient  as  well  as  modern, 
offer  in-  this  respect  ? 

The  general  diffusion  of  the  lyrical  spirit  in  this  period  may  be 
compared  as  to  extent  and  earnestness  with  that  of  former  and 
successive  periods.  The  condition,  moreover,  of  English  prosody 
at  the  time  is  a  subject  of  particular  interest  (see  Saintsbury's 
Hist,  of  English  Prosody).  "  A  careful  study  of  the  various 
metres  of  these  poems  [i.e.  in  the  Harleian  MS.]  will  show  that, 
in  spite  of  occasional  lapses  from  strict  metrical  propriety,  there 
was  practically  no  secret  of  English  prosody  which  was  not  at 
least  ready  to  be  unlocked  for  English  poets "  (Saintsbury,  A 
Short  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit,  p.  67.  N.Y.:  1905). 


270  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

References.  J.  Aust,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  mittelenglischen 
Lyrik  (in  Archiv,  vol.  LXX.  1883);  A.  Brandl,  Spielmannsverhalt- 
nisse  in  friihmittelenglischer  Zeit  (Sitzungsberichte  der  konigl.  prcuss. 
Akad.,  1910);  E.  K.  Chambers,  The  Mediaeval  Stage  (2  vols.  1903), 
—  treats  incidentally  of  lyric  and  folk-lyric ;  by  the  same,  Some  Aspects 
of  the  Mediaeval  Lyric  (in  Chambers  and  Sidgwick's  Early  English 
Lyrics,  1907  —  see  above,  §  5);  H.  J.  Chaytor,  Provencal  Influence  in 
Germany,  France,  and  England,  being  Chap.  IX  of  his  The  Trouba- 
dours (Camb.  Manuals  of  Sc.  and  Lit.  1912);  F.  J.  Crowest,  The  Story 
of  the  Carol  (Lond. :  1911);  E.  Gattinger,  Die  Lyrik  Lydgates  (in 
Wiener  Beitrage  z.  eng.  Phil.,  No.  4.  1896);  M.  Haessner,  Die 
Goliardendichtung  u.  d.  Satire  im  13.  Jahrh.  in  England  (1905); 
O.  Heider,  Untersuchungen  zur  mittelenglischen  erotischen  Lyrik, 
1250-1300  (Halle  Diss. :  1905);  J.  J.  Jusserand,  English  Wayfaring 
Life  in  the  Middle  Ages  (1890);  A.  Koelbing,  Skelton  (Chap.  IV  of 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  Ill,  1909);  E.  Koppel,  Cowers  franz. 
Balladen  und  Chaucer  (in  Engl.  Studien  XX,  1895);  A.  MiUler, 
Mitteleng.  geistl.  u.  welt.'  Lyrik  d.  XIII.  Jahrh.  etc.  (1910);  W.  A. 
Neilson,  Origins  and  Sources  of  the  Court  of  Love  (1900);  F.  A. 
Patterson,  The  Middle  English  Penitential  Lyric  (N.Y.:  1911.  Diss., 
Columbia), —  contains  a  collection  of  penitential  lyrics,  with  notes  and 
bibliography,  and  an  introduction  classifying  Middle  English  religious 
lyrics,  and  studying  the  influences  that  brought  about  the  development 
of  the  vernacular  lyric;  J.  Schipper,  Dunbar,  sein  Leben  und  seine 
Gedichte(i884);  E.  Rickert,  Ancient  English  Christmas  Carols  (Lond.: 
1910);  Vollhardt,  Einfluss  der  lat.  geistlichen  Litt.  auf  einige  kleinere 
Schopfungen  der  engl.  Uebergangsperiode,  —  for  the  influence  of  Latin 
Christian  literature  on  English  poetry  of  1150-1250;  C.  J.  Sharp, 
English  Folk-Carols  (Lond.:  1911).  See  also  references  given  above 
under  the  history  of  the  French  Lyric,  vu,  A-F. 

C.   The  Sixteenth  Century. 

The  best  introductions  to  the  lyric  literature  of  this  age  are  F.  M. 
Padelford's  Early  Sixteenth  Century  Lyrics  (Boston:  1907,  —  the  in- 
troductory essay),  J.  Erskine's  The  Elizabethan  Lyric  (N.Y. :  1903), 
F.  E.  Schelling's  Eng.  Lyric,  and  the  same  author's  introduction  to  his 
Book  of  Elizabethan  Lyrics.  —  For  bibliography  of  collections  of  Eliza- 
bethan lyrics,  see  Schelling's  English  Lyric,  pp.  313-315;  Erskine, 
op.  tit.,  pp.  315-325;  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  Appendixes,  vols.  II  and 
III  ;  Bolle,  Child,  Fliigel,  Padelford,  etc.,  as  noted  below,  under 
References. 


XI,  C]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC 

The  sixteenth  century  in  England  and  Scotland  offers  an  extraor- 
dinarily rich  and  varied  field  for  the  student  of  lyric  development. 
The  beginner  had  better  concern  himself  with  some  single  topic. 
He  may,  for  instance,  study  with  profit  the  relation  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan lyric  to  the  Middle  English  as  regards,  first,  the  modi- 
fication of  old  popular  themes  by  the  influence  of  courtly  life, 
and,  second,  the  addition  of  new  themes.  In  the  progress  from 
the  popular  to  the  art  lyric,  he  may  trace  the  steps  from  the 
predominance  of  music  over  words  to  the  predominance  of  the 
latter  and,  eventually,  to  the  exclusion  of  music.  Other  topics 
include  the  influence  of  Petrarch  upon  form  and  matter,  in- 
volving the  introduction  of  the  sonnet ;  the  influence  of  French 
forms,  with  special  reference  to  the  Pleiade  (cf.  above,  vn,  G)  ; 
pastoral  quality  ;  elegiac  quality ;  epigrammatic  quality ;  develop- 
ment of  subjective  content;  classification  of  contents  or  themes, 
their  provenience,  and  the  rationale  of  their  development ;  the 
use  of  the  refrain  in  practical  song  and  art  lyric ;  the  conventions, 
artificialities,  or  conceits  of  the  Elizabethan  lyric ;  the  influence 
of  Wyatt  and  Surrey,  etc.  —  The  materials  supplied  by  the  many 
lyrical  Miscellanies,  beginning  with  Tottel's,  1557,  and  continuing 
through  the  Paradyse  of  Daynty  Devises,  1576,  the  Gorgious 
Gallery,  1578,  the  Handefull  of  Pleasant  Delites,  1584,  etc. 
(see  Erskine),  afford  unusual  opportunities  for  the  study  of  a 
type  in  sequence.  The  general  relation  of  these  Miscellanies  to 
the  public  furnishes,  in  turn,  a  clue  to  the  popular  propensity  for 
lyrical  expression^  but  a  study  of  this  kind  will  involve  that  also 
of  the  material  to  be  found  in  the  Song- Books  (where  the  madrigal 
is  of  particular  interest).  —  The  Sonnet  Sequences,  such  as  those 
of  Sidney  and  Shakespeare,  offer  a  fruitful  field  of  investigation  in 
the  development  of  form  and  theme,  as  does  also  the  influence 
of  the  classics  in  the  pastorals,  elegiacs,  epigrams,  and  sonnets  of 
Grimald,  Googe,  Turberville,  and  others.  -*—  The  history  of  the 
lyric  in  the  drama  begins  with  the  miracle  plays  and  runs  through 
well-defined  stages  as  the  drama  and  masque  develop ;  the 
incidental  lyric  in  Elizabethan  romances  suggests  another  subject 


272  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

of  study.  —  In  addition  to  such  researches,  studies  of  development 
and  reciprocal  influence  may  be  undertaken  in  connection  with 
particular  authors  or  sets  of  authors.  The  sources  and  influence, 
for  instance,  of  Wyatt,  Surrey,  Sidney,  Gascoigne,  Lord  Vaux, 
Grimald,  Watson,  Constable,  Barnes,  Breton  (for  a  full  list,  in 
chronological  order  of  publication,  see  Erskine,  pp.  305-311)  call 
for  examination  in  detail ;  and  the  names  of  Spenser  and  Shake- 
speare suggest  a  host  of  problems  involving  not  only  the  deter- 
mination of  sources  but  of  the  way  in  which  the  lyric  in  its 
culmination  is  related  to  the  practice  of  preceding  and  succeeding 
writers. 

It  is  obvious  that  many  such  investigations,  of  which  only  a 
few  are  suggested  here,  must  be  completed  before  satisfactory 
generalizations  can  be  made  in  regard  to  the  general  growth 
of  the  lyric  during  the  sixteenth  century. 

Palgrave,  in  summarizing  the  style  of  the  Elizabethan  lyric,  says : 

There  is  here  a  wide  range  of  style ;  —  from  simplicity  expressed  in 
a  language  hardly  yet  broken-in  to  verse,  —  through  the  pastoral  fancies 
and  Italian  conceits  of  the  strictly  Elizabethan  time,  —  to  the  passionate 
reality  of  Shakespeare  :  yet  a  general  uniformity  of  tone  prevails.  Few 
readers  can  fail  to  observe  the  natural  sweetness  of  the  verse,  the  single- 
hearted  straightforwardness  of  the  thoughts  :  —  nor  less,  the  limitation 
of  subject  to  the  many  phases  of  one  passion,  which  then  characterized 
our  lyrical  poetry,  —  unless  when,  as  in  especial  with  Shakespeare,  the 
1  purple  light  of  Love '  is  tempered  by  a  spirit  of  sterner  reflection.  For 
the  didactic  verse  of  the  century,  although  lyrical  in  form,  yet  very 
rarely  rises  to  the  pervading  emotion,  the  golden  cadence,  proper 
to  the  lyric  (Golden  Treasury :  Notes). 

References.  The  student  will  find  excellent  bibliographies  in  F.  M. 
Padelford's  Early  Sixteenth  Century  Lyrics  (pp.  149-154);  Erskine's 
Elizabethan  Lyric  (pp.  325-329),  Schelling's  English  Lyric  (pp.  311- 
313),  and  the  Camb.  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.  (vol.  II,  p.  550  ff . ;  vol.  Ill,  for 
Chaps.  VIII,  X,  XI,  XII,  XIII ;  vol.  IV,  for  Chap.  VI).  We  give  here 
only  a  few  of  the  titles 'of  the  more  important  specific  investigations: 
R.  M.  Alden,  The  Sonnets  of  Shakespeare,  Variorum  Edition,  with 
bibliography  (N.Y. :  1916);  R.  Alscher,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  und  seine 
Stellung  in  der  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  englischen  Litteratur  und 


XI,  C]  .        THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  2/3 

Verskunst  (1886);  Anon.,  The  Elizabethan  Lyric  (in  Quart.  Rev., 
Oct.,  1902);  Anon.,  The  Pleiade  and  the  Elizabethans  (in  Edinb.  Rev., 
April,  1907);  W.  A.  Barrett,  English  Glee  and  Madrigal  Writers  (Lond. : 
1877),  to  which  the  student  of  the  madrigal  may  add  the  references  to 
Cox,  Oliphant,  etc.  given  below,  the  articles  on  the  madrigal  in  the  Encyc. 
Brit,  and  the  great  French  and  German  encyclopedias,  pp.  liv-lvii  of 
the  Introd.  to  Schelling's  Elizabethan  Lyrics  and  the  bibliography  ap- 
pended, pp.  349-350  of  Einstein's  Italian  Renaissance  in  England  and 
bibliography  appended,  Schipper's  Englische  Metrik  (2:  887),  K.  Voss- 
ler's  Das  deutsche  Madrigal  (in  Schick  und  Waldberg's  Literarh.  Forsch. 
6,  Weimar  :  1898),  Kdrting,  Grober,  etc. ;  H.  C.  Beeching,  Introd.  to  his 
Sonnets  of  Shakespeare  (Boston  :  1904);  H.  A.  Beers,  see  above,  §  5  ; 
W.  Bolle,  Die  gedruckten  englischen  Liederbiicher  bis  1600,  —  history 
and  texts  —  important  (in  Palaestra,  No.  29.  1903);  P.  Borghesi, 
Petrarch  and  his  Influence  on  English  Literature  (Bologna:  1896); 
A.  H.  Bullen,  introductions  to  his  four  collections  of  Elizabethan  lyrics, 
and  to  his  Shorter  Elizabethan  Poems  ( Arber-Seccombe) ;  F.  I.  Carpenter, 
English  Lyric  Poetry,  see  above,  §  5  ;  R.  H.  Case,  English  Epithalamies, 
see  above,  §  5  ;  E.  K.  Chambers,  English  Pastorals,  Introd.  (Lond. : 
1895);  W.  Chappell,  Some  Account  of  an  Unpublished  Collection  of 
Songs  and  Ballads  by  King  Henry  VIII.  and  his  Contemporaries  (in 
Archaeologia,  41  :  371);  by  the  same,  A  Collection  of  National  English 
Airs  (Lond.;  1838-1840),  and  Popular  Music  of  the  Olden  Time  (Lond. : 
1855-1859;  newed.,  entitled  Old  English  Popular  Music,  Lond. :  1893); 
H.  H.  Child,  Elizabethan  Lyric  (Chap.  VIII,  cf.  Chap.  XIII,  of  Camb. 
Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  Ill,  1909);  by  the  same,  The  Song-Books  and 
Miscellanies  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  first  half  of , the  seventeenth 
century  (op.  cit.,  vol.  IV,  Chap.  VI ;  with  excellent  bibliography  of  the 
Song-Books);  H.  E.  Cory,  The  Critics  of  Edmund  Spenser  (Univ. 
of  Calif.  Pubs,  in  Modern  Philology,  vol.  II,  No.  II,  1911);  W.  J. 
Courthope,  Spenser  (Chap.  XI  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  vol.  Ill,  1909); 
F.  A.  Cox,  English  Madrigals  in  the  Time  of  Shakespeare  (Lond.: 
n.d.);  G.  L.  Craik,  Spenser  and  his  Poetry  (new  ed.,  3  vols.,  Lond.: 
1871);  J.  W.  Cunliffe,  Gascoigne  (Chap.  X  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit., 
vol.  Ill,  1909);  E.  Dowden,  The  Sonnets  of  William  Shakespeare 
(Lond.:  1881);  L.  De  Marchi,  L' influenza  della  lirica  italiana  sulla 
lirica  inglese  nel  secolo  XVI  (in  Nuova  antologia,  S.  Ill,  58.  1895; 
cf.  Giorn.  st.,  27.  1895);  L.  Einstein,  The  Italian  Renaissance  in 
England  (N.Y. :  1902);  H.  Fehse,  Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey. 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Gesch.  des  Petrarchismus  in  England  (Progr.,  Chemnitz: 
1883);  J.  B.  Fletcher,  The  Religion  of  Beauty  in  Women  (1911); 


2/4  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC    .  [§  6 

E.  Fliigel,  Liedersammlungen  des  XVI.  Jahrhs.  besonders  aus  der 
Zeit  Heinrichs  VIII.,  —  important  texts  (in  Anglia,  12:  225,  585. 
1889,  and  26.  1903;  continued  by  Padelford,  31:  309.  1908;  cf. 
W.  Bolle,  34:  273.  1911);  also  his  Die  handschriftliche  Ueberliefe- 
rung  der  Gedichte  von  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  (in  Anglia,  17,  18),  and  his 
Neuenglisches  Lesebuch  (Halle:  1895);  A.  K.  Foxwell,  A  Study  of 
Sir  Thomas  Wyatt's  Poems  (Lond. :  1912);  L.  Frankel,  Shakespeare 
und  das  Tagelied  (Hannover:  1893);  W.  W.  Greg,  Pastoral  Poetry 
and  Pastoral  Drama  (1906);  J.  Guggenheim,  Quellenstudien  zu  Samuel 
Daniels  Sonetten  Cyclus  Delia  (Berlin  :  1898);  J.  S.  Harrison,  Platonism 
in  English  Poetry  of  the  i6th  and  I7th  Centuries  (N.Y. :  1903); 
W.  Hazlitt,  Lects.  on  the  Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth,  Lect.  VI  (1820); 
W.  C.  Hazlitt,  Remains  of  Early  Popular  Poetry  (Lond. :  1856);  H.  Helm, 
Zur  Entstehung  von  P.  Sidneys  Sonetten  (in  Anglia,  19:  549.  1897); 
T.  F.  Henderson,  Scottish  Popular  Poetry  before  Burns  (Chap.  XIV 
of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  IX,  1913  ;  see  the  valuable  bibliographical 
appendix);  W.  Hertzberg,  Eine  griechische  Quelle  zu  Shakespeares 
Sonetten  (in  Shaksp.Jhb.,  XIII,  1878);  O.  Hoffmann,  Studien  zu 
Alexander  Montgomerie  (in  Engl.  Studien,  20.  1895);  H.  Isaac,  Wie 
weit  geht  die  Abhangigkeit  Shakspere's  von  Daniel  als  Lyriker  (in 
Shaksp.-Jhb.,  17);  V.  Jackson,  English  Melodies  from  the  I3th  to  the 
1 8th  Century  (Lond.:  1910);  L.  E.  Kastner,  Articles  in  Mod.  Lang. 
Rev.,  1907-09,  as  cited  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  HI,  p.  593; 
E.  Koeppel,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  und  Melin  de  Saint-Gelais  (in  Anglia, 
13:  77.  1891);  by  the  same,  Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  englischen 
Petrarchismus  im  XVI.  Jahrh.  (in  Roman.  Forsch.,  5.  1890);  S.  Lee, 
Introduction  to*  his  Elizabethan  Sonnets  (Arber-Seccombe) ;  by  the 
same,  The  French  Renaissance  in  England  (1910),  —  for  influence  of 
the  Pl&ade,  see  pp.  217-219;  by  the  same,  The  Sonnet  (in  Camb.  Hist. 
Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  Ill,  1909);  by  the  same,  Chapman's  "Amorous  Zodiacke" 
(in  Mod.  Phtlol.,  Oct.  1905);  by  the  same,  Life  of  W.  Shakespeare 
CChap.  VII  and  Appendixes  IX,  X:  5th  ed.  1905);  by  the  same, 
Shakespeare's  Sonnets,  Introd.  (Oxford:  1905);  C.  Lentzner,  Uber 
das  Sonett  und  seine  Gestaltung  in  der  englischen  Dichtung  bis  Milton 
(Halle:  1886);  L.  F.  Mott,  The  System  of  Courtly  Love  (Boston :  1896); 
E.  W.  Naylor,  An  Elizabethan  Virginal  Book  (Lond.:  1905),  —  Eliza- 
bethan music;  J.  A.  Noble,  see  above,  §  5;  -T.  Oliphant,  A  Short 
Account  of  Madrigals  (1836);  by  the  same,  La  Musa  Madrigalcsca 
(Lond.:  1837);  D.  E.  Owen,  Relations  of  the  Elizabethan  Sonnet 
Sequences  to  Earlier  English  Verse,  especially  that  of  Chaucer  (Penn- 
sylvania Thesis,  privately  printed,  1903);  F.  M.  Padelford,  Early 


XI,  D]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  2/5 

Sixteenth  Century  Lyrics,  Introd.  (Boston:  1907),  and  his  reprint  of 
the  manuscript  poems  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey  (in  Anglia,  29 :  273. 
1906;  cf.  29:  256);  also  his  edition  of  songs  in  MS.  Selden  B.  26 
(in  Anglia,  36:  79.  1912),  and  his  Spenser's  Fowre  Hymnes  (in  Jr. 
Eng.  and  Germ.  Philol.,  vol.  13,  No.  3.  1914),  —  a  study  with  refer- 
ence to  the  mystical  doctrines  of  romantic  love  (cf.  J.  B.  Fletcher  in 
/'.  J/.  Z.  A.  19  :  452  ;  Padelford  in  Mod.  Philol.  13,  No.  i) ;  M.  Fieri, 
as  cited  above,  §  5  ;  E.  B.  Reed,  The  i6th  Century  Lyrics  in  Ad.  MS. 
18,752  —  text  (in  Anglia,  33  :  344.  1910);  E.  F.  Rimbault,  Biblio'theca 
Madrigaliana,  A  Bibliographical  Account  of  the  Musical  and  Poetical 
Works  published  in  England  during  the  1 6th  and  1 7th  Centuries 
(Lond. :  1847),  and  his  Little  Book  of  Songs  and  Ballads  (Lond. :  1851); 
J.  Ritson,  A  Select  Collection  of  English  Songs  (Lond. :  1 783),  and  his 
Ancient  Songs  and  Ballads  (ed.  Hazlitt,  Lond.:  1877);  F.  E.  Schelling, 
A  Book  of  Elizabethan  Lyrics,  Introd.  (Boston:  1895);  by  the  same, 
Life  and  Writings  of  George  Gascoigne  (Univ.  of  Pennsylvania:  1893); 
M.  A.  Scott,  Elizabethan  Translations  from  the  Italian  (in  Mod.  Lang. 
Ass.,  10-14.  1896-99);  C.  Segre,  Due  Petrarchisti  inglesi  del  sec. 
XVI  (in  N.  Antol.,  175.  1901);  W.  E.  Simonds,  Wyatt  and  his 
Poems  (Boston :  1 889) ;  E.  Stengel,  on  Shakespeare's  sonnets  (in 
Englische  Studien,  4:  i.  1881);  J.  A.  Symonds,  In  the  Key  of  Blue 
and  other  Prose  Essays  (Lond.:  1893);  A.  H.  Upham,  The  French 
Influence  in  English  Literature  (N.Y. :  1908),  Chap.  Ill,  The  Eliza- 
bethan Sonnet;  Chap.  IX,  French  Influence  on  English  vers  de  socitit 
from  1558  to  1660;  H.  Vaganay,  cited  above,  §  5 ;  E.  Walker,  The 
History  of  Music  in  England,  Chap.  IV  (Oxford:  1907);  K.  Wrindscheid, 
Dieenglische  Hirtendichtung  von  1579  bis  1625  (Halle:  1895);  I.Zocco, 
Petrarchismo  e  Petrarchisti  in  Inghilterra  (Palermo:  1906).  Of  minor 
importance  are :  Mrs.  M.  F.  Crow,  Elizabethan  Sonnet  Cycles  (2  vols. 
Chicago:  .1896;  4  vols.  Lond.:  1896-1898),  —  popular,  no  research; 
A.  Cruse,  The  Elizabethan  Lyrists  and  their  Poetry  (Lond.:  1913), — 
merely  descriptive. 

For  bibliography  of  works  on  Petrarch,  see  above,  vin,  D. 

D.    The  Seventeenth  Century. 

For  general  introductions,  see  Schelling's  English  Lyric,  and  the 
appropriate  chapters  in  the  Camb.  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.;  W.  J.  Courthope's 
History  of  English  Poetry,  vol.  Ill ;  also  the  Introductions  to  the  works 
of  Saintsbury  and  Schelling  mentioned  below.  —  For  anthologies,  see 
Schelling,  op.  cit.,  pp.  313-315,  316-317;  for  the  Scotch  collections 
of  Ramsay  and  Watson,  see  below,  under  E. 


276  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Generally  speaking,  the  seventeenth  century  saw  a  gradual  but 
glorious  decline  of  the  lyric.  First  should  be  noted  the  poets  (such 
as  Jonson,  Daniel,  Drayton,  Donne,  Campion,  etc.)  who  in  one 
way  or  another  carried  modified  Elizabethan  strains  into  Jacobean 
poetry.  The  relation  of  the  Spensereans,  the  Fletchers,  Drummond 
of  Hawthornden,  Wither,  Sir  John  Davies,  Browne,  Quarles,  Joseph 
Beaumont,  and  the  youthful  Milton  to  their  masters ;  Jonson 's 
clarifying,  classicizing  influence,  and  Donne's  deepening  of  the 
content  of  the  Elizabethan  conceit;  Drayton's  Elizabethan  fresh- 
ness carried  over  into  short-lined  lyric  —  ode,  pastoral,  and  elegy 
—  suggest  lines  of  research  that  lead  backward  and  forward,  in 
the  course  of  which  the  majority  of  the  lyrists  of  the  century 
will  be  encountered.  The  Jacobean  and  Caroline  Miscellanies 
(Garlands,  Drolleries,  etc.)  continue  the  Elizabethan  collections 
of  a  like  kind,  and  offer  a  rich  field  for  investigation. 

Among  the  movements  which  distinguish  the  Caroline  lyric 
may  be  studied,  first,  the  later  flowering  of  the  Petrarchan 
influence  that  had  inspired  Spenser,  Sidney,  and  the  Fletchers, 
in  Habington,  Quarles,  Thomas  Stanley,  and  Lovelace.  As  op- 
posed to  that  influence  with  its  ecstasy  and  adoration  of  chivalric 
love  and  its  rapturous  idealism,  the  courtly  gallantry  of  the  Cavalier 
lyric  presents  two  phases  worthy  of  careful  historical  examination : 
the  realism  that  derives  from  the  classical  restraint  of  Jonson  and 
the  study  of  Anacreon,  Horace,  and  Catullus  and  shows  itself  best 
in  the  thought,  imaginative  quality,  and  delicate  art  of  such  lyrists 
as  Herrick,  Carew,  and  Waller ;  the  lawless  and  fantastic  experi- 
mentation that  derives  from  the  '  metaphysical '  influence  of  Donne 
and  displays  itself  best  in  the  sometimes  sensuous,  sometimes 
spirituelle,  but  always  easy  and  musical  lyrics  of  Suckling.  The 
sacred  lyric  also  presents  a  field  for  historical  study ;  and  here 
again  may  be  traced  the  influence  of  Donne  in  the  consciously 
artistic  and  ingenious,  frequently  '  conceited '  beauties  of  Herbert 
and  Vaughan.  On  the  other  hand,  in  Crashaw  the  classical  spirit 
as  well  calls  for  attention,  and  the  frequent  use  of  Spanish  and 
Italian  models.  The  earlier  lyrics  of  Milton  and  their  relation  to 


XI,  D]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  277 

the  movements  mentioned  above  still  afford  material  for  consid- 
eration ;  also  his  cultivation  and  mastery  of  the  sonnet  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  the  Elizabethan  impulse  had  died  of  inanition  or 
of  the  opposing  influence  of  Jonson  and  Donne. 

Most  important  in  the  history  of  metrical  forms  are  the  gradual 
refinement  during  the  century  of  the  decasyllabic  couplet  —  adum- 
brated earlier  by  Fairfax,  advocated  and  practised  by  Drayton, 
Sir  John  Beaumont,  and  Sandys,  carried  to  perfection  by  Waller, 
Denham,  and  Cowley ;  the  short-lived  lyric  of  Drayton,  and  his 
experiments  as  well  as  those  of  Marvell  in  the  Anacreontic  or 
Horatian  ode ;  the  graceful  and  varied  stanzaic  forms  of  the 
cavalier  lyrists,  even  of  the  less-known,  Kynaston,  Thomas  Stanley, 
Henry  King,  the  matchless  Orinda  (Katherine  Philips). 

The  development  of  the  Pindaric  fad,  at  the  hands  of  Jonson, 
Cowley,  Dryden,  and  others,  offers  an  excellent  opportunity  for 
analysis  of  the  rise,  growth,  and  decay  of  a  formal  literary  fashion. 
Only  an  exact  analysis  of  themes,  diction,  and  metrical  forms,  and 
of  the  definite  contribution  of  individual  poets,  such  as  has  not 
yet  been  made,  can  supply  us  with  an  exhaustive  review  of  facts 
by  induction  from  which  the  laws  of  literary  fashion  may  be 
formulated.  —  The  lyric  treatment  of  the  countryside*  by  such 
poets  as  Drayton,  Marvell,  Vaughan,  and  Milton  deserves  separate 
study ;  as  also  do  the  style  and  method  of  the  street-ballads  which 
played  so  lively  a  part  in  the  controversial  activities  of  the  century. 

The  Restoration  lyric  (Dorset,  Rochester,  Sedley,  and  others)  in- 
volved certain  further  modifications  of  style,  themes,  and  "numbers," 
the  causes  of  which,  general  and  particular,  have  been  inquired  into 
not  seldom,  but  seldom  systematically.  The  student  of  vers  de 
societe  will  find  that  the  Restoration  lyric  looms  large  in  his  field, 
and  that  he  must  follow  certain  influences  back  through  the 
1  metaphysicals '  and  earlier  poets  before  he  can  arrive  at  origins. 
This  is  a  fascinating  study,  but  there  is  as  yet  no  orderly  and 
exhaustive  monograph  on  the  subject,  though  several  pleasant 
and  suggestive  asides  have  been  uttered  (see  above,  §  i ,  iv,  i).  — 
The  tyranny  of  the  heroic  Couplet  and  the  artificiality  of  the 


2/8  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Pindaric  ode,  both  restrictive  of  genuine  lyric,  under  Dryden 
and  his  followers,  bring  us  to  the  end  of  the  century. 

Palgrave's  summary  of  the  second  book  of  the  Golden  Treasury 
is  as  follows : 

This  division,  embracing  generally  the  latter  eighty  years  of  the  Seven- 
teenth century,  contains  the  close  of  our  Early  poetical  style  and  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Modern.  In  Dryden  we  see  the  first  master  of  the 
new :  in  Milton,  whose  genius  dominates  here  as  Shakespeare's  in  the 
former  book,  —  the  crown  and  consummation  of  the  early  period. 
Their  splendid  Odes  are  far  in  advance  of  any  prior  attempts,  Spenser's 
excepted :  they  exhibit  that  wider  and  grander  range  which  years 
and  experience  and  the  struggles  of  the  time  conferred  on  Poetry. 
Our  Muses  now  give  expression  to  political  feeling,  to  religious  thought, 
to  a  high  philosophic  statesmanship  in  writers  such  as  Marvell,  Herbert, 
and  Wotton :  whilst  in  Marvell  and  Milton,  again,  we  find  noble  attempts, 
hitherto  rare  in  our  literature,  at  pure  description  of  nature,  destined  in 
our  own  age  to  be  continued  and  equalled.  Meanwhile  the  poetry  of 
simple  passion,  although  before  1660  often  deformed  by  verbal  fancies 
and  conceits  of  thought,  and  afterwards  by  levity  and  an  artificial  tone, 
—  produced  in  Herrick  and  Waller  some  charming  pieces  of  more 
finished  art  than  the  Elizabethan  :  until  in  the  courtly  compliments 
of  Sedley,  it  seems  to  exhaust  itself,  and  lie  almost  dormant  for  the 
hundred  years  between  the  days  of  Wither  and  Suckling  and  the  days 
of  Burns  and  Cowper.  —  That  the  change  from  our  early  style  to  the 
modern  brought  with  it  at  first  a  loss  of  nature  and  simplicity  is  un- 
deniable :  yet  the  bolder  and  wider  scope  which  Poetry  took  between 
1620  and  1 700,  and  the  successful  efforts  then  made  to  gain  greater  clear- 
ness in  expression,  in  their  results  have  been  no  slight  compensation. 

References.  For  extended  bibliographies,  see  appendixes  of  Camb. 
Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  vols.  IV,  VII,  VIII.  For  writers,  schools,  and  forms: 
Anon.,  John  Donne  and  his  Contemporaries  (in  Quart.  Rev.,  CXCII); 
A.  H.  Bullen,  Introd.  to  his  England's  Helicon  (1887);  F.  I.  Carpenter, 
as  noted  above;  H.  H.  Child,  The  Song-Books,  etc.  (see  above,  under 
previous  century);  by  the  same,  Robert  Southwell,  Samuel  Daniel 
(Chap.  VII  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  IV);  by  the  same,  Drayton 
(op.  cit.,  Chap.  X);  H.  E.  Cory,  Browne's  Britannia's  Pastorals  and 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  (in  Univ.  of  Calif.  Chronicle,  April  1911); 
also  his  Spenser,  The  School  of  the  Fletchers,  and  Milton  (Univ.  Calif. 
Pubs.  Mod.  Philol.,  vol.  II,  No.  5,  1912);  F.  Delattre,  Robert  Herrick, 
etc.  (Paris:  1912);  E.  Dowden,  The  Poetry -of  John  Donne  (in  Fortn. 


XI,  E]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  279 

Rev.,  N.S.,  XLVII);  O.  Elton,  Michael  Drayton  (Spenser  Sac.,  1895; 
second  ed.  enlarged  and  revised,  1905) ;  R.  Garnett,  The  Age  of  Uryden 
(1895);  E.  Gosse,  The  Jacobean  Poets  (1894);  the  same,  Seventeenth 
Century  Studies  .(1883);  Gosse,  The  Poetry  of  John  Donne  (in  New 
Rev.,  IX);  J.  C.  Grierson,  Donne  (Chap.  XI  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit., 
vol.  IV);  J.  H.  Hanford,  The  Pastoral  Elegy  and  Milton's  Lycidas 
(Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.  of  America,  N.  S.  vol.  XVIII,  No.  3,  1910); 
A.  von  der  Heide,  Das  Naturgefiihl  in  der  englischen  Dichtung  im 
Zeitalter  Miltons  (Anglistische  Forschungen,  .No.  45.  1915);  J.  S. 
Harrison,  Platonism  in  English  Poetry  of  the  Sixteenth  and  Seven- 
teenth Centuries  (N.Y. :  1903);  T.  F.  Henderson,  Scottish  Popular 
Poetry  (cited  above,  under  sixteenth  century);  F.  E.  Hutchinson,  The 
Sacred  Poets  (in  vol.  VII  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  1911);  A.  G.  Hyde, 
George  Herbert  and  his  Times  (1905);  W.  F.  Melton,  The  Rhetoric  of 
John  Donne's  Verse  (Baltimore:  1906);  W.  Minto,  John  Donne  (in 
Nineteenth  Cent.,  VII);  F.  W.  Moorman,  The  Cavalier  Lyrists  (in 
vol.  VII  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  191 1);  by  the  same,  William  Browne, 
and  the  Pastoral  Poetry  of  the  Elizabethan  Age  (Strassburg  :  1 897) ;  by 
the  same,  Robert  Herrick,  etc.  (1910);  G.  H.  Palmer,  The  Works  of 
George  Herbert  (Boston :  1905);  G.  Saintsbury,  Seventeenth  Century 
Lyrics,  Introd.  (1892);  by  the  same,  Lesser  Caroline  Poets,  Milton 
(being  Chaps.  IV  and  V  of  vol.  VII  of  the  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.);  by 
the  same,  Prosody  of  the  Seventeenth  Century  (Chap.  IX  of  Camb.  Hist. 
Eng.  Lit,  vol.  VIII) ;  H.  de  Selincourt,  Successors  of  Spenser  (Chap.  IX 
of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  vol.  IV);  F.  E.  Schelling,  Ben  Jonson  and 
the  Classical  School  (in  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  1 898) ;  by  the  same,  A  Book 
of  Seventeenth  Century  Lyrics,  Introd.  (Boston :  1 899) ;  L.  Stephen, 
John  Donne  (in  Nat.  Rev.,  XXXIV);  A.  Symons,  John  Donne  (in 
Fortn.  Rev.,  N.S.,  LXVI);  A.  H.  Thompson,  Writers  of  the  Couplet  — 
Cowley  (Chap.  Ill  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  vol.  VII);  A.  H.  Upham, 
as  above;  S.  P.  Vivian,  Thomas  Campion  (Chap.  VIII  of  Camb.  Hist. 
Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  IV) ;  A.  W.  Ward,  D&yden  (Chap.  I  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng. 
Lit,  vol.  VIII,  1912);  C.  Whibley,  The  Court  Poets  (Chap.  VIII  of 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  VIII.  1912);  K.  Windscheid  (as  cited  above). 

E.  The  Eighteenth  Century. 

General  introductions  are  meagre,  owing  partly  to  the  meagreness 
of  lyrical  materials  in  this  century,  partly  to  a  disinclination  to  learn  from 
negative  conditions.  See  Schelling's  English  Lyric,  Chap.  V,  the  appro- 
priate chapters  in  the  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vols.  IX,  X,  XI,  and  the 
various  histories  of  English  literature  cited  in  the  Appendix. 


280  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Anthologies,  naturally,  are  few :  R.  Dodsley,  A  Collection  of  Poems 
by  Several  Hands  (6  vols.,  1758);  A.  Dyce.  Specimens  of  British 
Poetesses  (1827);  M.  Lynn,  A  Collection  of  Eighteenth  Century  Verse 
(N.Y. :  1907);  G.  Pearch,  A  Collection  of  Poems,  consisting  of  Valuable 
Pieces  not  inserted  in  Mr.  Dodsley's  Collection  or  published  since  (4  vols., 
!775);  an<3  the  general  collections  of  Anderson,  Bell,  Chalmers.  For 
Scottish  poems  of  this  and  previous  centuries,  see :  Caw,  Poetical 
Museum  (Hawick :  1784);  Chambers,  Miscellany  of  Popular  Scottish 
Songs  (Edinb. :  1841);  also  his  Popular  Rhymes  of  Scotland  (1826), 
Scottish  Songs  (1829),  and  Songs  of  Scotland  prior  to  Burns  (1880); 
Allan  Cunningham,  Songs  of  Scotland  (4  vols.  Edinb.:  1825);  Dixon, 
Edinburgh  Book  of  Scottish  Verse  (Edinb. :  1890) ;  Johnson,  The  Scots 
Musical  Museum  (6  vols.  Edinb.:  1833);  A.  Ramsay,  The  Tea-Table 
Miscellany  (1719),  and  The  Evergreen  (1724),  —  see  the  reprint  in 
4  vols.  (Glasgow:  1876);  Ritson,  Scottish  Songs  (Edinb.:  1794); 
Watson,  Choice  Collection  of  Scots  Poems  (3  pts.,  1706-11  ;  reprinted 
in  one  vol.,  Glasgow  :  1 869) ;  Scottish  Poetry  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
(Abbotsford  Series,  2  vols.,  Glasg. :  1896) ;  Hogg,  Jacobite  Relics  of  Scot- 
land (1819-21) ;  Mackay,  Jacobite  Songs  and  Ballads  of  Scotland  (1861). 

Much  light  may  be  thrown  upon  the  nature  of  the  lyric  and  its 
laws  of  development  by  contrasting  the  intellectual  and  emotional 
tendencies  of  the  earlier  with  those  of  the  middle  and  later  parts 
of  the  eighteenth  century;  for  under  the  influence  of  the  earlier 
tendencies  the  lyric  is  at  low  ebb,  but  toward  the  middle  of  the 
century  it  begins  to  rise  again,  and  by  the  end  it  is  in  full  tide  of 
new  vigor  and  inspiration.  The  student  will  naturally  inquire  what 
influences  were  common  to  the  successive  periods,  what  peculiar 
to  each ;  and  to  the  differences  discovered  he  will  endeavor  to 
relate  the  nature  of  the  lyric  and  the  conditions  of  its  growth  and 
decay.  The  changing  temper  in  philosophy,  religion,  antiquarian 
research,  science,  political  and  social  activity,  were  registered  in 
the  lyric  as  atmospheric  variations  are  indicated  in  a  barometer. 

The  study  of  Steele  and  Addison,  though  these  writers  are  of 
slight  importance  in  the  history  of  the  lyric  itself,  is  an  indispen- 
sable preliminary  to  an  understanding  of  the  spirit  of  -the  new 
century.  It  reveals  the  increasing  assertiveness  of  the  Puritan 
middle  class  in  commerce,  culture,  and  social  reform,  the  transfer 


XI,  E]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  28 1 

of  literary  authority  from  court  to  coffee-house,  the  adoption  of 
a  more  serious  view  of  life,  a  movement  toward  independence 
of  thought,  toward  order  and  proportion  in  morals,  manners, 
literature,  and  religion  as  opposed  to  the  extravagant  imagination 
and  erotic  fervor  of  the  preceding  age,  a  closer  attention  to  the 
detail  of  ordinary  life,  to  the  romance  and  pathos  of  the  lower 
class  and  of  its  womankind,  a  substitution  in  literary  style  of  the 
personal  and  colloquial  for  the  conventional  image  and  phrase. 
The  student  will  observe,  however,  that  with  all  this  charm  of 
simplicity  and  of  tendency  to  appreciate  the  commonplace,  there 
continues  an  objectiveness  of  attitude,  a  certain  incompleteness 
of  sympathy,  an  inherited  aloofness  from  nature  and  the  heart. 
To  the  conditions  necessary  for  a  revival  of  the  lyric  in  its  emo- 
tional vigor  and  originality,  and  in  freshness  of  invention,  he  will 
at  the  same  time  find  that  the  sentimentality,  enlightened  con- 
science, ajid_s^iritualstruggles  of  Steele,  and  Addispn's  admiration 
for  the  sublimity  and  morality  of  Paradise  Lost  and  his  vindica- 
tion of  the  "  pleasures  of  the  imagination,"  contributed  much, 
though  indirectly;  and  that  the  keen  insight  into  the  life  of  the 
social  individual,  the  lucidity  and  correctness  of  expression  with 
which  Pope  carried  the  classical  spirit  and  form  of  verse  to  its 
highest  point  of  perfection  in  England,  were  preparing  the  way 
for  a  poetry  more  highly  colored  and  more  intimately  concerned 
with  the  presence  of  nature,  with  personal  impression,  and  spiritual 
prompting.  The  indebtedness  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  coming 
romantic  lyric  to  the  proportion,  lucidity,  and  correctness  of 
these  three  refiners  of  style  may  well  occupy  the  attention  of  the 
investigator. 

In  poetry  of  the  lyric  strain,  the  earlier  period  may  be  said  to 
run  to  the  death  of  Thomson  in  1748.  Material  for  research 
is  offered  in  the  development  of  at  least  four  kinds:  familiar 
verse,  the  ode,  the  lyric  descriptive  of  nature,  the  elegy.  Of 
trifling  or  familiar  verse,  vers  de  soaefe,  Prior  is  the  first  English 
master.  His  graceful  employment  of  the  octosyllabic  couplet  and 
the  recurring  anapaest,  and  his  in^uence  upon  succeeding  writers, 


282  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

suggest  a  subject  of  study.  In  connection  with  his  vers  de  sodtte 
may  be  considered  that  of  Lady  Winchelsea,  Swift,  and  Gay,  and 
the  so-called  '  new  versification '  of  Ambrose  Philips  (the  trochaic 
tetrameter  catalectic,  which,  however,  had  been  frequently  used 
before,  as  by  Jonson,  Fletcher,  and  Wither).  In  the  history  of 
the  ode,  Prior  again  is  representative,  and  Thomas  Parnell.  To 
the  lyric  descriptive  of  nature  it  is  well  known  that  Lady  Winchelsea 
made  some  early  sentimental  contribution  ;  but  not  sufficient  at- 
tention has  been  paid  to  the  much  keener  and  more  appreciative 
observation  of  Dyer,  as  early  as  1726,  in  his  Grongar  Hill.  In 
the  history  of  elegy  the  services  of  Parnell  deserve  attention, 
and  his  influence  on  Goldsmith,  Blair,  and  Gray.  The  poetry 
of  Thomson  has,  of  late,  been  the  subject  of  several  scholarly 
treatises,  to  which  reference  is  made  below.  They  cover  the 
quality  of  his  rural  descriptions,  his  relation  to  the  reminiscential 
and  pictorial  tradition  and  conventional  diction  of  Milton,  and  to 
the  allegory,  rhythm,  phrase,  and  color  of  Spenser.  The  bearing 
of  Thomson's  Seasons  upon  the  nascent  lyric  of  nature  deserves 
closer  scrutiny  than  has  been  so  far  accorded. 

In  the  second  or  transitional  period,  beginning  about  1742  with 
Gray's  studies  for  the  enrichment  of  poetic  diction  —  by  ancient 
revival,  foreign  derivative,  and  new-coined  word  —  and  extending 
to  the  time  of  his  death,  1771,  the  lyric  gains  the  varied  impetus 
which  in  the  next  succeeding  periods  produced  the  fully  devel- 
oped romantic  type.  Here  the  student  will  note  the  influence 
of  Thomson  upon  Gray  and  Collins;  Gray's  introduction  into 
lyric  poetry  of  the  more  subjective  and  emotional  communion 
with  nature  and  a  perception  of  the  romantic  in  its  changing 
aspects ;  the  influence  of  his  Norse  and  other  medieval  studies 
upon  his  poetry  and  that  of  others;  the  spirit  of  meditation  and 
of  melancholy  —  the  elegiac  mood  of  Gray,  Blair,  and  Young; 
the  combination  of  sublimity  and  restraint  in  the  best  odes  of 
Collins,  and  a  touch  with  nature  more  intimate  and  inspiring 
than  that  of  Gray;  also  in  the  ode,  the  occasional  rapture  of 
Joseph  Warton  and  Christophe/  Smart ;  Goldsmith's  contribution 


XI,  E]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  283 

to  the  general  history  of  the  lyric,  in  human  sympathy,  personal 
note,  and  simplicity ;  and  the  effect  of  Akenside's  moralizing 
Pleasures  of  the  Imagination.  He  will  note  the  influence  of  the 
Gothic  revival,  —  of  the  publication  of  Macpherson's  Ossian, 
Percy's  Reliques,  and  Walpole's  Castle  of  Otranto.  Within  this 
period  the  revival  of  the  sonnet  by  the  Warton  brothers, 
Wm.  Mason,  Bowles,  and  others  affords  material  for  investi- 
gation. The  study  of  hymnology  also  calls  for  more  minute 
attention  than  has  been  given  it ;  and  to  this  subject  the  Divine 
and  Moral  Songs,  the  Horae  Lyricae,  and  Hymns  of  Watts,  and 
the  hymns  of  Simon  Brown,  Keach,  Anne  Steele,  and  Stennett, 
of  Cowper  and  John  Newton,  of  Doddridge,  of  Toplady,  and  of 
John  and  Charles  Wesley,  will  afford  an  approach. 

The  last  quarter  of  the  century  offers  more  problems  in  the 
history  of  the  lyric  than  can  here  be  summarized.  We  are-  in 
the  gaining  current  of  the  romantic  movement.  Warton's  History 
of  English  Poetry  and  Tyrwhitt's  edition  of  Chaucer  (revelatory 
of  that  poet's  genius  and  musical  form)  had  just  appeared ;  and 
Chatterton's  Rowley  Poems  were  published  in  1777,  —  events  of 
moment  to  the  investigator  of  influences.  The  relation  of  Crabbe 
and  Cowper  to  the  history  of  the  lyric  is  of  especial  interest. 
Crabbe,  though  not  a  lyric  poet,  is  of  related  moment  for  his 
vital  appreciation  in  The  Village  (1783)  and  subsequent  poems 
of  the  actualities  of  life,  even  that  of  the  lower  class,  and  for 
his  mastery  of  unhackneyed  imagery,  —  characteristics  which  ap- 
pear to  have  little  in  common  with  the  extravagance  and  the 
inspiration  of  romanticism,  but  still,  breaking  with  conventional 
tradition,  bear  upon  later  developments  in  lyric  art.  Cowper  is  note- 
worthy for  his  escape,  in  The  Task  (1785),  etc.,  from  the  "gen- 
teel style,"  for  his  inauguration  of  a  '  new  manner,'  spontaneous, 
unaffectedly  terse  and  simple,  for  his  sense  of  the  Divine  presence 
in  human  affairs  and  in  nature  alike ;  and  consequently  for  his  • 
reverent  and  loving  observation  of  nature,  and  his  emphasis  upon 
the  personal  impression  toward  which  a  few  from  Dyer  to  Gray 
and  Goldsmith  had  been  trending.  In  the  Poetical  Sketches  of 


284  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Blake  (1783)  and  the  Songs  of  Innocence,  and  of  Experience 
(1789,  1794),  the  student  hears  again  the  strain  of  the  new  lyric, 
spontaneous  and  unalloyed,  and  he  will  be  prompted  to  follow 
the  echoes,  Ossianic,  Elizabethan,  and  other,  to  their  origin. 
Burns  appears  (1786),  and  back  of  him  is  a  line  of  fresh  Scot- 
tish lyrism  to  be  explored,  —  the  work  represented  by  such 
repositories  as  Caw's  Poetical  Museum,  Watson's  Choice  Col- 
lection, The  Tea-Table  Miscellany,  Ritson's  Scottish  Songs,  and 
the  individual  poems  of  Ramsay  and  his  followers,  Pinnecuick, 
Alexander  Ross,  John  Skinner,  Lady  Anne  Barnard,  Jean  Adams, 
Jane  Elliot,  Robert  Fergusson,  —  partly  with  a  view  to  determin- 
ing the  relation  of  Burns  to  it,  partly  for  the  purpose  of  investigat- 
ing its  own  development.  Among  the  immediate  followers  of  Burns 
—  Hogg,  Joanna  Baillie,  Lady  Nairne,  Allan  Cunningham,  Tanna- 
hill,  Motherwell,  Thorn,  and  others  present  a  field  too  little  explored. 

The  lyric  of  the  last  years  of  this  century  cannot  be  separated 
from  the  efflorescence  of  the  romantic  movement  of  the  early 
nineteenth.  The  influence  of  Bowles  on  Coleridge  is  an  example 
of  what  is  a  commonplace  in  literary  evolution,  —  the  great  effect 
of  a  small  variation  when  the  latter  is  caught  up  by  genius.  The 
publication  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads  by  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth 
in  1798,  the  formal  opening  of  a  new  age  of  the  lyric,  suggests 
research  into  the  history  of  those  conventions  of  poetic  subject 
and  diction  against  which  it  was  a  protest.  A  comparative  study 
of  the  relation  of  conventionalized  diction  to  the  lyric,  in  both 
ancient  and  modern  times,  is  a  desideratum.  —  The  German  and 
French  influences  that  entered  English  literature  at  the  close  of 
the  century  also  demand  attention.  See,  for  suggestions  and 
sources,  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  21,  B,  the  references  which  follow, 
below,  and  the  bibliographies  appended  to  the  Camb.  Hist.  Lit. 

Palgrave  says  of  this  century  : 

It  is  more  difficult  to  characterize  the  English  Poetry  of  the  Eighteenth 
century  than  that  of  any  other.  For  it  was  an  age  not  only  of  spontane- 
ous transition,  but  of  bold  experiment :  it  includes  not  only  such  absolute 
contrasts  as  distinguish  the  '  Rape  of  the  Lock '  from  the  '  Parish 


XI,  E]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  285 

Register,'  but  such  vast  contemporaneous  differences  as  lie  between 
Pope  and  Collins,  Burns  and  Cowper.  Yet  we  may  clearly  trace  three 
leading  moods  or  tendencies :  —  the  aspects  of  courtly  or  educated  life 
represented  by  Pope'  and  carried  to  exhaustion  by  his  followers ;  the 
poetry  of  Nature  and  of  Man,  viewed  through  a  cultivated,  and  at 
the  same  time  an  impassioned  frame  of  mind  by  Collins  and  Gray :  — 
lastly,  the  study  of  vivid  and  simple  narrative,  including  natural  descrip- 
tion, begun  by  Gay  and  Thomson,  pursued  by  Burns  and  others  in  the 
north,  and  established  in  England  by  Goldsmith,  Percy,  Crabbe,  and 
Cowper.  Great  varieties  in  style  accompanied  these  diversities  in  aim  : 
poets  could  not  always  distinguish  the  manner  suitable  for  subjects  so 
far  apart :  and  the  union  of  conventional  and  of  common  language, 
exhibited  most  conspicuously  by  Burns,  has  given  a  tone  to  the  poetry 
of  that  century  which  is  better  explained  by  reference  to  its  historical 
origin  than  by  naming  it  artificial.  There  is,  again,  a  nobleness  of 
thought,  a  courageous  aim  at  high  and,  in  a  strict  sense  manly,  excel- 
lence in  many  of  the  writers :  —  nor  can  that  period  be  justly  termed 
tame  and  wanting  in  originality,  which  produced  poems  such  as  Pope's 
Satires,  Gray's  Odes  and  Elegy,  the  ballads  of  Gay  and  Carey,  the  songs 
of  Burns  and  Cowper.  In  truth  Poetry  at  this,  as  in  all  times,  was  a 
more  or  less  unconscious  mirror  of  the  genius  of  the  age  :  and  the  many 
complex  causes  which  made  the  Eighteenth  century  the  turning-time  in 
modern  European  civilization  are  also  more  or  less  reflected  in  its  verse. 
An  intelligent  reader  will  find  the  influence  of  Newton  as  markedly  in 
the  poems  of  Pope,  as  of  Elizabeth  in  the  plays  of  Shakespeare.  On 
this  great  subject,  however,  these  indications  must  here  be  sufficient 
(Golden  Treasury :  Notes). 

References.  See,  especially,  Schelling,  op.  cit.,  pp.  315-316;  and 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  IX,  appendixes  to  Chaps.  Ill,  VI,  XIV,  and 
vol.  X,  appendixes  to  Chaps.  V,  VI,  VII,  X,  where  will  be  found,  also, 
mention  of  the  best  bibliographies  of  the  respective  poets.  —  J.  Aiken, 
as  noted  above,  §  3,  and  his  Essay  on  Thomson's  Seasons  (i  778);  Lucy 
Aikin,  Life  of  Addison  (2  vols.,  1 843 ;  review  by  Macaulay,  Edinb.  Rev., 
July,  1 843) ;  G.  A.  Aitken,  Life  of  Steele  (2  vols.  1 889),  Matthew  Prior 
(Contemp.  Rev.,  May  1890);  A.  Ainger,  Crabbe  (E.  M.L.  1903),  and 
Burns,  Cowper,  etc.  in  Lects.  and  Essays  (vol.  I.  1905);  A.  Angellier, 
Robert  Burns  :  la  vie  et  les  ceuvres  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1 893),  —  "  a  work 
of  definitive  scholarship :  the  most  distinguished  study  of  the  poet  that 
has  been  produced  " ;  W.  C.  Angus,  The  Printed  Works  of  R.  Burns 
(Glasgow:  1899),  —  cf.  other  bibliogs.  of  Burns  and  works  upon  him, 


286  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

by  J.  C.  Ewing  (1899)  and  J.  M'Kie  (1881),  cited  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng. 
Lit.,  XI,  479;  M.  Arnold,  Essay  on  Gray  (in  Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  vol.  Ill, 
1 880) ;  W.  Bayne,  James  Thomson  (Famous  Scots  Series,  Edinb. :  1 898) ; 
H.  C.  Beeching,  Blake's  Religious  Lyrics,  in  Essays  and  Studies  by 
Members  of  the  English  Association  (vol.  III.  1912);  H.  A.  Beers, 
A  History  of  English  Romanticism  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (N.Y. : 
1899);  A.  Beljame,  Le  public  et  les  hommes  d.e  lettres  en  Angleterre 
au  dix-huitieme  siecle  (Paris:  1881);  F.  Benoit,  Un  Maitre  de  1'art, 
Blake  le  visionnaire  (Lille :  1906);  E.  Bensley,  Pope  (Camb.  Hist.  Eng. 
Lit.,  IX,  73);  P.  Berger,  W.  Blake,  Mysticisme  et  Poe'sie  (Paris  :  1907); 
W.  Black,  Goldsmith  (E.M.L.,  1878);  J.  S.  Blackie,  Life  of  R.  Burns 
(Great  Writers  Series.  1888);  J.  D.  Borthwick,  History  of  Scottish 
Song  (Montreal:  1874);  W.  L.  Bowles,  Memoir  of  Pope  (in  Edition 
of  Pope,  to  vols.,  1806);  by  the  same,  The  Invariable  Principles  of 
Poetry,  .  .  .  relating  to  Pope  (1819),  Two  Letters  to  the  Rt.  Hon.  Lord 
Byron  (1821),  and  other  articles  as  listed  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  IX, 
500 ;  Hugh  Blair,  The  Works  of  Ossian,  translated  by  James  Macpherson 
(2  vols.  1 765  ;  ed.  W.  Sharp,  Edinb. :  1 896) ;  Alois  Brandl,  Lenore 
in  England  (in  E.  Schmidt's  Characteristiken,  Berlin:  1896);  W.  C. 
Bronson,  Poems  of  W.  Collins  (1898);  S.  Brooke,  Studies  in  Poetry 
(Blake,  etc.  1907);  by  the  same,  Theology  in  the  English  Poets  (1874; 
loth  ed.  1907);  C.  Browne,  Life  of  R.  Southey  (1854);  R.  Browning, 
Christopher  Smart  (in  Parleyings  with  Certain  People  of  Importance 
etc.) ;  Jacob  Bryant,  Observations  upon  the  Poems  of  Thomas  Rowley 
(2  vols.  Lond. :  1781);  C.  Bucke,  On  the  Life,  Writings  and  Genius 
of  Akenside  (1832);  Robert  Burns,  Notes  on  Scottish  Song  (ed.  J.  C. 
Dick,  Clarendon  Press');  T.  Carlyl,e,  Burns  (Edinb.  Rev.,  Dec.  1828), 
and  Burns  in  Heroes,  Hero- Worship  and  the  Heroic  in  History  (1841); 
T.  Casson,  in  Eighteenth  Century  Literature  (Oxford:  1909);  H.  Child, 
Cowper,  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  XI  (1914),  and  the  chap,  on 
Crabbe  in  the  same  vol.;  J.  C.  Collins,  Essays  and  Studies  (1895); 
J.  Conington,  The  Poetry  of  Pope  (Oxford  Essays,  1858);  H.  E.  Cory, 
Spenser,  Thomsdn,  and  Romanticism  (Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass'n  of 
America,  vol.  XXVI,  No.  i,  1911);  W.  J.  Courthope,  The  Liberal 
Movement  in  English  Literature  (Lond.:  1885),  —  especially  Essay  II, 
The  Conservatism  of  the  Eighteenth  Century;  by  the  same,  Addison 
(E.  M.  L.,  1884);  by  the  same,  Life  of  Pope  (Elwin  and  Courthope's 
edition  of  Pope's  Works,  vol.  V,  1889);  J.  Dennis,  The  Age  of  Pope 
(1894);  by  the  same,  The  Wartons,  Southey,  etc.,  in  Studies  in  English' 
Literature  (Lond.:  1876);  by  the  same,  Robt.  Southey,  etc.  (Boston: 
1887) ;  T.  De  Quincey,  Reminiscences  of  the  Lake  Poets  (in  Works,  ed. 


XI,  E]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  287 

D.  Masson,  vol.  II.  Edinb. :  1 889) ;  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.,  articles  on  Thomas 
Chatterton,  and  on  other  poets  of  the  period ;  A.  Dobson,  Eight- 
eenth Century  Vignettes  (three  series,  1 892-96) ;  by  the  same,  Richard 
Steele  (Eng.  Writers,  1 888),  and  Matthew  Prior  (New  Princeton  Rev., 
vol.  VI,  1888),  and  Goldsmith  (Chap.  IX,  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  X, 
1 91 3)  and  his  Life  of  Goldsmith  (Great  Writers  Series,  1888);  Sir  George 
Douglas,  Scottish  Poetry :  Drummond  of  Hawthornden  to  Fergusson 
(Glasgow:  1911);  E.  Dowden,  Essays  Modern  and  Elizabethan  (1910), 
— treatment  of  Lady  Winchelsea's  poetry;  by  the  same,  Southey(E.  M.  L. 
1874);  for  Dowden's  essay  on  Cowper  and  Hayley,  see  Atlantic  Mo., 
July  1907;  Sir  Charles  L.  Eastlake,  A  History  of  the  Gothic  Revival 
(Lond. :  1872);  G.  Eliot,  Worldliness  and  Otherworldliness :  the  poet 
Young  (Essays,  2d  ed.  1884);  E.  J.  Ellis,  The  Real  Blake  (1907); 
O.  Elton,  The  Augustan  Ages  (Edinb. :  1 899) ;  by  the  same,  A  Survey 
of  English  Lit.,  1780-1830  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1912);  F.  E.  Farley,  Scandi- 
navian Influences  on  the  English  Romantic  Movement  (Harvard St tidies 
in  Philol.,  No.  9,  1903);  Sir  W.  Forbes,  An  Account  of  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  James  Beattie  (2  vols.,  1824);  J.  Forster,  Life  and  Adven- 
tures of  Oliver  Goldsmith  (1848,  1877);  A.  C.  C.  Gaussen,.  Percy, 
Prelate  and  Poet  (1908);  Th.  Gautier,  Histoire  du  Roman tisme  (Paris: 
i884)>  G.  Gilfillan,  Galleries  of  Lit.  Portraits  (1856);  A.  Gilchrist,  Life 
of  Blake  (2  vols.,  1863;  new  ed.,  1906);  Knut  Gjerset,  Der  Einfluss 
von  Thomson's  Jahreszeiten  auf  die  deutsch.  Lit.  des  i8ten  Jahrh. 
(Heidelberg:  1898);  E.  Gosse,  Eighteenth  Century  Literature  (Lond.: 
1889);  by  the  same,  From  Shakespeare  to  Pope  (Lond.:  1889);  by 
the  same,  Gossip  in  a  Library  (1891),  —  for  Lady  Winchelsea  and 
Christopher  Smart;  and  his  Gray  (E. M. L.,  1882);  J.  W.  Hales  and 

F.  J.  Furnivall,  edition  of  Percy's  Folio  Manuscript  (3  vols.,  1868); 
W.   Hazlitt,    Dryden   and    Pope,   Gay,   Swift,   Young,   Gray,   Collins, 
Burns,  etc.  (Lectures  on  the   English   Poets,    1818;    in  Waller  and 
Glover,  Collected  Works  of  Hazlitt,  vol.  V,  1902);  by  the  same,  Spirit 
of  the  Age  (1825);   H.  Heine,  The  Romantic  School  (English  trans. 
N.Y.:    1882);    T.  F.    Henderson,   Scottish  Popular  Poetry  (as  noted 
above,  under  Sixteenth  Century),  and  his  Scottish  Vernacular  Literature 
(3d  ed.,  1910),  and  his  chap,  on  Burns  and  Lesser  Scottish  Verse,  in 
Camb.   Hist.  Eng.   Lit.,  vol.  XI;    W.  E.  Henley,  Burns:    Life,  etc. 
(1898);   G.  Birkbeck  Hill,  Dr.  Johnson:  his  Friends  and  his  Critics 
(1878);  R.  Huchon,  Un  poete  re"aliste  anglais  (Paris:  1906),  Eng.  trans., 

G.  Crabbeand  his  Times,  by  F.  Clarke  (1907;  contains  bibliog.);  R.  Hurd, 
Letters  on  Chivalry  and  Romance  ( 1 762  ;  ed.  Morley,  1911);  S.  Johnson, 
Lives  of  the  English  Poets  (1779-81);    R.  Kassner,  Die  Mystik,  die 


288  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Kiinstler und das  Leben  (Leipz. :  1900), — for  Blake;  T.  E.  Kebble,  Life 
of  George  Crabbe  (Great  Writers  Series,  1888);  W.  P.  Ker,  The  Lit- 
erary Influences  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Chap.  X  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit, 
vol.  X,  1913);  J.  L.  Kind,  Edward  Young  in  Germany  (N.Y. :  1906); 
C.  Kingsley,  Burns  and  his  School  (1880);  G.  L.  Kittredge,  Gray's 
Knowledge  of  Old  Norse  (in  Phelps's  Selections  from  the  Poetry  and 
Prose  of  Gray,  Boston :  1 894) ;  M.  Laing,  Dissertation  on  Ossian's 
Poems  (in  his  History  of  England,  Lond. :  1804);  Mary  S.  Leather, 
Pope  as  a  student  of  Milton  (Engl.  Stud.,  vol.  XXV,  1898);  R.  Maack, 
Pope's  Einfluss  auf  die  Idylle,  u.s.w.,  in  Deutschland  (Hamb. :  1895); 
G.  C.  Macaulay,  Thomson  (E.  M.  L.,  1908);  T.  B.  Macaulay,  Critical 
and  Miscellaneous  Writings;  D.  Masson,  Chatterton  (Lond.:  1874; 
1899);  T.  J.  Matthias,  Observations  on  the  Writings  and  on  the 
Character  of  Mr.  Gray  (1815);  M.  Meyerfeld,  R.  Burns,  Studien  zu 
seiner  dichterischen  Entwicklung  (Berlin:  1899);  J.  H.  Millar,  The 
Mid-Eighteenth  Century  (Edinb. :  1892);  Jacob  More,  Strictures,  Critical 
and  Sentimental,  on  Thomson's  Seasons  (1777);  Le"on  Morel,  James 
Thomson,  sa  vie  et  ses  ceuvres  (Paris:  1895);  E.  P.  Morton,  The 
Spenserian  Stanza  in  the  i8th  Century  {Modern  Philol,,  Jan.  1913); 
J.  Nichol,  R.  Burns  (1882),  and  art.  Burns  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. 
(1910);  J.  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century  (9  vols., 
1812-15);  by  the  same,  Illustrations  of  the  Literary  History  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  (vols.  II  #nd  VIII,  the  Percy  correspondence,  1848, 
1858);  A.  Nutt,  Ossian  and  the  Ossianic  Literature  (1899;  for  bibli- 
ography etc.;  see  also  Lowndes,  Bibliographer's  Manual,  Pt.  VI,  1861, 
and  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  bibliog.  to  Chap.  X) ;  T.  S.  Omond,  English 
Metrists  in  the  i8th  and  igth  Centuries  (1907);  Thomas  Parnell,  Essay 
on  the  Different  Styles  of  Poetry  (1713);  T.  S.  Perry,  English  Literature 
in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1883);  H.  Pesta,  George  Crabbe  (Vienna 
and  Leipz.:  1899);  W.  L.  Phelps,  The  Beginnings  of  the  English 
Romantic  Movement  (1893);  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  Six  Essays  on  Johnson 
(1910);  M.  Reynolds,  Poems  of  Anne  Finch,  Countess  of  Winch elsea 
(Chicago:  1903);  by  the  same,  Treatment  of  Nature  in  English 
Poetry  between  Pope  and  Wordsworth,  Chap.  1 1  (Chicago :  1 909) ; 
H.  Richter,  T.  Chatterton  (in  Wiener  Beitrdge  z.  Eng.  Phil.,  No.  12. 
1900);  O.  Ritter,  Quellenstudien  zu  R.  Burns  (in  Palaestra,  No.  20. 
1901);  H.  D.  Roberts,  Complete  Poetical  Works  of  Chatterton  (with 
bibliography,  biography,  etc.  2  vols.,  1906);  H.  Routh,  Steele  and 
Addison  (Camb.  Hist.  Lit,  IX,  26);  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve,  W.  Cowper, 
ou  de  la  podsie  domestique,  in  Causeries  du  Lundi  (vol.  XI,  pp.  132-165. 
1856);  G.  Saintsbury,  Southey,  Lesser  Poets  of  the  i8th  Century,  in 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  289 

Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  XI,  and  the  chapter,  in  the  same  vol.,  on 
The  Prosody  of  the  1 8th  Century ;  by  the  same,  Essays  in  Eng.  Lit. 
1780-1860  (Crabbe,  etc.  1890);  T.  Seccombe,  The  Age  of  Johnson 
(1900);  T.  Seccombe  and  G.  Saintsbury,  Lesser  Verse  Writers  (Chap.  VI 
of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  IX,  1913);  also  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Eng. 
Prosody,  vol.  II,  and,  his  article  on  Young,  Collins,  etc.  (Chap.  VII  of 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  X,  1913);  B.  de  Selincourt,  William  Blake 
(1909);  J.  C.  Shairp,  On  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature  (Edinb. :  1877), 
and  R.  Burns  (E.  M.  L.,  1879),  and  Aspects  of  Poetry  (1881);  W.  Sichel, 
Matthew  Prior  (Quarterly  J?ev.,  Oct.,  1899);  J.  S.  Smart,  James 
Macpherson  (1905);  F.  Stehlich,  George  Crabbe  (Halle:  1875);  Sir 
Leslie  Stephen,  History  of  English  Thought  in  the  i8th  Century 
(2  vols.,  N.Y. :  1876);  by  the  same,  Alexander  Pope  (E.M.L.,  1880), 
and  Thomas  Gray  (D.N.B.,  vol.  XXIII,  1890),  and  Johnson  (E.M.L., 
1878,  and  art.  in  D.N.B.,  vol.  XXX,  1892);  by  the  same,  Hours  in 
a  Library  (1892);  A.  T.  Story,  W.  Blake  (1893);  A.  C.  Swinburne, 
William  Blake  (new  ed.,  1906);  by  the  same,  Herrick  (in  Studies  in 
Prose  and  Verse.  N.Y. :  1894);  A.  Symons,  William  Blake  (1907); 
A.  Tedeschi,  Ossian,  "  1'Homere  du  Nord,"  en  France  (Mailand  :  1911); 
C.  S.  Terry,  The  Rising  of  1745  (1903),  —  for  the  Jacobite  literature  in 
general ;  J.  Texte,  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau  and  the  Cosmopolitan  Spirit 
in  Literature  (trans.  Matthews,  1899),  —  on  Young;  W.  Thomas,  Le 
Poete  Edward  Young  (Paris:  1901);  Hamilton  Thompson,  Thomson 
and  Natural  Description  in  Poetry  (Chap.  V  of  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit, 
vol.  X,  1913);  D.  C.  Tovey,  Gray  (Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  X,  116); 
W.  M.  Thackeray,  The  English  Humorists  of  the  Eighteenth  Century 
(^SS),  —  "Contains  some  admirable  characterization  of  the  poets  and 
poetry  of  the  time";  S.  Vukadinovie*,  Prior  in  Deutschland  (Grazer 
Stud,  zur  deutsch.  Philol.,  Graz :  1895);  Hugh  Walker,  Three  Centu- 
ries of  Scottish  Literature  (2  vols.,  Glasg. :  1893) ;  J.  P.  R.  Wallis,  Blake, 
in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  vol.  XI ;  Joseph  Warton,  An  Essay  on  the 
Genius  and  Writings  of  Pope  (2  vols.,  1756-1782);  T.  Watts-Dunton, 
Thomas  Chatterton  (Ward's  Eng.  Poets,  vol.  Ill);  D.  Wilson,  Thomas 
Chatterton  (Lond. :  1 869). 

F.   The  Nineteenth  Century. 

General  introductions  in  Schelling's  English  Lyric,  Chaps.  VI-VIII, 
and  in  the  histories  cited  in  the  Appendix  to  the  present  work.  See  also 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit,  vol.  XI,  The  Period  of  the  French  Revolution ; 
also  the  remaining  volumes  of  this  series,  on  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(vols.  XII-XIV);  G.  Brandes,  Naturalism  in  England  (being  vol.  IV  of 


2QO  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

the  author's  Main  Currents  in  Nineteenth  Century  Literature.  English 
trans.  6vols.  N.Y.:  1901-05);  Hugh  Walker,  The  Lit.  of  the  Victorian 
Era  (Cambridge :  1910).  Reed's  English  Lyrical  Poetry  is  helpful,  espe- 
cially in  the  enumeration  of  recent  and  present-day  lyrists  (Chap.  X 
The  Lyric  of  To-day). 

For  anthologies,  see  Schelling,  op.  cit.,  pp.  319-320  ;  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  A.  H.  Miles,  The  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century 
(10  vols.,  n.d.);  C.  H.  Page,  British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
(N.Y.:  1904);  T.  H.  Ward,  English  Poets,  vol.  IV;  E.  C.  Stedman, 
A  Victorian  Anthology,  1837-1895  (1895);  Sir  Arthur  Quiller-Couch, 
The  Oxford  Book  of  English  Verse,  1250-1900,  and  the  Oxford  Book 
of  Victorian  Verse  (Clarendon  Press);  J.  Cooke,  The  Dublin  Book  of 
Irish  Verse,  1728-1909  (Dublin  and  Lond. :  1909);  E.  M.,  Georgian 
Poetry,  1911-1912  (Lond.:  1912);  W.  M.  Dixon,  The  Edinburgh  Book 
of  Scottish  Verse,  1300-1900  (Edinb. :  1910);  Wm.  Sharp,  Sonnets  of 
the  Century  (1886);  S.  Waddington,  English  Sonnets  by  Poets  of  the 
Past,  and  English  Sonnets  by  Living  Poets ;  Hall  Caine,  Sonnets  of 
Three  Centuries  (1882);  Main's  Treasury  of  English  Sonnets;  Gosse, 
English  Odes  (1883),  and  Wm.  Sharp,  Great  Odes;  C.  Stone,  Sea  Songs 
and  War  Songs  (Clarendon,  Oxford) ;  W.  Campbell,  The  Oxford  Book 
of  Canadian  Verse  (Clarendon,  Oxford).  To  the  lyrical  poetry  of  America, 
the  best  guide  is  E.  C.  Stedman's  American  Anthology  (Boston  and 
N.Y. :  1890);  see  also  P.  H.  Boynton,  American  Poetry  (N.  Y. :  1918). 

A  list  of  the  lyric  poets,  greater  and  less,  of  the  first  two-thirds  of  the 
century  may  be  readily  made  from  volumes  I  to  VII  of  Miles'  Collection. 
Vol.  VII  represents  most  of  the  Women  Poets  of  the  century.  Vol.  VIII 
includes  Robert  Bridges  and  Contemporary  Poets ;  vol.  IX,  Poets  of 
Humor,  Society  and  Occasional  Verse;  vol.  X,  Sacred,  Moral  and 
Religious  Verse,  and  an  appendix  of  Minor  English,  Scottish,  and 
Irish  Poets.  The  essays  prefatory  to  the  selections,  by  well-known 
critics,  are  of  great  value.  Of  the  more  prominent  poets  of  the  century, 
Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Scott,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Landor,  Tennyson, 
the  Brownings,  Clough,  Arnold,  Rossetti,  William  Morris,  Swinburne, 
admirable  bibliographies  (by  editions,  biography,  reminiscences  and 
earlier  criticism,  and  tributes  in  verse)  are  furnished  in  C.  H.  Page's 
British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  To  the  Irish  Writers  of  Eng- 
lish verse  of  the  nineteenth  and  preceding  centuries,  D.  J.  O'Donoghue's 
The  Poets  of  Ireland  (Clarendon  Press)  is  an  invaluable  guide. 

The  following  roster  of  lyric  poets  of  the  late  nineteenth  century  and 
of  to-day  may  prove  useful :  A.  Austin,  Jane  Barlow,  A.  C.  Benson, 
L.  Binyon,  Mathilde  Blind,  R.  Bridges,  R.  Buchanan,  J.  Davidson, 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  291 

A.  Dobson,  E.  Dowden,  E.  Dowson,  E.  Gosse,  T.  Hardy,  W.  E. 
Henley,  A.  E.  Housman,  L.  Housman,  D.  Hyde,  L.  Johnson, 
R.  Kipling,  A.  Lang,  R.  Le  Gallienne,  '  Fiona  Macleod '  (William 
Sharp),  P.  B.  Marston,  T.  J.  H.  Marzials,. George  Meredith,  Mrs,.  Meynell, 

F.  W.  H.  Myers,  H.  Newbolt,  A.  Noyes,  Arthur  O'Shaughnessy,  Seumas 
O'Sullivan,  C.  Patmore,  Emily  Pfeiffer,  S.  Phillips,  Sir  Arthur  Quiller- 
Couch,  A.  Mary.  F.  Robinson-Darmesteter,  T.  W.  Rolleston,  G.  W. 
Russell  ("A.  E."),  R.  L.  Stevenson,  A.  Symons,  F.  Thompson,  Katharine 
Tynan,  W.  Watson,  Augusta  Webster,  O.  Wilde,  W.  B.  Yeats.    The 
volume  of  Georgian   Poetry,    1911-1912,   mentioned  above,   includes 
poems  by  Lascelles  Abercrombie,  Gordon  Bottomley,  Rupert  Brooke, 

G.  K.   Chesterton,  W.   H.   Davies,   W.  de  la   Mare,   J.    Drinkwater, 
J.  E.  Flecker,  W.  W.  Gibson,  D.  H.  Lawrence,  J.  Masefield,  Harold 
Monro,  T.  Sturge  Moore,  Ronald  Ross,  E.  B.  Sargant,  Jas.  Stephens, 
R.  C.  Trevelyan. 

For  material  on  these,  see  the  concluding  chapters  in  Schelling,  Reed, 
and  Rhys ;  Miles'  Poets  of  the  Century,  vols.  V~X ;  W.  Archer's  Poets 
of  the  Younger  Generation ;  articles  by  Cornelius  Weygandt  in  The 
Seivanee  Review ;  Yeats'  Book  of  Irish  Verse  Selected  from  Modern 
Writers;  P.  E.  More,  Shelburne  Essays  (especially  the  First  Series); 
and  various  magazine  articles  (see  Poole's  Index).  For  war  poetry  of 
1914-17,  see  J.  W.  Cunliffe's  anthology,  Poems  of  the  Great  War 
(N.  Y.':  1917);  G.  H.  Clarke,  A  Treasury  of  War  Poetry  (Boston  :  191 7). 

The  lyric  poetry  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  an  instrument 
of  various  utterance,  corresponding  to  the  multiple  experiences, 
discoveries,  achievements,  and  movements  of  the  period.  Romanti- 
cism and  the  '  renaissance  of  wonder '  first  tuned  the  lyre  of  the 
century ;  and  the  main  aspects  of  romanticism  —  return  to  nature, 
return  to  the  Middle  Ages,  melancholy  and  Weltschmerz,  the  last 
partly  under  German  influence — and  of  French  moral  and  political 
philosophy  were  all  reflected  in  the  lyric.  Major  and  minor  poets 
in  great  profusion  offer  a  confusing  wealth  of  material.  To  sug- 
gest studies  in  the  romantic  lyric  of  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Scott, 
Byron  would  be  to  carry  coals  to  Newcastle :  every  periodical  in 
modern  philology,  publication  of  a  modern  language  association, 
or  list  of  doctoral  theses  abounds  with  subjects  of  historical, 
aesthetic,  and  other  research,  and  with  suggestions  of  subjects 
yet  unattempted.  Of  the  quality  and  influence  of  Shelley  and 


292  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

of  Keats,  of  the  pre-Raphaelites,  Tennyson,  Arnold,  Browning, 
the  same  may  be  said.  A  few  still  unexhausted  themes  of  thought, 
movement,  and  influence  may,  however,  appear  in  the  sequence 
of  analysis  presented  below. 

Under  the  Victorian  Age,  and  afterwards,  the  lyric  was  enriched 
by  the  culminating  movements  of  philosophical,  religious,  scientific, 
and  political  and  social  thought  which  distinguished  the  second 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century  and  characterize  the  life  of  to-day. 
Commercialism  and  the  scientific  spirit,  with  all  the  reactions 
against  them,  have  colored  the  lyric.  The  Oxford  Movement, 
the  pre-Raphaelites,  rationalism,  realism,  and  naturalism  in  verse, 
the  hedonism  of  the  '  decadents,'  the  new  Irish  movement,  have 
existed  beside  or  in  connection  with  vast  economic  changes, 
socialistic  theories,  theories  of  evolution,  religious  uncertainty, 
utilitarian  philosophies  and  philosophies  of  art,  empirical  experi- 
mentation, and  unparalleled  interest  in  scientific  and  historical 
accuracy.  —  Throughout  the  century  one  great  effect  of  the 
rise  of  new  problems  has  been  to  turn  the  mind  inward  —  in 
question  and  doubt  and,  often,  pain  or  despair.  This  emphasis 
of  the  subjective  and  introspective  has  tinctured  the  greater  part 
of  lyric  utterance.  As  never  before  the  lyric  has  been  the  cry  of 
the  individual  soul,  —  of  a  soul  freed  from  its  early  eighteenth- 
century  bondage  to  convention,  then  revelling  for  a  while  in  a 
romantic  freedom,  only  to  encounter  the  threatening  utilitari- 
anism of  a  new  order  crudely  strong  in  its  youthful  vigor  and 
insistent  in  its  demand  that  old  faiths  be  abandoned.  Through 
this  maelstrom  the  individual  soul  has  expressed  itself  in  lyric, 
now  of  the  everlasting  No,  sometimes  of  the  Yea,  now  of  some 
quiet  escape  from  the  century's  roar,  or  again  of  empire  and 
Anglo-Saxon,  or  Anglo-American,  destiny,  or  of  any  one  of  a 
hundred  themes. 

Walker  (op.  at.,  p.  322)  holds  that  "in  its  highest  manifestations 
the  English  poetry  of  the  nineteenth  century  is  lyrical :  it  is  often 
so  in  principle,  even  when  it  is  not  in  form."  "  But  this  predomi- 
nance of  the  lyric  implies  a  development  of  feeling  and  reflection, 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  293 

which  must  have  taken  place  at  the  expense  of  something.  In 
point  of  fact,  it  did  "ake  place  at  the  expense  of  action." 

For  the  most  part  what  has  been  done  toward  the  study  of  the 
lyrjc  of  this  confusing  century  consists  of  essays  in  interpretation 
of  particular  authors  or  movements,  a  few  representative  antholo- 
gies, brief  attempts  at  grouping  nineteenth-century  poets  according 
to  their  literary  ancestry  (sons  of  Wordsworth,  of  Milton,  of  the 
pre-Raphaelites,  or  of  foreign  forebears,  etc.),  or  according  to  their 
main  interests  (empire,  chivalry,  beauty,  nature,  character,  con- 
duct, society,  the  spiritual,  etc.),  and  some  discursive,  appreciative 
chapters  on  nineteenth-century  lyrists  in  various  histories  of  English 
literature  or  in  monographs  on  the  nineteenth  century.  What  re- 
mains to  be  done  would  imply:  (i)  several  preliminary  surveys 
of  the  entire  field,  with  a  gathering  of  materials  and  preliminary 
classification  and  induction ;  (2)  a  series  of  monographs  system- 
atically presenting  the  data  of  lyric  development  in  theme  and 
style  within  a  variety  of  narrow  provinces,  such  as  particular 
subjects,  particular  sub- varieties  of  the  lyric,  particular  cases  of 
cross-influence  between  poets  or  periods,*  particular  sources  and 
influences,  and,  most  important  of  all,  perhaps,  particular  aspects 
of  metrical  development  and  variations  of  poetic  type  ;  (3)  system- 
atic attempts  at  generalization  within  period,  school,  or  movement, 
on  the  basis  of  such  monographs  ;  (4)  eventually,  a  systematic  and 
fully  reasoned  and  documented  account  of  the  lyric  growth  of  the 
century. 

It  may  be  noted  not  only  that  nineteenth-century  criticism  is 
sadly  lacking  in  these  desiderata,  but  that  our  critical  apparatus 
for  the  earlier  centuries  is  still  far  from  achieving  the  required 
fullness  and  exactness.  Indeed,  in  the  case  of  even  the  best 
studied  periods  we  have  gone  only  so  far  as  to  provide  preliminary 
surveys  and  a  small  number  of  systematic  monographs. 

Merely  by  way  of  suggestion  it  may  be  said  that  the  student 
of  periods,  movements,  and  schools  will  find  that  the  lyric  from 
1798  to  the  present  day  appears  to  pass  through  at  least  four 
stages,  (i)  In  the  earliest,  from  1798  to  1824,  the  dominating 


294  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

characteristic  is  the  romantic  (Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Southey, 
Scott,  Hogg,  Moore,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats) ;  but  variants  appear 
in  the  social  revolt  of  Byron,  the  spiritual  of  Shelley,  the  ornate 
romantic  of  Keats ;  in  the  classical  and  cultural  flavor  of  Landor, 
Rogers,  Campbell,  Moore ;  in  the  Cockney  school  of  Leigh  Hunt 
and  others.  (2)  The  next  stage  is  eccentric :  theme,  manner,  and 
style,  influenced  by  the  masters  of  the  romantic  movement,  vary 
with  personal  caprice  and  experiment  (Beddoes,  Hood,  Praed, 
Home,  Macaulay,  Mangan,  Hartley  Coleridge,  Barnes,  Hawker, 
Wade),  or  is  frankly  spasmodic  (Bailey,  Dobell,  Alexander  Smith). 
This  period  runs  to  about  1842  ;  but  several  of  its  poets  continue 
to  write  during  the  next  decade.  (3)  The  dominating  quality  of 
the  succeeding  stage  is  the  classic-romantic.  It  is  the  period 
of  Tennyson  and  the  Brownings,  and  it  runs  to  about  1890. 
The  most  important  influences  within  these  fifty  years,  besides 
the  ornate  which  Tennyson  handed  down  from  Keats,  and  the 
spiritual,  philosophical,  and  moral,  in  which  Browning  follows 
Shelley,  —  but  speedily  becomes  himself,  —  are  the  pre-Raphaelite, 
deriving  in  part  from  Heats  and  Tennyson,  in  part  from  medieval 
and  renaissance  literatures  and  studies  in  art  (beginning  about 
1850  with  Rossetti  and  continuing  with  Morris,  Swinburne, 
Christina  Rossetti,  R.  W.  Dixon,  Thomas  Woolner,  J.  A.  Symonds, 
P.  B.  Marston,  O'Shaughnessy,  W.  J.  Dawson,  James  Thomson, 
W.  B.  Scott,  and  others)  ;  the  neo-classical  (Matthew  Arnold,  from 
1853  on,  Swinburne  again,  F.  W.  H.  Myers,  Ernest  Meyers,  Lewis 
Morris,  Gosse,  T.  Sturge  Moore,  Watson,  Robert  Bridges) ;  the 
beginnings  of  the  Gaelic  revival  (perhaps  dating  from  Mangan, 
about  1830,  but  fostered  by  Allingham,  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson, 
Aubrey  Thomas  de  Vere  in  Ireland,  and  by  William  Sharp — Fiona 
Macleod  —  in  Scotland) ;  and  the  hedonist  or  aesthetic  movement, 
born  partly  of  Keats  and  the  pre-Raphaelites,  partly  of  the  aes- 
thetics of  Ruskin,  Pater,  Symonds  (Marzials,  Wilde,  A.  Mary  F. 
Darmesteter,  and  later  Le  Gallienne  and  others).  (4)  The  final 
stage  is  that  of  the  poets  of  to-day :  Kipling,  Noyes,  Masefield, 
and  others  in  England,  who  would  be  difficult  to  characterize  as 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  295 

a  class ;   Yeats,  Hyde,  James  Stephens,  Seumas  O'Sullivan,  and 
their  compatriots  of  the  Celtic  movement 

The  student  of  the  lyric  in  respect  of  its'  theme  or  manner  will 
find  suggestions  in  what  has  preceded.  The  lyric  of  philosophical, 
social,  or  religious  musing  may  be  traced  through  the  century  to 
the  present  day  (from  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Shelley,  through 
the  Brownings,  Bailey,  Tennyson,  Matthew  Arnold,  Clough, 
Fitzgerald,  Newman,  Swinburne,  F.  W.  H.  Myers,  Emily  Pfeiffer, 
Augusta  Webster,  Edwin  Arnold,  James  Thomson,  Davidson, 
Francis  Thompson,  Gosse,  Alice  Meynell,  Alfred  Hayes,  to 
Masefield,  Bottomley,  Drinkwater,  and  James  Stephens) ;  the 
magical  or  mystical  lyric  from  Blake,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, 
Shelley,  Keats,  through  Tennyson,  Browning,  Rossetti,  and 
Coventry  Patmore,  to  Francis  Thompson,  '  Fiona  Macleod,' 
G.  W.  Russell  ("  A.  E."),  Yeats,  and  Seumas  O'Sullivan ;  the  ele- 
giac from  Shelley  through  Tennyson,  Arnold,  Swinburne,  Robert 
Buchanan,  and  P.  B.  Marston,  to  William  Watson  and  Robert 
Bridges;  the  lyric  of  nature  from  the  great  romantics  through 
Alfred  Austin  and  others,  to  Monro,  Ronald  Ross,  and  Sargant ; 
the  lyric  of  rural  life  from  Bloomfield,  Clare,  Thorn,  through 
William  Barnes  and  Jean  Ingelow,  to  Norman  Gale,  the  Housmans, 
Masefield,  and  Gibson ;  the  lyric  of  democracy  from  the  romantics 
to  Wm.  Morris,  E.  C.  Jones,  Gerald  Massey,  Brough,  and  later, 
and  of  labor  from  Ebenezer  Elliott  and  Eliza  Cook  to  Mathilde 
Blind.  And  in  all  periods,  we  find  the  pure  lyric  of  emotional  or 
aesthetic  appeal.  —  We  have,  too,  the  various  revivals  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan or  the  Miltonic  strain,  as  in  Alfred  Austin,  Watson, 
Bridges,  Stephen  Phillips,  Noyes  ;  or  of  the  Spenserian,  as  in  James 
Thomson ;  or  of  the  manner  of  Milton,  Gray,  Wordsworth,  as  in 
Matthew  Arnold  and  Watson.  —  Vers  de  sotiete  may  be  studied 
from  Praed  and  Hood,  through  Calverley,  Mortimer  Collins, 
J.  K.  Stephen,  Locker-Lampson,  Stevenson,  Lang,  Gosse,  Dobson, 
—  or  humorous  verse,  as  in  Hookham  Frere,  Canning,  James 
and  Horace  Smith,  Lamb,  Moore,  Leigh  Hunt,  Peacock,  Hook, 
Barham,  Lover,  Lever,  Thackeray,  J.  B.  Stephens,  Gilbert,  Sterry, 


296  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

—  or  nonsense  verse,  as  in  Edward  Lear  and  '  Lewis  Carroll ' 
(C.  L.  Dodgson).  —  The  lyric  of  realism  offers  itself,  as  in  Crabbe, 
Henley,  Masefield ;  of'  patriotic  romanticism,  from  Campbell  and 
Dobell  to  Kipling  and  Noyes ;  the  song,  as  in  Hogg,  Moore, 
Peacock,  '  Father  Prout '  (Francis  Mahony),  '  Barry  Cornwall ' 
(Bryan  Waller  Procter),  Beddoes,  Blackie,  Houghton,  Gerald 
Griffin,  T.  J.  H.  Marzials ;  the  ballad-lyric  from  Motherwell, 
Macaulay,  and  Aytoun,  through  Tennyson  and  Thornbury,  to 
Marzials,  Stevenson,  William  Sharp,  H.  G.  Groser,  Kipling,  and 
Masefield ;  the  sonnet  from  William  Lisle  Bowles,  the  great 
romantics,  and  Joseph  Blanco  White,  through  Sir  Aubrey  de  Vere, 
Hartley  Coleridge,  Matthew  Arnold,  and  the  Rossettis,  to  Dowden, 
Watson,  P.  B.  Marston,  Rawnsley,  and  the  writers  of  to-day ;  the 
ode  from  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  Shelley,  through  Tennyson, 
Browning,  Arnold,  Swinburne,  James  Russell  Lowell,  Coventry 
Patmore,  Bayard  Taylor,  to  Wm.  Vaughn  Moody,  and  English 
and  American  poets  of  to-day  ;  the  hymn  from  James  Montgomery, 
Heber,  Keble,  and  Newman,  down.  —  Imitations  of  classical  metres 
offer  themselves  for  study,  as  in  Tennyson,  Charles  Kingsley, 
dough,  Robinson  Ellis,  Swinburne,  Watson,  and  the  present  poet- 
laureate  ;  and  imitations  of  artificial  French  forms,  as  in  Rossetti, 
Swinburne,  Lang,  Dobson,  Gosse,  Henley,  and  among  Americans 
in  F.  D.  Sherman,  Clinton  Scollard,  and  others.  So  too  the  novel 
experiments  in  verse  of  Robert  Bridges ;  and  the  by  no  means 
novel  vagaries  of  the  writers  of  "  free  verse,"  who,  if  they  disdain 
to  derive  from  the  psalmists  and  Job,  might  at  any  rate  father 
themselves  on  Leigh  Hunt,  or  the  French  writers  of  "  vignettes," 
or  Walt  Whitman. 

To  the  student  of  influences,  of  pivotal  personages,  or  literary 
ancestry,  abundant  opportunities  besides  those  already  indicated 
present  themselves.  Let  him  attempt  the  derivation,  literary, 
artistic,  social,  religious;  classical,  medieval,  Chaucerian,  renais- 
sance, Elizabethan,  Miltonic,  Wordsworthian ;  Icelandic,  Celtic, 
French  or  German  or  oriental ;  romantic,  realistic,  mystical  — 
of  any  one  of  the  movements  characteristic  of  the  nineteenth-  or 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  297 

twentieth-century  lyric,  and  problems  innumerable  will  clamor 
for  solution.  Or  let  him  attempt  the  derivation  and  influence  (not 
to  speak  of  the  first  English  romantics  and  of  such  figures  as 
Browning  and  Tennyson)  of  a  pivotal  character,  such  as  Blake, 
Crabbe,  Leigh  Hunt,  Shelley,  Keats,  Arnold,  Rossetti,  Swinburne, 
Fitzgerald,  Oscar  Wilde;  or  let  him  try  to  trace  the  literary 
ancestry  of  one  or  more  of  the  later  poets,  —  Bridges,  Watson, 
Kipling,  and  Stephen  Phillips,  or  Noyes,  Masefield,  Seumas 
O'Sullivan,  and  Rupert  Brooke,  —  and  the  ramifications  of  his 
study  will  carry  him  along  and  athwart  the  century. 

Palgrave  summarizes  the  last  book  of  the  Golden  Treasury  thus  : 

It  proves  sufficiently  the  lavish  wealth  of  our  own  age  in  Poetry,  that 
the  pieces  which,  without  conscious  departure  from  the  Standard  of 
Excellence,  render  this  Book  by  far  the  longest,  were  with  very  few 
exceptions  composed  during  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  Nineteenth 
century.  Exhaustive  reasons  can  hardly  be  given  for  the  strangely 
sudden  appearance  of  individual  genius :  that,  however,  which  assigns 
the  splendid  national  achievements  of  our  recent  poetry  to  an  impulse 
from  the  France  of  the  first  Republic  and  Empire  is  inadequate.  The 
first  French  Revolution  was  rather  one  result,  —  the  most  conspicuous, 
indeed,  yet  itself  in  great  measure  essentially  retrogressive,  —  of  that 
wider  and  more  potent  spirit  which  through  enquiry  and  attempt,  through 
strength  and  weakness,  sweeps  mankind  round  the  circles  (not,  as  some 
too  confidently  argue,  of  Advance,  but)  of  gradual  Transformation :  and 
it  is  to  this  that  we  must  trace  the  literature  of  Modern  Europe.  But, 
without  attempting  disqussion  on  the  motive  causes  of  Scott,  Wordsworth, 
Shelley,  and  others,  we  may  observe  that  these  Poets  carried  to  further 
perfection  the  later  tendencies  of  the  Century  preceding,  in  simplicity 
of  narrative,  reverence  for  human  Passion  and  Character  in  every  sphere, 
and  love  of  Nature  for  herself:  — that,  whilst  maintaining  on  the  whole 
the  advances  in  art  made  since  the  Restoration,  they  renewed  the  half- 
forgotten  melody  and  depth  of  tone  which  marked  the  best  Elizabethan 
writers :  —  that,  lastly,  to  what  was  thus  inherited  they  added  a  richness 
in  language  and  a  variety  in  metre,  a  force  and  fire  in  narrative,  a  tender- 
ness and  bloom  in  feeling,  an  insight  into  the  finer  passages  of  the  Soul 
and  the  inner  meanings  of  the  landscape,  a  larger  sense  of  Humanity,  — 
hitherto  scarcely  attained,  and  perhaps  unattainable  even  by  predecessors 
of  not  inferior  individual  genius.  In  a  word,  the  Nation  which,  after  the 


298  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Greeks  in  their  glory,  may  fairly  claim  that  during  six  centuries  it  has 
proved  itself  the  most  richly  gifted  of  all  nations  for  Poetry,  expressed 
in  these  men  the  highest  strength  and  prodigality  of  its  nature.  They 
interpreted  the  age  to  itself  —  hence  the  many  phases  of  thought  and 
style  they  present :  —  to  sympathise  with  each,  fervently  and  impartially, 
without  fear  and  without  fancifulness,  is  no  doubtful  step  in  the  higher 
education  of  the  soul.  For  purity  in  taste  is  absolutely  proportionate 
to  strength  —  and  when  once  the  mind  has  raised  itself  to  grasp  and 
to  delight  in  excellence,  those  who  love  most  will  be  found  to  love 
most  wisely. 

But  the  gallery  which  this  Book  offers  to  the  reader  will  aid  him 
more  than  any  preface.  It  is  a  royal  Palace  of  Poetry  which  he  is 
invited  to  enter : 

Adparet  domus  intus,  et  atria  longa  patescunt  — 

though  it  is,  indeed,  to  the  sympathetic  eye  only  that  its  treasures  will 
be  visible. 

In  what  precedes  the  names  of  one  or  two  American  poets 
have  been  incidentally  mentioned ;  but  it  is  not  the  purpose  of 
the  authors  to  deal  here  with  the  American  lyric.  The  periods 
and  problems  are  different ;  and  the  student  in  that  field  is  re- 
ferred to  the  histories  of  American  literature,  to  such  treatises 
as  E.  C.  Stedman's  Poets  of  America,  and  such  collections  as 
his  American  Anthology  and  Griswold's  Poets  and  Poetry  of 
America. 

References.  The  following  list  may  be  supplemented  by  many  of  the 
references  given  above,  §§2,  5;  and  by  the  bibliographies  in  Page's 
British  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  to  which  we  are  largely  in- 
debted. In  general,  see  also  the  mass  of  Lives,  and  the  articles  in  The 
Atlantic  Mo.,  N.  Y.  Nation,  Current  Opinion,  The  Review  of  Reviews 
(English  and  American),  The  Literary  Digest,  etc.  and  in  the  English 
periodicals,  dealing  with  the  poets  of  the  last  and  the  present  century ; 
in  the  last  three  vols.  of  the  Camb.  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  the  student  will 
find  ample  critical  apparatus  for  the  poets  up  to  the  close  of  the  Victorian 
era,  and  for  the  developments  of  the  English  lyric  in  India  and  the 
commonwealths  beyond  the  seas.  —  R.  M.  Alden;  English  Verse  (1903), 
—  on  the  Sonnet,  Ode,  Imitations  of  Classical  Metres  and  of  Artificial 
French  Lyric  Forms,  pp.  267-391  ;  J.  P.  Anderson,  Bibliography  of 


XI,  FJ  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  299 

Lord  Byron  (in  Noel's  Life  of  Byron) ;  W.  Archer,  Poets  of  the  Younger 
Generation  (Lond. :  1902),  which  Professor  Schelling  calls  "  to  its  date, 
the  best  summary  of  the  subject";  W.  J.  Alexander,  An  Introduction 
to  the  Poetry  of  R.  Browning ;  M.  Arnold,  Essays  in  Criticism  (First 
Series,  1865;  Second  Series,  1888);  by  same,  On  the  Study  of  Celtic 
Literature  (1895);  P.  Aronstein,  TennysonsWelt-  und  Lebensanschauung 
(in  Englische  Studien,  28:  54.  1900);  .A.  Austin,  The  Bridling  of 
Pegasus  (1910),  —  Wordsworth  and  Byron,  Tennyson,  etc.;  by  the 
same,  The  Poetry  of  the  Period  (Temple  Har,  Aug.,  Sept.,  1869),— 
on  Arnold  and  others;  W.  Bagehot,  Literary  Studies  (1879),  —  Shelley, 
Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and  Browning;  H.  Beers,  A  History  of  English 
Romanticism  in  the  Nineteenth  Century  (N.Y.:  1901);  Malcolm  Bell, 
Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones  (1892),  —  on  Pre-Raphaelitism ;  A.  C.  Benson,. 
Essays  (1896);  by  the  same,  Alfred  Tennyson  (Little  Biographies,  1904), 
and  Rossetti  (E.  M.  L.,  1904);  E.  Berdoe,  The  Browning  Cyclopaedia 
(1892),  and  Browning's  Message  to  his  Time  (1890);  Augustine  Birrell, 
Essays  and  Addresses  (on  Browning,  etc.  1901);  P.  Bourget,  Etudes 
et  portraits  (for  Shelley);  H.  W.  Boynton,  The  Poetry  of  Landor 
(Atlantic,  July,  1902);  A.  C.  Bradley,  Oxford  Lectures  on  Poetry 
(1909),  —  for  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  Keats' -Letters ;  G.  M.  C.  Brandes, 
Shelley  and  Lord  Byron  (1894);  by  the  same,  Die  Hauptstromungen 
d.  Lit.  d..  igten  Jahrh.,  referred  to  above;  A.  Brandl,  Samuel iTaylor 
Coleridge  and  the  English  Romantic  School  (Trans.,  Lond.:  1887); 
R.  S.  Bridges,  Keats,  a  Critical  Essay  (1895);  G.  Brimley,  Essays  (1855), 
—  Tennyson;  S.  A.  Brooke,  Four  Victorian  Poets  —  Arnold,  Clough, 
Rossetti,  Morris — with  an  introd.  on  "  The  Course  of  Poetry  since  1852" 
(1908);  by  the  same,  Studies  in  Poetry  (1907);  by  the  same,  Theology 
in  the  English  Poets  (i  874),  —  for  Coleridge,  etc. ;  by  the  same,  Tennyson, 
his  Art  and  Relation  to  Modern  Life  (1894);  by  the  same,  The  Poetry 
of  Browning  (1902):  R.  Browning,  On  the  Poet,  Objective  and  Subjec- 
tive; and  On  Shelley  as  Man  and  Poet  (1852,  1881);  Browning  Society 
Papers  (of  London,  1895);  Browning  Society  Papers  (of  Boston,  1897); 
R.  Buchanan,  A  Look  about  Literature  (1877) ;  by  the  same,  The  Fleshly 
School  of  Poetry  (1872);  Lady  Burne-Jones,  Memorials  of  Edward 
Burne-Jones  (1904);  T.  Hall  Caine,  Coleridge  (Great  Writers  Series, 
1887);  by  the  same,  Cobwebs  of  Criticism  (1883),  —  on  Shelley,  Keats, 
and  others;  and  Recollections  of  Rossetti  (1882);  G.  H.  Calvert, 
Coleridge,  Shelley,  Goethe  (1880):  J.  D.  Campbell,  Samuel  Taylor 
Coleridge  (1894);  E.  L.  Gary,  The  Rossettis  (1900);  by  the  same, 
William  Morris:  Poet,  Craftsman,  Socialist  (1902);  T.  Carlyle,  Miscel- 
lanies (vol.  IV,  for  Scott);  E.  Castelar,  Vida  de  Lord  Byron  (1873; 


300  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Eng.  trans.  1875);  Charles  Cestre,  La  Revolution  franc.aise  et  les 
poetes  anglais  (1906);  G.  K.  Chesterton,  Tennyson  (Bookman  Biogra- 
phies, 1904);  by  the  same,  Browning  (E.  M.  L.,  1903);  by  the  same, 
Twelve  Types  (1902);  by  the  same,  The  Victorian  Age  in  Literature 
(N.  Y.  and  Lond. :  1913);  A.  H.  dough,  Prose  Remains;  E.  H.  Cole- 
ridge, Bibliography  of  Byron  (in  his  ed.  Poetical  Works,  vol.  VII);  S.  T. 
Coleridge,  Biographia  Literaria;  also  his  Table  Talk,  Letters,  etc.; 
J.  C.  Collins,  Illustrations  of  Tennyson  (1891);  by  the  same,  Studies 
in  Poetry  and  Criticism  (1905),  —  for  Byron ;  S.  Colvin,  Keats  (E.  M.  L., 
1887);  by  the  same,  Landor  (E.  M.  L.),  and  Preface  to  his  Selections 
from  Landor  (Gold.  Treas.  Series);  Hiram  Corson,  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  R.  Browning's  Poetry;  W.  J.  Courthope,  The  Liberal  Move- 
ment in  English  Literature  (Lond.:  1885);  J.  W.  Cunliffe,  Elizabeth 
Barrett's  Influence  on  Browning's  Poetry  (Mod.  Lang.  Pubs.,  June, 
1908);  J.  Darmesteter,  Nouvelles  e"tudes  anglaises :  la  Revolution  et 
Wordsworth  (Paris:  1896;  transl.  Mary  Darmesteter,  in  Engl.  Studies, 
Lond.:  1896);  W.  H.  Dawson,  Matthew  Arnold  and  his  Relation  to 
the  Thought  of  our  Time ;  A.  De  Vere,  Essays,  Chiefly  on  Poetry 
(1887);  Thos.  De  Quincey,  Works  (Ed.  D.  Masson;  vols.  II,  III,  V,  XI, 
on  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, .  Shelley,  Keats,  Landor,  etc.);  J.  Devey, 
Comparative  Estimate  of  Modern  English  Poets ;  Austin  Dobson,  Notes 
on  some  Foreign  Forms  of  Verse  (in  Latter  Day  Lyrics,  1878).;  W.  M.. 
Dixon,  A  Primer  of  Tennyson  (1896);  by  the  same,  English  Poetry 
from  Blake  to  Browning ;  E.  Dowden,  Poetical  Feeling  for  Nature  (in 
Contemp.  Rev.,  II,  1866),  —  on  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  etc.;  by  the 
same,  Studies  in  Literature,  1 789-1877  (1878) ;  by  the  same,  Transcripts 
and  Studies  (1888);  also  New  Studies  in  Literature  (1895),  French 
Revolution  and  English  Literature  (1897),  Life  of  Shelley  (1886),  and 
Browning  (Temple  Biogs.,  1904),  and  Arnold  (in  Chambers'  New  Cycl. 
Eng.  Lit.,  1904);  R.  Dyboski,  Tennysons  Sprache  und  Stil  (in  Wiener 
Beitrage,  No.  25.  1907);  M.  Eimer,  Byron  und  der  Kosmos  (in  An- 
glistische  Forsch.,  No.  34);  K.  Elze,  Lord  Byron  (1870);  E.  Esteve, 
Byron  et  le  romantisme  fran9ais  (1907);  John  Forster,  W.  S.  Landor 
(2  vols.  1869);  H.  B.  Forman,  The  Shelley  Library,  an  Essay  in 
Bibliography  (1886);  by  same,  Complete  Works  of  Shelley  (8  vols., 
1876-79;  1882;  various  important  notices) ;  by  same,  Complete  Works 
of  Keats  (4  vols.,  1883 ;  1889;  vol.  II  for  Leigh  Hunt's  articles  in  The 
Indicator};  by  same,  Our  Living  Poets  (1868),  —  Arnold,  Morris,  etc.; 
O.  B.  Frothingham,  Transcendentalism  in  New  England  (1875);  E.  Fuller, 
Arnold,  Newman,  and  Rossetti  (The  Critic,  Sept.,  1904);  F.  J.  Furnivall, 
A  Bibliography  of  R.  Browning  from  1833  to  1881  ;  A.  Gallon,  Two 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH   LYRIC  3OI 

Essays  on  Matthew  Arnold ;  R.  Garnett,  Matthew  Arnold  (art.  D.  N.  B.); 
L.  E.  Gates,  Studies  and  Appreciations  ( 1 900), —  on  Tennyson,  Arnold ; 
also  his  Three  Studies  in  Literature ;  S.  F.  Gingerich,  Wordsworth, 
Tennyson,  and  Browning:  a  study  in  Human  Freedom  (1911); 
Th.  Gautier,  Histoire  du  Roman tisme  (1884),  —  for  comparative  studies, 
Byron,  etc.;  Goethe,  Conversations  with  Eckermann  (for  Byron); 
E.  Gosse,  Coventry  Patmore  (i  905) ;  by  same,  A  Plea  for  Certain  Exotic 
Forms  of  Verse  (in  Cornhill  Mag.,  JiJly,  1877) ;  by  the  same,  History  of 
English  Lit.,  Nineteenth  Century  ( 1 906) ;  by  the  same,  Questions  at  Issue 
(1893);  by  the  same,  Critical  Kit-Kats  ( 1 896) ;  by  the  same,  R.  Browning; 
Personalia  (1890);  Life  of  Swinburne  (Lond. :  1917);  Guiccioli  (The 
Countess),  Lord  Byron  juge"  par  les  temoins  de  sa  vie  (i  868  ;  tr.  Jerning- 
ham,  1869);  A.  H.  Hallam,  Literary  Remains,  —  on  Tennyson's  Lyrical 
Poems;  Walter  Hamilton,  The  Aesthetic  Movement  in  England,  —  for 
Wilde  and  others ;  A.  E.  Hancock,  The  French  Revolution  and  the  Eng- 
lish Poets  (1899);  by  the  same,  John  Keats  (1908);  J.  L.  Haney,  Bibli- 
ography of  Coleridge  (1903);  F.  Harrison,  Tennyson,  Ruskin,  Mill, 
Arnold,  etc.  (1899);  W.  Hazlitt,  My  First  Acquaintance  with  Poets  (in 
Literary  Remains);  by  the  same,  The  Spirit  of  the  Age,  and  Lectures 
on  the  English  Poets;  H.  Heine,  Die  Roman tische  Schule  (for  com- 
parative studies);  A.  A.  Helmholtz,  The  Indebtedness  of  Coleridge  to 
A.  W.  von  Schlegel  (1907);  W.  E.  Henley,  Views  and  Reviews,  Essays 
in  Appreciation  (2  vols.  1891-2);  C.  H.  Herford,  The  Age  of  Words- 
worth (1901);  by  the  same,  Browning  (Mod.  Eng.  Writers,  1904); 
O.  Heuser,  Swinburnes  Lyrik  (in  Zeitschr.  f.  vergl.  Littgesch.,  N.F., 
15:  206  ff.);  T.  J.  Hogg,  Life  of  Shelley  (1858);  Lord  Houghton 
(R.  M.  Milnes),  Life,  Letters  and  Literary  Remains  of  Keats  (1848, 
1867);  W.  D.  Howells,  My  Literary  Passions  (1895),  —  for  Scott, 
Tennyson,  and  other  modern  poets ;  W.  H.  Hudson,  Sir  Walter  Scott 
(Scots  Epoch  Makers,  1901);  by  the  same,  Studies  in  Interpretation: 
Keats,  Clough,  Arnold  (1896);  A.  M.  D.  Hughes,  The  Nascent  Mind 
of  Shelley  (in  Englische  Studien,  45  :  61.  1912);  Leigh  Hunt,  The 
Seer,  i  :  204  (Wordsworth  and  Milton) ;  by  the  same,  Lord  Byron  and 
Some  of  his  Contemporaries :  by  the  same,  Imagination  and  Fancy 
(1844);  Holman  Hunt,  Pre-Raphaelinsm  and  the  Pre-Raphaelite 
Brotherhood  (1905);  L.  Hunt  and  S.  A.  Lee,  The  Book  of  the 
Sonnet  (with  introductory  Essay,  1867);  R.  H.  Hutton,  Literary  Essays 
(1871,  1888);  Essays,  Theological  and  Literary  (2  vols.,  Lond.:  1880), 
—  for  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Shelley,  Tennyson,  Clough,  Arnold ;  by  the 
same,  Scott  (E.M.L.,  1878);  by  the  same,  Brief  Literary  Criticisms 
(1906),  —  for  Scott,  Keats,  Tennyson,  Browning,  Clough,  Arnold; 


302  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

W.  R.  Inge,  Studies  of  English  Mystics  (1906);  A.  A.  Jack  and 
A.  C.  Bradley,  Short  Bibliog.  of  Coleridge  (Eng.  Assoc.,  Leaflet  23, 
1912);  J.  C.  Jeaffreson,  The  Real  Lord  Byron  (1883);  Henry  Jones, 
Browning  as  a  Philosophical  and  Religious  Teacher  (1891);  Francis 
Jeffrey,  on  Wordsworth's  Poems  (Edinb.  Rev..  Nos.  21,  47,  50;  and 
in  his  Critical  Essays) ;  also  in  Critical  Essays,  Coleridge's  Literary  Life, 
Scott's  Poems,  Byron's  Poetry,  Keats's  Poetry;  W.  P.  Ker,  Wordsworth, 
Scott  (Chambers'  Cyclopaedia  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1904) ;  by  the  same,  Tennyson 
(1910);  W.  Knight,  Life  of  William  Wordsworth  (3  vols.,  1889,  1896); 
by  the  same,  Studies  in  Philosophy  (1868),  and  Rossetti  (Great  Writers, 
1887);  E.  Koeppel,  Lord  Byron  (1903);  by  the  same,  R.  Browning  (in 
Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  48.  1912);  A.  Lang,  Lays  and  Lyrics  of  Old 
France  (1872,  —  for  the  imitation  of  foreign  forms  of  verse);  by  the 
same,  Sir  Walter  Scott  (Literary  Lives  Series,  1 906),  Letters  on  Litera- 
ture (1889),  Poets'  Country  (1907),  Alfred  Tennyson  (Mod.  Eng.  Writers, 
1901),  The  Poetry  of  William  Morris  (articles  in  Contemp.  Rev.,  Aug. 
1882,  and  Longman's  Mag.,  Oct.  1896);  Lamartine,  Le  dernier  chant 
de  Childe  Harold  (1824);  Vernon  Lee  (Violet  Paget),  The  Rhetoric  of 
Landor  (Contemp.  Rev.,  LXXXIV.  1903);  R.  Le  Gallienne,  Attitudes 
and  Avowals  (1910);  E.  Legouis,  La  Jeunesse  de  William  Wordsworth 
(1896;  trans.  J.  W.  Matthews,  1897),  and  the  chap,  on  Wordsworth  in 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  XI ;  J.  G.  Lockhart,  Life  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (1837);  by  the  same,  Tennyson's  Poems  (Quart.  Rev.,  April, 
1833);  J.  R.  Lowell,  Prose  Works  (vols.  I,  IV,  VI,  etc.,  on  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  Keats,  Landor,  etc.);  Morton  Luce,  A  Handbook  to  the 
Works  of  Tennyson  (1895);  J.  W.  Mackail,  The  Progress  of  Poesy 
(Oxford) ;  also  his  Life  of  William  Morris  (2  vols.  1 899),  his  William 
Morris  and  his  Circle  (Clarendon  Press),  and  his  Swinburne  (1909); 
A.  Mackie,  Nature  Knowledge  in  Modern  Poets  (1906);  D.  Masson, 
Wordsworth,  Shelley,  Keats  and  Other  Essays  (1874);  O.  Maurer, 
Shelley  und  die  Frauen  (in  Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  33.  1906); 
U.  Mengin,  L'ltalie  des  Romantiques  (1902),  —  for  Byron,  etc. ; 
Alice  Meynell,  Swinburne's  Lyrical  Poetry  (Dublin  Rev.,  July,  1909); 
E.  Meynell,  The  Life  of  Francis  Thompson  (Lond. :  1913);  A.  H. 
Miles,  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the  Century,  introductions  (10  vols.,  n.d.); 
J.  S.  Mill,  Dissertations  and  Discussions  (on  Coleridge,  etc.);  also  his 
Autobiography  (on  Wordsworth) ;  A.  B.  Miller,  Leigh  Hunt's  Relations 
with  Byron,  Shelley,  and  Keats  (1909) ;  G.  Monti,  Studi  critici :  Leopardi 
e  Byron  (1887);  T.  Moore,  The  Letters  and  Journals  of  Lord  Byron 
( 1 830  :  reviewed  by  T.  B.  Macaulay,  1831,  —  Macaulay's  Essays) ;  P.  E. 
More,  Shelburne  Essays  (several  series,  1 904  ff.),  —  stimulating  articles 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  ,    303 

on  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Browning,  Swinburne,  and 
other  poets  of  the  century;  John  Morley,  Miscellanies  (1871);  by  the 
same,  Studies  in  Literature  (i  891);  F.  W.  H.  Myers,  William  Wordsworth 
(E.  M.L.,  1881);  also  his  Essays  Modern  (1883),  —  Rossetti  and  the 
Religion  of  Beauty ;  and  Wm.  Morris  and  the  Meaning  of  Life  {Nine- 
teenth Cent.,  Jan.  1893);  J.  T.  Nettleship,  Essays  on  R.  Browning's 
Poetry  (1868);  J.  Nichol,  Byron  (E.M.L.,  1880);  W.  R.  Nicoll  and 
T.  J.  Wise,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (1895); 
J.  A.  Noble,  The  Sonnet  in  England  (1893);  Roden  Noel,  Lord 
Byron  (Great  Writers  Series,  1890);  Alfred  Noyes,  Morris  (E.M.L., 
1908);  D.  Nisard,  Portraits  et  etudes  d'histoire  litte"raire  (for  Byron); 
W.  Ochsenbein,  Die  Aufnahme  Lord  Byron's  in  Deutschland,  u.s.w. 
(1905);  T.  S.  Omond,  English  Metrists  in  the  i8th  and  igth  Centuries 
(Oxford);  Alexandra . Orr,  Life  and  Letters  of  Robert  Browning  (new 
ed.  by  Kenyon,  1908);  by  the  same,  A  Handbook  to  the  Works  of 
R.  Browning ;  F.  T.  Palgrave,  Scott  (Introd.  to  Globe  Edition  of  Scott's 
Poetical  Works) ;  H.  W.  Paul,  Matthew  Arnold  (E.  M.  L.,  1902) ;  W.  M. 
Payne,  The  Greater  English  Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  (N.Y. : 
1907),  —  for  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Landor, . 
Tennyson,  Browning,  Rossetti,  Morris,  Swinburne ;  by  the  same,  Intro- 
duction to  his  edition  of  Selected  Poems  of  Swinburne  (1905);  W.  Pater, 
Appreciations  (Lond. :  1 889),  —  on  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Rossetti, 
etc.;  by  the  same,  Essays  from  The  Guardian  (Lond.:  1901),  —  on 
Wordsworth,  Browning;  T.  L.  Peacock,  Memoirs  of  Percy  Bysshe 
Shelley;  T.  S.  Perry,  Arthur  Hugh  Clough  (Atlantic,  1875);  F.  H. 
Pughe,  Studien  iiber  Byron  und  Wordsworth  (Anglistische  Forschungen, 
No.  8.  1902);  J.  T.  A.  Pyre,  Byron  in  our  Day  (Atlantic,  April,  1907); 
Quarterly  Rev.,  No.  37  (1818),  Review  of  Endymion  (by  W.  Gifford?); 
W.  A.  Raleigh,  Wordsworth  (1903);  M.  Reynolds,  The  Treatment  of 
Nature  in  Eng.  Poetry  between  Pope  and  Wordsworth  (Chicago :  1909) ; 
Anne  Thackeray  Ritchie,  Records  of  Tennyson,  Ruskin,  Browning 
(1892);  F.  W.  Robertson,  Lects.  on  the  Influence  of  Poetry,  and  Words- 
worth (1906);  J.  M.  Robertson,  New  Essays  toward  a  Critical  Method 
(Lond. :  1 897),  —  on  Coleridge,  Keats,  Tennyson,  Clough  ;  E.  Rod, 
Etudes  sur  le  dix-neuvieme  siecle  (1888),  —  for  the  Pre-Raphaelites ; 
W.  M.  Rossetti  (ed.),  The  Germ  (1850;  reprinted  by  T.  B.  Mosher,  1898); 
also  his  Ruskin,  Rossetti  and  Pre-Raphaelitism  (1899),  his  Pre-Raphaelite 
Diaries  and  Letters  (1900),  his  Rossetti,  Letters  and  Memoir  (2  vols. 
1895),  and  his  Rossetti  Papers  (1903);  by  the  same,  Lives  of  Famous 
Poets  (1878);  by  the  same,  Keats  (Great  Writers  Series,  1887);  by  the 
same,  Swinburne's  Poems  and  Ballads  (1866);  J.  Royce,  Studies  of 


304  *  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Good  and  Evil  (1898),  —  Tennyson  and  Pessimism;  G.  W.  E.  Russell, 
Letters  of  Matthew  Arnold  (2  vols.,  1895);  Sainte-Beuve,  Chateaubriand 
et  son  groupe  litteraire  (vol.  I,  Chap.  XV.  1848),  —  for  Byron; 
G.  Saintsbury,  Nineteenth  Century  Lit,  1780-1895  (1896);  also,  his 
Essays  in  English  Literature  (Second  Series,  1895),  —  for  Coleridge, 
Scott,  Southey,  Landor;  his  Sir  Walter  Scott  (Famous  Scots  Series, 
1897),  his  Life  of  Matthew  Arnold  (Mod.  Eng.  Writers,  1899),  and 
his  Corrected  Impressions  (1895),  —  for  Tennyson,  Browning,  Arnold, 
Morris,  Swinburne;  H.  S.  Salt,  Shelley  (1896);  John  Sampson,  Blake's 
Poetical  Works  (Oxford),  —  valuable  bibliographical  notes  and  prefaces; 
Geo.  Santayana,  Interpretations  of  Poetry  and  Religion  (on  Browning, 
etc.);  J.  Schmidt,  Portraits  aus  d.  igten  Jahrh. :  L.ord  Byron  (1878); 
H.  Schmitt,  Shelley  als  Romantiker  (in  Englische  Studien,  44:  32. 
1912);  G.  Sarrazin,  La  Renaissance  de  la  poe'sie  anglaise  (1887); 
T.  Scott,  A  Bibliography  of  the  Works  of  William  Morris ;  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage  (in  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays); 
J.  C.  Shairp,  Aspects  of  Poetry  (Boston:  1882);  by  the  same,  Studies 
in  Poetry  of  Philosophy  (1868,  1887),  —  for  Wordsworth,  Coleridge; 
by  the  same,  On  the  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature  (1887),  —  Words- 
worth; by  same,  Portraits  of  Friends  (A.  H.  Clough  and  others); 
Mrs.  E.  A.  Sharp,  William  Sharp,  a  Memoir  (1910);  W.  Sharp,  Dante 
Gabriel  Rossetti,  a  Record  and  a  Study  (1883);  and  his  Shelley  (Great 
Writers  Series,  1887;  with  bibliographical  Appendix  by  J.  P.  Anderson); 
his  Life  of  Browning  (Great  Writers,  1890,  with  bibliog.  Appendix  by 
J.  P.  Anderson);  his  Wm.  Morris,  the  Man  and  his  Work  (Atlantic, 
Dec.  1896);  and  Swinburne  (Pall  Mall  Mag.,  Dec.  1901);  Lady 
Shelley,  Shelley  Memorials  (1859);  R.  H.  Shepherd,  Bibliography  of 
Swinburne  (1887);  Bibliography  of  Tennyson  (1896);  Bibliography 
of  Coleridge  (revised  by  Prideaux,  1909);  H.  Sidgwick,  Miscellaneous 
Essays  and  Addresses  (1905),  —  for  Clough,  Arnold;  M.  Simhart, 
Byrons  Einfluss  auf  d.  ital.  Lit.  (in  Milnchener  Beitrage,  No.  45. 
1909);  T.  B.  Smart,  The  Bibliography  of  Matthew  Arnold  (1892); 
A.  Smith,  The  Main  Tendencies  of  Victorian  Poetry  (Bournville, 
Birmingham:  1907);  Goldwin  Smith,  Scott's  Poetry  Again  (Atlantic, 
March,  1905);  E.  H.  Sneath,  Wordsworth:  Poet  of  -Nature  and  Poet 
of  Man  (N.  Y.:  1912);  James  Spedding,  Reviews  (1843),  —  Tennyson; 
C.  F.  E.  Spurgeon,  Mysticism  in  English  Literature  (Camb. :  1913),— 
a  stimulating  and  well  authenticated  discussion,  with  a  bibliography  of 
the  subject;  E.  C.  Stedman,  Victorian  Poets  (1876);  Sir  Leslie  Stephen, 
Hours  in  a  Library  (1892.  vols.  II,  III),  —  for  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, 
Scott,  Shelley,  Landor;  his  Studies  of  a  Biographer  (1898);  and  his 


XI,  F]  THE  ENGLISH  LYRIC  305 

article  on  Clough  (D.  N.  B.) ;  S.  J.  M.  Suddard,  L'imagination  de 
Wordsworth,  Essais  de  litt.  anglaise  (Cambridge:  1912;  also  in  Eng- 
lish); A.  Swanwick,  Poets  the  Interpreters  of  their  Age  (Arnold,  Clough, 
etc.);  A.  C.  Swinburne,  Miscellanies  (1886),  —  Wordsworth  and  Byron, 
Keats,  Landor,  Tennyson;  also  his  Essays  and  Studies  (1875),  —  for 
Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  Rossetti,  Morris ;  and  his  Studies  in  Prose 
and  Poetry  ( 1 894),  —  for  Scott,  etc.;  J.  A.  Symonds,  Essays  Speculative 
and  Suggestive  (2  vols.  1890);  by  same,  Shelley  (E.M.  L.,  1878);  by 
same,  Matthew  Arnold's  Selections  from  Wordsworth  (Fortn.  Rev., 
32:  686);  A.  Symons,  Studies  in  Prose  and  Verse  (1904);  and  his 
The  Romantic  Movement  in  English  Poetry  (1909);  his  essay  on 
Coleridge  (I/iternat,  Quart.,  June-Sept.,  1904);  his  Was  Sir  Walter 
Scott  a  Poet?  (Atlantic,  Nov.,  1904);  his  Poetry  of  Landor  (Atlantic, 
June,  1906);  and  his  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Browning;  Hallam 
Tennyson,  Alfred,  Lord  Tennyson  (2  vols.,  1897;  one  vol.,  1905); 
Jos.  Texte,  Etudes  de  lit.  europe"enne(i898), —  Wordsworth  et  la  poesie 
lakiste  en  France,  Keats  et  le  ne"o-helle"nisme,  Mrs.  Browning ;  Francis 
Thompson,  Shelley  (1909);  C.  Tomlinson,  The  Sonnet,  its  Origin, 
Structure  and  Place  in  Poetry  (1874);  H.  D.  Trail,  Coleridge  (E.  M.  L., 
1884);  E.  J.  Trelawney,  Recollections  of  Shelley  and  Byron;  W.  P. 
Trent,  The  Authority  of  Criticism  (1899,),  —  The  Byron  Revival,  Shelley; 
A.  Vallance,  William  Morris  (1897);  C.  E.  Vaughan,  Coleridge  (in 
Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  XI) ;  S.  Waddington,  Arthur  Hugh  Clough 
(1883);  H.  Walker,  The  Greater  Victorian  Poets  (1895);  by  the  same, 
The  Literature  of  the  Victorian  Era  (Cambridge :  1910);  T.  H.  Ward, 
English  Poets,  vol.  IV  (1880),  —  the  essays  by  various  writers  on  poets 
from  Wordsworth  to  Dobell ;  T.  H.  Warren,  Essays  of  Poets  and 
Poetry,  Ancient  and  Modern  (1909), — Arnold,,  etc. ;  W.  Watson,  Ex- 
cursions in  Criticism  (1893),  —  for  Coleridge,  Keats'  Letters;  T.  Watts- 
Dunton,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti  (in  Encyc.  Brit.,  ^th  ed.,  1886);  by 
the  same,  Byron  (in  Chambers'  New  Cycl.  Eng.  Lit.,  1904);  by  the 
same,  Tennyson  as  a  Nature  Poet,  Tennyson  and  the  Scientific  Move- 
ment (Nineteenth  Century,  May,  Oct.,  1893);  and  William  Morris 
(Athenaeum,  Oct.  10,  1896);  Arthur  Waugh,  Life  of  Tennyson  (1893); 
C.  Weygandt  (for  references,  see  Schelling's  English  Lyric,  p.  319); 
S.  Wheeler,  Landor's  Letters,  Private  and  Public  (1899,  including  a 
bibliography);  Gleeson  White,  Ballades  and  Rondeaus  (1893) ;  also  his 
Matthew  Arnold  and  the  Spirit  of  the. Age;  Lilian  Whiting,  A  Study 
of  E.  B.  Browning  (1899);  John  Wilson,  Essays  (on  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  Tennyson);  L.  Winstanley,  Shelley  as  a  Nature  Poet  (in 
Englische  Studien,  34:  17.  1904);  T.  J.  Wise,  Bibliography  of 


306  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Tennyson  (1908),  and  Bibliography  of  Coleridge  (Bibliog.  Society: 
1913);  E.  Wood,  Dante  Rossetti  and  the  Pre-Raphaelite  Movement 
(Lond. :  1894);  G.  E.  Woodberry,  Makers  of  Literature  (1890,  1900), — 
for  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats,  Browning,  Arnold; 
by  the  same,  Swinburne  (1905);  by  the  same,  Great  Writers  (1907); 
Christopher  Wordsworth,  Memoirs  of  Wm.  Wordsworth  (2  vols.,  1851); 
W.  B.  Yeats,  Irish  Poetry,  Poetry  and  Tradition,  —  two  essays  in 
vol.  VIII  of  the  author's  Collected  Works  (8  vols.,  1908);  by  the 
same,  Ideas  of  Good  and  Evil  (1903),  —  for  the  Philosophy  of  Shelley, 
and  for  Morris,  the  Happiest  of  the  Poets. 

G.  British  Hymnody. 

On  British  Hymnody,  see  first  the  article  on  Hymns  by  Lord  Selborne, 
in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  (cited  above,  under  Early  Christian  Greek  and  Latin 
Hymns  ;  published  separately,  under  the  same  title,  Lond. :  1892),  which 
will  at  once  open  the  field  to  the  student.  See  further,  Julian's  Dictionary 
of  Hymnology  (Lond.:  1892),  and  the  following:  Holland's  Psalmists 
of  Britain  (1843);  J.  Miller's  Our  Hymns,  their  Authors  and  Origin 
(1866);  J.  Gadsby's  Memoirs  of  Principal  Hymn-Writers,  etc.  (3d  ed. 
1861);  D.  Sedgwick's  Comprehensive  Index  of  Names  of  Original 
Authors  of  Hymns  (3d  ed.  1863);  C.  H.  Herford's  Literary  Relations 
of  England  and  Germany  (pp.  8-20  Coverdale's  Hymns);  F.  D. 
Huntington's  Hymns  of  the  Ages,  with  introduction  (3  vols.,  Boston : 
1877).  An  excellent  small  anthology  of  hymns,  collected  by  R.  Palmer, 
is  published  in  the  Golden  Treasury  Series  (The  Book  of  Praise,  Lond. : 
1898);  F.  T.  Palgrave's  Treasury  of  Sacred  Song  (Oxford:  1890) 
contains  most  of  the  most  artistic  English  hymns ;  of  the  best  hymns 
of  the  nineteenth  century  many  are  included  in  vol.  X  of  Miles'  Poets 
and  Poetry  of  the  Century  (Lond. :  n.d.).  The  Oxford  Hymn  Book  and 
The  English  Hymnal  (both  Clarendon  Press)  should  be  consulted. 

'  XII.  The  Celtic  Lyric  (Irish,  Scottish,  Welsh,  Breton,  etc.). 

On  the  Celtic  Lyric  in  general,  see  references  as  given  in  the  Appen- 
dix, under  Celtic  Literature;  especially  vols.  I,  IX-XI  of  Jubainville. 
See  also  the  articles  on  Celtic  Literature  (Irish,  Scottish,  Gaelic, 
Welsh,  Breton,  etc.)  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. ;  the  section,  Die 
Keltischen  Literaturen  (on  the  same  divisions),  by  Kuno  Meyer  and 
L.  C.  Stern,  in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d.  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  I,  1909; 
and  vols.  I,  IX-XI  of  Jubainville.  Edward  O'Reilly  and  Eugene  O'Curry 
in  Ireland,  the  Vicomte  de  la  Villemarqud  in  France,  and  Thomas 
Stephens  in  Wales,  are  notable  among  the  earlier  nineteenth-century 


XII,  A]  THE  CELTIC  LYRIC  307 

writers  on  the  poetry  and  customs  of-the  Celts.  Kenan's  famous  and 
poetic  essay  on  The  Poetry  of  the  Celtic  Races  is  concerned  mostly 
with  Celtic  romance  and  religion,  but  its  interpretation  of  the  genius  of 
the  race  is  suggestive  to  the  student  of  the  lyric.  So,  also,  though  the 
author  knew  no  Celtic,  is  Matthew  Arnold's  essay  on  Celtic  Literature. 
On  the  ancient  literature  of  the  Gael,  Morley  has  a  chapter  in  his  English 
Writers  (i  :  164-202),  and  on  the  literature  of  the  Cymry  (i  :  203-239). 
In  both  instances  attention  is  paid  to  the  lyric  element.  To  the  valuable 
bibliography  of  sources  appended  to  each  chapter  the  student  is  referred. 
The  student  should  also  consider  the  modern  Celtic  revival,  which  has 
brought  forth  many  tuneful  lyric  utterances,  notably  those  of  William 
Sharp  (Fiona  Macleod)  and  Yeats. 

A.  Irish  Lyrics, 

D.  Hyde's  Hist,  of  Irish  Lit.  (Lond. :  1899)  must  be  used  with  extreme 
care  in  the  older  periods;  for  the  more  modern  period  it  is  trustworthy. 
The  articles  on  Irish  literature  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  and  Hinneberg's 
Kult.  d.  Gegenwart,  already  mentioned,  are  authoritative.  Probably  the 
readiest  and  most  dependable  aid  for  following  the  history  of  Irish 
literature  is  Eleanor  Hull's  Text  Book  of  Irish  Lit.  (2  parts,  Lond.: 
1904-08).  —  Of  the  more  recent  collections  in  English  the  following 
are  helpful :  W.  Stokes  and  J.  Strachan,  Thesaurus  Palaeohibernicus 
(2  vols.  Cambridge:  1901-03);  J.  H.  Bernard  and  R.  Atkinson,  Liber 
Hymnorum  (Lond.:  1895);  E.  A.  Sharp,  Lyra  Celtica,  mostly  modern 
(Edinb. :  1 896) ;  G.  Sigerson,  Bards  of  the  Gael  and  Gall,  entirely 
ancient  (Lond.:  1897,  Dublin:  1906),  and  other  collections  of  the 
older  bards  by  J.  Hardiman  and  J.  C.  Mangan,  as  well  as  some  speci- 
mens in  Zeitschr.  f.  celt.  PhiloL,  vol.  II ;  D.  Hyde,  The  Religious  Songs 
of  Connacht  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1906),  Love  Songs  of  Connacht  (5th  ed. 
Lond.:  1909),  —  representative  collections  of  Irish  folk-songs ;  J.  McCar- 
thy et  «/.,  Irish  Lit.  (10  vols.  Philadelphia:  1904);  K.  Meyer,  Selections 
from  Ancient  Irish  Poetry  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1913);  H.  R.  Montgomery, 
Specimens  of  the  Early  Native  Poetry  of  Ireland  (Dublin  :  1892).  The 
publications  of  the  Irish  Texts  Society  (Nutt,  Lond.:  1899+),  and 
of  Erin,  the  journal  of  the  School  of  Irish  Learning  (ed.  Kuno  Meyer 
et  al.,  Hodges,  Figgis,  Dubl. :  1903  +),  include  originals  and  admirable 
translations  into  English  of  several  of  the  best  Celtic  lyrists ;  also  those 
of  the  Irish  Archaeological  and  Celtic  Society,  which  comprise,  also, 
the  Celtic  Hymn  of  St.  Colman  in  the  Latin  Liber  Hymnorum,  edited 
by  J.  H.  Todd.  Of  early  translations  of  Irish  lyrics  may  be  mentioned 
Charlotte  Brooke's  Reliques  of  Irish  Poetry  (Dublin:  1789),  and  James 


308  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Hardiman's  Irish  Minstrelsy  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1831).  For  further  bibliog- 
raphy, see  G.  Dottin,  La  litt.  gaelique  de  1'Irlande  (Revue  de  synthese 
historique,  3  :  i),  of  which  an  English  translation,  with  additions,  has 
been  published  privately  by  Joseph  Dunn  (The  Gaelic  Lit.  of  Ireland. 
Washington :  1 906). 

B.  The  Scottish  Lyric. 

On  the  Gaelic  literature  of  Scotland  see  Encyc.  Brit,  and  Hinneberg ; 
also  Magnus  Maclean,  The  Lit.  of  the  Highlands  (Lond.:  1904),  Lit. 
of  the  Celts  (Lond.:  1902),  and  Lit.  of  the  Scottish  Gael  (Lond.:  1912). 
Much  that  is  of  lyrical  strain  in  this  literature  is  to  be  found  in  Sir 
James  McGregor's  Book  of  the  Dean  of  Lismore,  translated  some  three 
hundred  years  after  its  collection  by  T.  McLauchlan  (Edinb. :  1 862).  See 
also  A.  Cameron,  Reliquiae  Celticae  (Inverness:  1892-94);  J.  Reid,  Biblb 
otheca  Scoto-Celtica  (Glasgow:  1832);  John  Mackenzie,  The  Beauties 
of  Gaelic  Poetry  (New  ed.  Edinb.:  1904);  L.  Macbean,  Songs  and 
Hymns  of  the  Scottish  Highlands  (Edinb.:  1888);  D.  Mitchell,  The 
Book  of  Highland  Verse  (Lond.:  1912);  P.  T.  Patterson,  Gaelic  Bards 
(1890);  M.  C.  Macleod,  Modern  Gaelic  Bards  (Sterling  :  1908).  Further 
bibliography  by  G.  Dottin,  Revue  de  synthese  historique,  8 :  79-81.  For 
Macpherson's  so-called  translations  of  Gaelic  poems,  Fragments  of 
Ancient  Poetry  (1760),  Temora  (1763),  with  their  romantic  sentiment 
and  lyrical  cadences,  the  student  will  turn  to  the  bibliographies  of 
Ossianic  literature — Lowndes'  Bibliographer's  Manual,  Pt.  VI  (1861), 
A.  Nutt's  Ossian  and  Ossianic  Literature  (1899),  and  the  references 
furnished  in  the  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  vol.  X,  pp.  542-544.  The 
ballads  of  the  Gaelic  Leabhar  na  Feinne  were  edited  by  Campbell 
of  Islay  in  1872. 

C.  The  Welsh  Lyric. 

One  of  the  earliest  English  translations  of  Welsh  poetry  was  Evan 
Evans'  Specimens  of  the  Poetry  of  the  Welsh  Bards  (Lond.:  1764). 
In  1848  appeared  the  lolo  Manuscripts  (verse  and  prose)  collected  by 
Taliesin  Williams ;  in  1 849,  the  famous  essay,  The  Literature  of  the 
Kymry,  by  Thomas  Stephens  (2d  ed.  1876);  and  in  1850,  Villemarqud's 
Poemes  des  Bardes  Bretons  du  VIe  siecle;  in  1856,  John  Williams  Ab 
Ithel's  Ancient  Welsh  Grammar,  containing  the  Raleg  Welsh  Poetry, 
with  an  English  translation  ( Llandovery) ;  and  in  1868,  W.  F.  Skene's 
Four  Ancient  Books  of  Wales,  containing  Cymric  poems  attributed  to 
the  bards  of  the  6th  century.  Other  volumes  of  Welsh  verse  have  been 
published  by  G.  H.  Borrow,  A.  P.  Graves,  E.  O.  Jones,  O.  Jones, 


XIII]  THE  G£RMAN  LYRIC  309 

W.  Owen,  J.  Parry,  W.  F.  Skene,  etc.  For  further  information  and 
recent  bibliography  see  the  Encyc.  Brit,  and  Hinneberg;  also  J.  C. 
Morrice,  Manual  of  Welsh  Lit.  (Bangor :  1909). 

On  the  popular  and  religious  songs  of  Brittany,  see  the  Barzas  Breiz 
of  Villemarque  (6th  edition  with  French  translation,  2  vols.,  Paris :  i'865) 
and  the  English  translation  by  Tom  Taylor  (1865);  also  J.  Loth, 
Chrestomathie  bretonne  (Paris:  1890);  N.  Quellien,  Chansons  et 
danses  des  Bretons  (Paris:  1889);  and  articles  on  Breton  chansbns 
in  the  Revue  celtique  (7 :  171,19:  i,  23  :  121,  etc.).  Cf.  Encyc.  Brit, 
and  Hinneberg ;  also  G.  Dottin,  Revue  de  synthese  historique,  8  :  93- 
104 ;  and  Annales  de  Bretagne  (since  1901  for  bibliog.  of  modern  works 
on  Breton  lit). 

On  Cornish  and  Manx  literature,  see  Encyc.  Brit,  and  Hinneberg. 

For  -versification,  see  Kuno  Meyer's  Primer  of  Irish  Metrics  (Hodges, 
Figgis,  Dublin),  the  appendix  to  which  gives  an  alphabetical  list  of  the 
poets  of  Ireland  ;  and  Douglas  Hyde's  works  on  the  Poetry  of  Connacht, 
passim,  as  mentioned  above ;  also  John  Strachan's  translation  of  An 
Old-Irish  Metrical  Rule  (in  Eriu,  vol.  I).- 

XIII.  The  German  Lyric. 

Of  monographs  the  following  are  helpful :  H.  Spiero,  Gesch.  der  deut- 
schen  Lyrik  seit  Claudius  (Leipz. :  1 909);  P.  Witkop,  Die  neuere  deutsche 
Lyrik  (2  vols.  Leipz. :  "1910-1913);  R.  Findeis,  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Lyrik,  for  school  purposes  (Sammlung  Goschen,  Leipz. :  1914);  John 
Lees,  The  German  Lyric  (Lond. :  1914);  A.  Biese,  Lyrische  Dichtung 
und  neuere  deutsche  Lyriker  (Berlin  :  1 896).  Of  the  histories  of  German 
literature -cited  in  the  Appendix  those  by  Calvin  Thomas  (in  Litera- 
tures of  the  World;  N.Y. :  1909),  and  W.  Scherer  (English  trans, 
by  Mrs.  Conybeare,  Oxford:  1885,  New  ed.,  1906)  will  prove  espe- 
cially helpful  to  the  English  student.  The  former  is  both  lucid  and 
critical ;  the  latter  brilliant  but  sometimes  capricious  in  its  presentation 
of  the  development  of  German  literature.  Both  are  supplied  with  well- 
selected  bibliographical  appendixes  for  each  chapter.  J.  G.  Robertson's 
Hist,  of  German  Lit.  (1902),  and  his  article  Germ.  Lit.  in  the  Encyc. 
Brit.,  nth  ed.,  are  also  admirable.and  convenient  introductions.  Further 
indication  of  the  poetry  of  all  the  periods  will  be  found  in  K.  Breul's 
Handy  Bibliographical  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  German  Language  and 
Literature  (Lond. :  1 895) ;  in  the  excellent  biographical  and  bibliograph- 
ical guide  by  Adolf  Bartels,  Handbuch  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Literatur  (2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1909);  in  K.  von  Bahder's  Die  deutsche 
Philologie  im  Grundriss  (Paderborn :  1 883) ;  and  in  Goedeke's  masterly 


310  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung  (2d  ed.  Dresden : 
1884  +).  With  these  aids,  and  the  Jahresberichte  fur  neuere  deutsche 
Literaturgeschichte  (1892  +),  the  student  need  not  fear  going  astray. 
For  criticism  of  various  works  as  they  have  appeared  and  continue  to 
appear,  see,  in  addition  to  the  journal  just  mentioned,  other  excellent 
German  Reviews  mentioned  in  the  Appendix,  especially  \hzjahresbericht 
uber  die  Erscheinungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  germanischen  Philologie, 
the*  contents  of  which  for  the  last  quarter  of  the  i  gth  century  have  been 
reviewed  under  the  editorship  of  R.  Bethge  in  Ergebnisse  und  Fort- 
schritte  der  germanistischen  Wissenschaft  im  letzten  Vierteljahrhundert 
(Leipz. :  1902).  For  references  on  German  versification,  see  Gayley  and 
Scott,  pp.  509-5 1 1 .  For  a  history  of  the  German  sonnet,  see  H.  Welti 
as  cited  above,  §  5  ;  for  the  German  madrigal,  K.  Vossler  as  cited  in 
the  same  section.  For  the  song,  see  E.  Schure,  Histoire  du  Lied  (Paris : 
1868;  German  trans.,  E.  Schure's  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Liedes,  3d  ed. 
Minden  i.  W. :  1884);  A.  Reissmann,  Das  deutsche  Lied  in  seiner 
historischen  Entwickelung  dargestellt,  mit  Musikbeilagen  (Cassel:  1861), 
and  Gesch.  des  deutschen  Liedes,  mit  Musikbeilagen  (Berlin:  1874). 
The  folk  song  has  been  studied  by  L.  Uhland  (Abhandlung  iiber  das 
deutsche  Volkslied,  in  Schriften  z.  Gesch.  d.  Dichtung  u.  Sage,  vols.  Ill, 
IV.  Stuttgart:  1866),  and,  in  a  popular  way,  by  F.  E.  Wackernagel  (Das 
deutsche  Volkslied.  Hamburg:  1890)  and  A.  F.  C.  Wilmar  (Hand- 
biichlein,  etc.  3d  ed.  Marburg :  1 886) ;  studies  relating  to  special 
periods  are  cited  below.  On  the  German  hymn,  see  below,  G ;  works 
on  the  history  of  other  lyric  kinds,  as  the  Minne-  and  Meistersang,  the 
ode,  epigram,  etc.,  are  mentioned  in  the  proper  places,  below.  In 
German ia,  the  Zeitschr.  f.  deut.  Phil.,  and  the  Zeitschr*  f.  deut. 
Altertum  may  be  found  many  short  articles  of  high  merit  that  are 
not  noted  below ;  students  of  the  Minnesang  should  not  neglect  these 
periodicals. 

Among  general  collections  of  German  lyrics,  K.  A.  Buchheim's 
Deutsche  Lyrik  (Lond.:  1886)  and  H.  G.  Fiedler's  Oxford  Book  of 
German  Verse  and  Buch  deutscher  Dichtung  von  Luther  bis  Liliencron 
(Oxford:  1916)  are  deservedly  popular;  Karl  Grossmann's  Handbuch 
zur  Einfiihrung  in  d.  deutsche  Literatur,  Theil  I,  Poesie  (Wolfenbiittel: 
1877)  is  well  constructed,  and  contains  valuable  critical  notices.  Other 
guides  to  German  lyric  poetry  are :  O.  Wolff's  Poetischer  Hausschatz, 
W.  Buchner's  Deutsche  Dichtung,  Paldamus'  Auswahl  deutscher  Dich- 
tungen,  Hansen's  Deutsche  Dichter  und  Prosaiker,  Wyss'  Poesie  der 
neuen  Zeit,  F.  Matthisson's  Lyrische  Anthologie  (20  vols.  Zurich: 
1803-08),  H.  Bergmann's  Deutschland's  Lyrik,  etc.  But  the  student 


XIII,  A]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  311 

must  always  consult  the  volumes  of  the  huge  collection  of  national 
literature,  —  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  National- Litteratur  (222  vols.  Berlin 
and  Stuttgart:  1882-98),  as  well  as  the  materials  published  as  the 
Bibliothek  des  Literarischen  Vereins  in  Stuttgart  (Stuttgart:  1842  +). 
Collections  of  popular  (folk)  poetry  are  given  below,  H ;  for  a  volume 
of  general  selections  see  Erk-Bohme,  Deutscher  Liederhort,  Auswahl 
der  vorziiglicheren  deutschen  Volkslieder  (3  vols.  Leipz. :  1 893-94). 

A.  The  Beginnings  —  Pagan  Poetry. 

On  the  early  German  tribes  see  F.  B.  Gummere,  Germanic  Origins, 
A  Study  in  Primitive  Culture  (N.Y. :  i"892),  and  the  works  to  which 
Professor  Gummere  refers. 

For  speculation  concerning  an  early  pagan  lyric  poetry  (charms, 
riddles,  and  proverbs ;  funereal,  wedding,  and  other  occasional  kinds ; 
choral  lyric,  etc.),  and  the  relation  of  such  to  Latin  learning  and  poetry, 
material  may  be  found  in  Paul's  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie 
(2  Aufl.,  Bd.  II,  Abt.  I,  pp.  31-62.  Strassburg:  1901-1909);  Miillenhoff, 
De  antiquissima  Germanorum  poesi  chorica  (Kiliae  :  1 847) ;  Dietz,  Anti- 
quissima  Germanicae  poes.  vestigia  (Bonn:  1831);  Scherer,  vol.  I, 
Chaps.  I,. II;  Heinzel  (m  Quellen  und  Forschungen,  No.  X);  P.  S. 
Allen,  as  noted  above,  §  5 ;  and  Sievers,  Altgermanische  Metrik 
(Strassburg:  1905).  Also  for  this  period  and  the  next,  see  vol.  Ill  of 
Ebert's  Allgemeine  Geschichte  d.  Lit.  d.  Mittelalters  im  Abendlande 
(3  vols.  Leipz.:  1874-87);  J.  Kelle's  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  von  d. 
altesten  Zeit  bis  zur  Mitte  des  nten  Jahrh.  (Berlin:  1892);  and 
R.  Koegel's  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  bis  zum  Ausgange  d.  Mittelalters 
(vol.1.  Strassburg:  1894-1897). 

B.  The  Old  High  German  Period  (c.  750-1050). 

Of  the  popular  lyric  that  must  have  existed  at  this  time  there  remain 
only  two  fragments  (the  Kleriker  und  Nonne,  preserved  in  half-Latin, 
and  the  Liebesgruss  in  the  Ruodlieb,  also  in  Latin),  and  some  Latin 
references  to  the  early  Winileod.  The  Merseburg  Charms  are  relics 
of  a  pre-Christian  age  (compare  the  Anglo-Saxon  Charms).  A  remnant 
of  early  Christian  lyric  is  the  Wessobrunn  Prayer  (c.  780).  —  For  this 
period  in  general,  see  Miillenhoff  und  Scherer,  Denkmaler  deutscher 
Poesie  und  Prosa  (3d  ed.  Berlin  :  1 892.) ;  for  the  Ruodlieb,  see  F.  Seiler 
(Latin  Text,  Halle:  1882);  M.  Heyne  (German  trans.,  Leipz.:  1897); 
for  the  Winileod,  W.  Uhl  (in  Teutonia,  No.  5.  1908).  Paul's  Grund- 
riss, and  the  other  guides  mentioned  above,  under  A,  should  be 
followed, 


312  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

C.  Middle  High  German  Period  (1050-1350). 

The  best  guide  to  the  period  is  F.  Vogt's  Mittelhochdeutsche  Lit., 
in  Paul's  Grundriss :  the  Minnesingers  and  court  poets  of  the  eleventh 
to  fourteenth  centuries  are  considered  in  II,  i.  i77ff.,  231,  25 iff.; 
editions  are  cited  p.  177,  et passim.  See  also  vol.  II  of  Kelle's  Geschichte 
mentioned  under  A  above,  for  the  period  1050-1190;  W.  Scherer's 
Gesch.  der  deutschen  Dichtung  in  n.  und  12.  Jahrh.  (in  Quellen  und 
Forsck.,  No.  12.  1875);  and  W.  Golther's  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  von 
den  ersten  Anfangen  bis  zum  Ausgang  d.  Mittelalters  (vol.  163  of 
Kiirschner).  An  older  work  is-J.  W.  O.  Richter's  Die  lyrischen  Dich- 
tungen  des  deutschen  Mittelalters.  Vortrage  (Leipz. :  1872).  For  the 
student  who  is  limited  to  works  in  English,  the  best  introduction  and 
guide  is  F.  C.  Nicholson's  Old  German  Love  Songs  (Chicago,  Univ. 
of  Chicago  Press:  1907).  For  other  histories  of  the  period,  see 
Appendix. 

Collections  and  translations.  The  chief  and  complete  edition  of  the 
lyric  singers  before  Vogelweide  is  that  of  K.  Lachmann  and  M.  Haupt, 
Des  Minnesangs  Friihling  (4  Aufl.  Leipz.:  1888).  The  most  useful 
selections  from  the  lyrics  of  the  entire  Middle  German  Period  will  be 
found  in  K.  Bartsch's  Deutsche  Liederdichter  des  1 2.  bis  14.  Jahrhunderts 
(4th  ed.  Ed.  by  W.  Golther.  Berlin  :  1901),  —  with  a  valuable  historical 
introduction;  and  in  Kiirschner's  Nationallit,  vol.  VIII, -where  F.  Pfaff 
edits  Der  Minnesang  des  12. -14.  Jahrhunderts  (1892-95).  See  also 
Pfaff's  edition  of  Die  grosse  Heidelberger  Liederhandschrift  (Heidelb. : 
1899-1907).  F.  H.  von  der  Hagen's  great  collection  —  the  most  com- 
plete—  was  published  in  Leipzig,  in  1838,  —  a  pioneer  in  the  study  of 
the  type.  The  Swiss  Minnesingers  have  been  edited  by  Bartsch,  with 
a  valuable  introduction  (Frauenfeld:  1886).  Other  German  collections 
have  been  made  by  Manesse  (Zurich :  1 758-59),  Benecke  (Gottingen : 
1810-32),  Miiller  (Berlin:  1784-85).  —  The  "first  attempt  to  present 
English  readers  with  a  fairly  large  and  typical  selection  of  the  German 
Minnesingers  from  the  twelfth  to  fourteenth  centuries "  is  that  of 
F.  C.  Nicholson,  mentioned  above;  see  also  J.  Bithell,  The  Minne- 
singers, trans.,  with  introd.,  notes,  etc.  Compare  Taylor's  Lays  of  the 
Minnesingers  (Lond. :  1825)  and  A.  E.  Kroeger's  The  Minnesinger  of 
Germany  (Lond.:  1873).  Other  references  in  English  — none  of  much 
value  —  are  mentioned  by  Nicholson,  pp.  Ivi-lvii.  For  the  religious 
poetry  of  the  period,  see  P.  Piper,  Die  geistliche  Dichtung  des  Mittelalters 
(vol.  3  of  Kurschner's  Deutsche  National- Li tteratur.  Berlin  and  Stutt- 
gart :  i  \ 


XIII,  C]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  313 

The  secular  lyric  was  at  first  retarded  by  the  monastic  reforms 
of  the  time.  A  few  religious  lyrics,  especially  Mariendichtung 
(i.e.  poetry  addressed  to  the  Virgin),  are  about  the  only  thing 
in  the  nature  of  lyric  that  the  student  meets  until  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  (see  P.  Piper,  as  noted  above).  But  from  about 
1150  on  the  courtly  romance  of  Knighthood  and  the  aristocratic 
secular  lyric  of  the  Minnesingers  flourished  in  great  profusion. 
Of  the  former,  exotic  in  so  far  as  it  borrowed  its  themes  from 
French  romances  of  Latin  material  and  the  Celtic  romances 
"gallicized  by  Chre'tien  de  Troyes  and  his  confreres,"  the  founders 
were  Eilhart  von  Oberge  (Tristant,  c..  1170);  Heinrich  von  Veldeke, 
whose  rhyming  romance,  Eneit  (c.  1190),  is  important  not  -only 
because  it  sings  of  Minne  —  or  idealized  love  —  but  because  it 
establishes  the  metrical  form  in  which  most  of  the  succeeding 
romances  were  written ;  and  Hartmann  von  Aue,_  who,  in  the 
Erec  and  Iwein,  naturalized  the  Arthurian  romance  of  Chretien. 
Hartmann  was  still  living  in  1210.  With  him  was  closely  associ- 
ated in  poetic  sympathy  if  not  in  religious  fervor,  Gottfried  von 
Strassburg  (pb.  1210),  whose  Tristan  is  an  idealization  of  erotic 
passion.  The  greatest  of  the  early  poets  of  the  Celtic  romance 
of  chivalry,  however,  was  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach  (fl.  1200— 
1217).  His  Parzival  is,  as  Professor  Thomas  says,  "an  apothe- 
osis of  Treue"  or  fidelity.  u  He  wished  to  commend  an  ideal 
of  perfection :  one  that  included  the  ideals  of  secular  knighthood, 
but  also  something  more,  namely,  the  idea  of  the  purified  soul  at 
peace  with  God."  In  the  romances  of  Hartmann,  Gottfried,  and 
Wolfram  idyllic  and  lyric  strains  abound. 

There  were  also  poets  of  the  pure  lyric  of  love  and  springtime, 
•known  as  the  Minnegesang  or  Minnesang.  Originating  perhaps 
in  eastern  Germany,  but  in  the  west  coming  under  Provencal 
influence  (see  Jeanroy,  Gaston  Paris,  op.  at.,  supra,  §  5),  the 
Minnesang  developed  rapidly,  and  the  close  of  the  twelfth  and 
the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century  saw  the  work  of  its 
greatest  masters.  Among  the  earlier  writers  (1150-1190)  were 
Der  von  Kiirenberg  and  Dietmar  von  Aist.  They  were  succeeded 


314  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

by  von  Veldeke,  Friedrich  von  Hausen,  Heinrich  von  Morungen, 
Reinmar  von  Hagenau,  Rudolf  von  Fenis,  Albrecht  von  Johanns- 
dorf,  etc.^  —  the  singers  of  a  period  which  attained  full  flower  of 
delicate  sentiment,  chivalric  ecstasy,  and  '  woman-worship,'  as  well 
as  of  artistic  finish,  in  "  the  greatest  of  mediaeval  lyrists,"  Walther 
von  der  Vogelweide  (fl.  1198-1230).  In  the  period  of  gradual 
decline  after  1230,  while  middle-class  utilitarianism  and  didacti- 
cism were  asserting  themselves  against  the  old  aristocratic  ideal 
of  chivalry,  the  more  .noteworthy  writers  either  supported  the 
courtly  ideal  (as  did  the  fantastic  Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein  and 
the  ardent  Johann  Hadlaub  of  Zurich)  or  turned  for  their  subjects, 
half  appreciatively,  half  satirically,  to  the  life  of  the  peasant  and 
the  burgher  (Neidhart  von  Reuenthal,  Steinmar  von  Klingenau, 
and  '  Freidank,'  the  satirist)  or  trifled  with  some  particular 
minor  type  of  expression  ('  Der  Tannhauser '  with  the  pastourelle, 
Reinmar  von  Zweter  and  '  Frauenlob,'  i.e.  Heinrich  von  Meissen, 
with  the  Spruchdichtung). 

The  student  will  be  interested  in  tracing  resemblances  between 
the  Minnesang  and  the  Proven9al  lyric.  The  exact  nature  of  the 
relations  between  the  two  is  still  in  dispute.  At  any  rate,  the  two 
schools  afford  a  valuable  opportunity  for  comparative  study  of 
the  rise  of  the  feudal  court  lyric.  P.  S.  Allen  (see  above,  §  5) 
endeavors  to  trace  the  German  lyric  back  to  a  Latin  origin. 
On  the  Latin  Goliardic  poems  of  the  i2th  and  i3th  centuries, 
see  above,  v,  E,  F. 

Editions.  For  most  of  the  lyric  poetry  of  this  age  the  reader 
will  turn  to  the  general  collections  noted  above;  for  the  poetry 
of  the  romancers,  to  §12,  xi,  below.  The  following  editions  of 
separate  authors  should  also  be  used:  F.  Keinz,  Die  Lieder  Neidharts. 
von  Reuenthal  (Leipz.:  1889);  G.  Roethe,  Die  Gedichte  Reinmars  von 
Zweter  (Leipz.:  1887);  L.  Ettmiiller,  ed.  of  'Frauenlob,'  i.e.  H.  von 
Meissen  (1843);  H.  Paul,  Die  Gedichte  Walthers  von  der  Vogel- 
weide (Halle:  1882.  2d  ed.,  1894.  In  Altdeutsche  Textbibliothek, 
vol.  I) ;  other  editions  of  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  by  K.  Lachmann 
(7th  ed.,  by  Kraus,  Berlin:  1907),  W.  Wackernagel  and  M.  Rieger 
(1862),  F.  Pfeiffer  (6th  ed.,  1880,  in  Kurschner,  vol.  I);  W.  Wilmanns 


XIII,  C]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  315 

(2d  ed.,  1883).  —  A.  Schmeller's  Carmina  Burana,  lateinische  und 
deutsche  Lieder  und  Gedichte  .  .  .  des  13.  Jahrh.,  etc.  (Stuttgart:  1847; 
3d  ed.,  Breslau :  1894)  should  be  consulted  for  Goliardic  verse  (see 
above,  v,  E). 

References.  The  following  with  few  exceptions  will  afford  great  aid : 
A.  Angermann,  Der  Wechsel  in  der  mhd.  Lyrik  (Diss.,  Marburg:  1910); 
K.  Bartsch,  Der  Strophenbau  in  der  deutschen  Lyrik  (in  Germania, 
2:  257-298);  R.  Becker,  Der  mittelalterliche  Minnedienst  in  Deutsch- 
land  (Leipz. :  1895);  by  the  same,  Der  altheimische  Minnesang  (Halle: 
1882);  A.  Boerkel,  Frauenlob  (2d  ed.  1881);  E.  Haakh,  Die  Natur- 
betrachtung  bei  den  mhd.  Lyrikern  (in  Teutonia,  Nos.  9,  11.  1908); 
E.  Haupt,  Ueber  die  deutsche  Lyrik  bis  zu  Walther  von  der  Vogel- 
weide.  II.  Die  romanisierenden  Dichter  (Progr.  Schneeberg :  1 896) ; 
E.  Henrici,  Zur  Geschichte  der  mittelhochdeutschen  Lyrik  (Berlin : 
1876);  H.  Jantzen,  on  the  Streitgedicht,  as  noted  above,  §5; 
E.  Joseph,  Die  Friihzeit  des  deutschen  Minnesangs,  Kiirenberglieder 
(in  Quellen  und  Forsch.,  No.  79.  1896);  H.  Jung,  Beitrage  zur 
Geschichte  des  nord-  und  mitteldeutschen  Minnesangs  (Frankfurt : 
1891);  F.  Lechleitner,  Der  deutsche  Minnesang  (Wolfenbiittel :  1893); 
A.  Luderitz,  Die  Liebestheorien  der  Proven'zalen  bei  den  Minne- 
singern  der  Stauferzeit  (in  Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  29.  1904),  —  cf. 
Chaytor's  The  Troubadours,  Chap.  IX,  and,  Jeanroy,  Origines,  etc.; 
O.  Lyon,  Minne- und  Meistersang  (Leipz. :  1883),  —  popular;  E.Martin, 
Die  Carmina  Burana  und  die  Anfange  des  deutschen  Minnesangs  (in 
Zeitschr.  f.  dent.  Altertu'm,  20:  46-69.  1877);  F.  Michel,  H.  von 
Morungen  und  die  Troubadours  (in  Quellen  und  Forsch.,  No.  38. 
1 880) ;  B.  Q.  Morgan,  Nature  in  M  H  G  Lyrics  (in  Hesperia,  No.  4. 
1912);  W.  Nickel,  Sirventes  und  Spruchdichtung  (as  noted  above,  §  5); 
M.  B.  Ogle,  Classical  Lit.  Tradition  in  Early  German  and  Romance  Lit. 
(in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  Dec.  1912);  G.  Pralle,  Die  Frauenstrophen  im 
altesten  deutschen  Minnesang  (Halle:  1892);  F.  Saran,  Hartmann 
von  Aue  als  Lyriker  (Halle:  1889);  G.  Schlager,  Studien  iiber  das 
Tagelied  (Jena :  1 895),  —  the  Tagelied  is  the  same  as  the  Provencal 
alba ;  A.  E.  Schonbach,  Die  Anfange  des  deutschen  Minnesangs 
(Graz :  1898),  —  one  of  the  best  monographs  on  the  subject;  cf.  the 
same  author's  articles  in  the  Zeitschr.  fiir  deut.  Altertum,  27  :'  343, 
29:  121,  34:  146;  A.  Schultz,  Das  hofische  Leben  zur  Zeit  der 
Minnesinger  (2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1889);  J.  Siebert,  Tannhauser,  Inhalt 
und  Form  seiner  Gedichte  (in  Berliner  Beitrage.  No.  5.  1894); 
E.  Stilgebauer,  Geschichte  des  Minnesangs  (Weimar:  1898),  —  "un- 
trustworthy and  superficial " ;  O.  Streicher,  Zur  Entwickl.  der  mhd. 


3l6  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Lyrik  (in  Zeitschr.  fur  deut.  Philol.,  1892,  p.  i66ff.);  J.  L.  Uhland, 
Abhandlung  iiber  die  deutschen  Volkslieder  (in  vols.  Ill  and  IV  of  the 
Gesammelte  Schriften  zur  Geschichte  der  Dichtung'  und  Sage  (8  vols. 
Stuttgart :  1 865-73),  —  important  historically ;  E.  T.  Walter,  Ueber 
den  Ursprung  des  hofischen  Minnesanges  und  sein  Verhaltniss  zur 
Volksdichtung  (Wien :  1 889) ;  A.  Wallenskold,  Les  rapports  entre  la 
poesie  lyrique  romane  et  la  poesie  allemande  au  moyen-age  (N.  phil. 
Mittlgen.,  Helsingfors:  1900);  E.  Wechssler,  Das  Kulturproblem  des 
Minnesangs  (2  vols.  Halle  a.  S.:  1909  +  ;  cf.  Romania,  39:  386), 
—  an  important  and  informing  work  in  which  the  relations  of  the 
Minnesang  to  Provence  and  to  the  Church  and  Chivalry  are  dis- 
cussed ;  K.  Weinhold,  Die  deutschen  Frauen  in  dem  Mittelalter  (3d  ed. 
Wien :  1 897). 

On  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  Wilmanns'  Leben  und  Dichten 
Walthers  v.  d.  Vogelweide  (Bonn:  1882)  is  standard.  A.  E.  Schonbach's 
Walther  v.  d.  Vogelweide  (3d  ed.  Berlin:  1910)  incorporates  the  later 
researches.  See  also  two  works  by  K.  Burdach,  Reinmar  der  Alte  und 
Walther  v.  d.  Vogelweide  (Leipz. :  1880),  and  Walther  v.  d.  Vogelweide 
(Leipz. :  1900),  which  contains  bibliography,  pp.  118-122.  The  English 
student  will  welcome  an  essay  by  E.  W.  Gosse  in  his  Studies  in  the 
Literature  of  Northern  Europe  (Lond. :  1879).  Uhland's  essay  is  con- 
tained in  vol.  V  of  his  Gesammelte  Schriften,  mentioned  in  the  last 
paragraph,  above. 

For  the  characteristics  of  the  lyric  as  produced  by  the  courtly 
romancers  of  love  and  chivalry,  Veldeke,  Hartmann,  Wolfram,  and 
Gottfried,  consult  also  the  bibliography  under  The  German  Epic,  §  1 2, 
xi,  c,  2,  below. 

D.  Early  New  High  German  Period  (1350-1700). 

On  the  Meistergesang,  see  in  general  Bartels'  Handbuch,  pp.  62-66, 
Goedeke's  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung,  2d  ed., 
§  91  ff.  (Bd.  I,  307),  and  Paul's  Grundriss,  II,  I,  p.  3i2ff.  The  student 
will  do  well  to  consult  the  valuable  though  antiquated  data  of  Wagenseil, 
De  Civitate  Norimbergensi  (i  597),  and  J.  Grimm,.Uber  den  altdeutschen 
Meistergesang  (Gottingen  :  1811),  —  a  pioneer  study  that"  shows  the 
relation  between  the  Minnesang  and  Meistergesang,  but  must  be 
checked  by  more  recent  researches ;  Uhland,  as  cited  above ;  and, 
among  hater  works,  Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld,  Zur  Geschichte  des  deut- 
schen Meisterges.  (Berlin:  1872),  Lyon's  Minne- und  Meistersang  (cited 
above),  Mey's  Der  Meisterges.,  in  Gesch.  und  Kunst  (Karlsruhe:  1892), 
and  O.  Weddingen's  Zur  Gesch.  des  Meistergesangs  (Wiesbaden  :  1891). 


XIII,  D]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  317 

—  On  the  Classical  Renaissance,  see  Bartels,  p.  1 1 1  ff. ;  Freiherr  M.  von 
Waldberg,  Die  deutsche  Renaissancelyrik  (Berlin :  1 888),  which  treats 
of  the  secular  lyrics  of  the  first  half  of  the  i  yth  century ;  by  the  same, 
Die  galante  Lyrik  (in  Quellen  u.  Forsch.,  No.  56.  1885),  second  Silesian 
school;  K.  Burdach,  Vom  Mittelalter  zur  Reformation  (Halle:  1893); 
K.  Borinski,  Die  Poetik  der  Renaissance  in  Deutschland  (Berlin  :  1886); 
L.  Geiger,  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  Italien  und  Deutschland 
(Berlin:  1882);  E.  Hopfner,  Reformationsbestrebungen  auf  dem  Gebiete 
der  deutschen  Dichtung  des  16.  und  17.  Jahrh.  (Gottingen :  1886); 
E.  Schmidt,  Der  Kampf  gegen  die  Mode  in  der  deutschen  Lit.  des 
1 7.  Jahrh.  (in  Characteristiken,  vol.  I.  Berlin:  1902).  The  Anmerkungen 
to  Vilmar's  Deutsche  Litteraturgesch.,  pp.  683-689,  comprise  a  good 
bibliography  of  the  seventeenth-century  lyrists.  See  also,  for  a  general 
view,  Calvin  Thomas,  German  Lit.,  Chap.  X ;  T.  S.  Perry,  From  Opitz 
to  Lessing  (Boston:  1885);  and  the  accounts  in  Gervinus,  Gesch.  d. 
poet.  National-Lit.,  3  :  213  ff.,  in  Lemcke,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Dichtung 
der  neuerer  Zeit  (Leipz. :  1882),  and  in  the  various  literary  histories  of 
the  period  mentioned  in  the  Appendix.  Other  general  references,  on  the 
Volkslieder,  and  on  the  Hymn,  are  given  below. 

Collections  of  texts  will  be  found  in  the  many  volumes  (over  200) 
of  the  Stuttgarter  Literarischer  Verein ;  in  W.  Braune's  Neudrucke 
deutscher  Literaturwerke  des  16.  und  17.  Jahrh.,  —  another  vast  col- 
lection, begun  in  1876;  in  K.  Goedeke  und  J.  Tittmann,  Deutsche 
Dichter  des  16.  Jahrh.  (18  vols.  i867ff.),  and  Deutsche  Dichter  des 
17.  Jahrh.  (15  vols.  i869ff.). 

The  courtly  Minnesang  first  merged  in,  and  then  gave  place 
to,  the  Meistergesang,  which  was  cultivated  by  guilds  of  artisans  in 
the  wealthy  cities  of  Germany.  The  transition  may  be  traced  in 
the  poems  of  Peter  Suchenwirt  (y?.  1350-1400)  and  Michael 
Beheim  (1416-^.  1474).  The  Meistersingers  were  distinguished 
by  a  self-conscious  artificiality  of  subject  (religious,  moral,  sophis- 
tical) and  of  form  in  accordance  with  an  intricate  system  of 
pedantic  rules  taught  in  the  various  '  schools.'  Of  these  that  at 
Augsburg  (1450)  was  the  earliest  (with  Hans  Rosenbliit)  and 
that  of  Niirnberg  the  most  famous.  The  greatest  of  these  lyrists 
was  Hans  Sachs  (1494-1576),  who  however  could  not  inject  the 
spirit  of  real  poetry  into  the  convention  of  the  Meistergesang. 
The  sixteenth  century  saw  the  decline,  of  national  poetic  diction 


318  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

and  metres,  the  ascendancy  of  theological  controversy,  and  of 
classical  humanism  which,  in  its  devotion  especially  to  the  Latin 
language,  was  wont  to  hold  the  German  in  contempt.  The  only 
genuine  currents  of  poetry  to  survive  were  that  of  the  folk-song, 
and  that  of  the  old  Minnesang  as  turned  into  the  channel  of 
psalmody  by  Burkhard  Waldis  (1553).  The  best  characteristics 
of  the  popular  lyric  (  Volkslied)  passed  into  the  Protestant  .hymns 
of  Luther  (Geistliche  Lieder,  1524)  and  of  his  successors, 
Speratus,  Decius,  etc. ;  cf.  below,  under  G.  —  The  seventeenth 
century  witnessed  the  setting  up  of  classical  standards,  under 
French-Italian  influences,  first  by  Weckherlin  (Jl.  1616-1653), 
and  then  by  Opitz  (1597-1639)  and  his  followers.  Opitz  aimed 
not  only  by  the  example  set  in  his  songs,  odes,  sonnets,  and 
alexandrine  poems,  but  through  the  doctrine  of  his  Prosodia 
Germanica  (Brieg:  1624),  to  purify  poetic  diction  (by  elimi- 
nating foreign  and  undignified  words  and  enriching  its  epithets) 
and  to  regulate  its  metres  (by  substituting  accent  for  quantity 
and  limiting  the  foot  to  iamb  or  trochee).  His  influence,  which 
lasted  well  into  the  eighteenth  century,  may  be  traced  in  Swedish 
and*  Danish-Norwegian  poetry  as  well,  and  affords  a  fruitful 
subject  of  study  in  comparative  poetics.  Much  lyric  verse 
of  little  poetic  value  was  written  under  these  auspices,  but 
metrical  regularity,  purity  of  diction,  and  dignity  of  ornament 
were  in  large  measure  achieved.  Under  the  rather  absurd  but 
stimulating  encouragement  of  the  various  literary  societies  that 
came  into  existence  in  the  first  half  of  the  century  this  poetic 
activity  was  carried  on.  Of  the  societies  the  most  famous  were 
the  '  Fruchtbringende  Gesellschaft '  and  Harsdorffer's  '  Die  Gesell- 
schaft  der  Schafer  an  der  Pegnitz.'  —  Three  of  the  poets  of  the 
Opitz  movement,  or  First  Silesian  School,  were  Friedrich  von 
Logau,  Paul  Fleming,  and  Andreas  Gryphius.  With  them  the 
student  will  naturally  group  for  consideration  other  poets  —  of 
schools  inspired  by  the  Silesian,  but  in  one  direction  or  another 
breaking  away  from  the  doctrine  and  manner  of  Opitz :  for 
instance,  Dach,  Roberthin,  and  Albert  of  the  Konigsberg;  Rist 


XIII,  D]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  319 

and  others  of  the  Holstein ;  and  finally  the  shepherd  poets  of  the 
Pegnitz  —  Harsdorffer,  Klai,  and  others  of  Niirnberg,  in  whose 
bucolic  inanities  and  fantastic  verse  the  simplicity  of  Opitz  is 
reduced  to  bathos. 

It  is,  however,  probably  in  the  nature-loving  and  ardently 
religious  verse  of  the  Jesuit,  Friedrich  von  Spec,  of  the  second 
and  third  decades  of  the  century,  in  the  folk-poetry  of  Simon 
Dach's  Annchen  von  Tharau,  and  in  the  sacred  poetry  of  the 
evangelical  church  that  the  student  will  detect  the  genuine  current 
of  the  popular  lyric.  The  hymns  and  other  religious  verses  of 
Fleming  and  Gryphius,  of  Dach  (1603-59),  °f  Johann  Rist, 
Heinrich  Albert,  the  Kurfiirstin  von  Brandenburg,  Johann 
Heermann,  and  Scheffler  (Angelus  Silesius),  and  especially  of 
Paul  Gerhardt  (1607-76),  the  most  tender  and  poetic  of  Ger- 
man hymn-writers,  and  of  his  younger  contemporaries  Neumark 
and  Neander,  deserve  careful  attention  as  the  expression  of 
spiritual  outlook  and  ideals  in  and  after  the  period  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War. 

In  direct  antithesis  to  the  preceding  is  the  lyric  of  the  Second 
Silesian  School  —  sensual,  artificial,  devoid  of  taste  —  a  revulsion 
from  Opitz  and  an  imitation  of  the  worst  that  could  be  found  in 
Guarini  and  Marino.  The  leaders  in  this  movement  were  Hofmann 
von  Hofmannswaldau  (1617-79)  anc^  Kaspar  von  Lohenstein 
(1635-83).  The  Heldenbriefe  of  the  former  and  the  Venus  of 
the  latter  may  profitably  be  studied  in  the  light  of  materials 
already  furnished,  under  vm,  G,  above. 

Editions  and  References.  On  Beheim,  see  von  der  Hagen,  Samml. 
fUr  altd.  Litt,  p.  75,  and  von  Karajan,  Beheims  Buch  v.  d.  Wienern 
(1843).  On  Hans  Sachs,  see  the  introduction  to  Goedeke's  Dichtungen 
von  Hans  Sachs  (Erster  Teil,  XIX  ff. ;  Leipz. :  1870),  and  the  edition 
of  his  works  in  the  Bibliothek  des  Literarischen  Vereins  in  Stuttgart ; 
also,  Bartels,  pp.  99-102;  Schweitzer's  Un  poete  allemand  au  XVIe 
siecle  (Nancy :  1889);  Weller's  Der  Voiksdichter  Hans  Sachs  (Niirnberg: 
1868).  —  On  the  Volkslieder,  see  Bartels,  pp.  66-73  ;  Uhland,  Gesam- 
melte  Schriften.  vols.  Ill,  IV;  von  Liliencron,  Die  historischen  Volks- 
lieder  der  Deutschen  vom  13.  bis  16.  Jahrhundert  (4  vols.  Leipz.: 


320  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

1865-1869),  ending  with  1564;  F.  L.  Mittler,  Sammlung  alter  und 
neuer  Volkslieder  (Marb.  u.  Leipz. :  1845);  G.  Scherer,  Die  schonsten 
deutschen  Volkslieder  (Stuttg.:  1863,  1868);  A.  F.  C.  Vilmar,  Hand- 
biichlein  fiir  Freunde  des  deutschen  Volksliedes  (Marb.:  1879);  F.  M. 
Bohme,  Altdeutsches  Liederbuch  .  .  .  aus  dem  12.  bis  zum  17.  Jahrh. 
(Leipz.:  1877);  and  the  collections  of  Simrock,  Volkslieder;  von 
Detfurth,  Frankische  Volkslieder,  and  so  forth.  See  also  under  H 
German  Popular  Poetry,  below.  Exhaustive  bibliographies  of  Scandi- 
navian, German,  and  Dutch  folk-songs  are  given  in  Paul's  Grundriss, 
II,  I,  pp.  1146-1161,  1178-1219,  furnishing  thorough  critical  parapher- 
nalia for  the  student  of  the  popular  lyric  of  the  nations  mentioned.— 
On  the  Protestant  hymn,  see  Bartels,  pp.  92-96,  130;  Paul,  pp.  302, 
308  ff.  For  an  introductory  bibliography,  see  Vilmar's  Deutsche  Litte- 
raturgeschichte,  pp.  686-688  (Marb.:  1886),  and  for  texts,  A.  Fischer, 
Das  evangelische  deutsche  Kirchenlied  des  1 7.  Jahrh.  (4  vols.  Giitersloh : 
1908).  See  also,  below,  G  The  German  Hymn. —  On  the  Latin  poetry 
of  the  age,  see  A.  Schroter,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  neulateinischen 
Poesie  Deutschlands  und  Hollands  (in  Palatstra,  No.  77);  G.  Manacorda, 
Delia  poesia  latina  in  Germania  durante  il  Rinascimento  (Roma:  1907; 
from  the  Atti  of  the  R.  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  S.  V.,  vol.  XII),  — with 
which  may  be  used  Geiger's  Renaissance  und  Humanismus,and  Goedeke's 
Gr-undriss.  For  a  voluminous  collection  of  these  old  poems,  see  the 
Deliciae  poetarum  Germanorum  (6  vols.,  Frankfurt:  1612);  see  also 
No.  7  of  the  Lateinische  Litt.  Denkmaler  des  XV.  und  XVI.  Jahr- 
hunderts,  which  contains  a  selection  of  Latin  lyrics  of  the  1 6th  century, 
edited  by  G.  Ellinger.  R.  Levy's  Martial  und  die  deutsche  Epigrammatik 
des  XVII.  Jahrh.  (Stuttg.:  1903)  is  also  useful  in  tracing  classical 
influence.  —  On  Waldis,  see  F.  L.  Mittler,  Herzog  Heinrichs  von 
Braunschweig  Klagelied  (Cassel:  1855,  —  appendix  on  Das  Leben  und 
die  Dichtungen  des  Burkhard  Waldis);  also  G.  Buchenau  (Marb. :  1 858). 
—  On  Paul  Melissus  (Schede),  not  mentioned  in  the  preceding  sketch 
of  the  16th-century  lyric  but  significant  as  anticipating  Opitz  in  the 
learned  and  classical  style  and  as  a  poetic  translator  of  the  Psalms 
(1572)  and  one  of  the  first  writers  of  sonnets  in  German  (1560-70), 
see  O.  Taubert,  De  vita  et  scriptis  Pauli  Schedii  Melissi  dissertatio 
(Bonn:  1859).  —  On  the  Sonnet,  cf.  R.  Kohler,  Das  alteste  deutsche 
Sonett  und  sein  ital.  Original  (in  the  author's  Kleinere  Schriften  III. 
Berlin:  1898-1900;  also  in  Anhiv  Littgesch.  9:  4-8.  1880),  which 
refers  to  a  translation  (1556)  by  C.  Wirsung  of  an  Italian  sonnet 
into  German ;  H.  Welti,  as  noted  above,  §  5.  —  On  Weckherlin,  see 
E.  Hopfner,  Weckherlins  Ode  und  Gesange,  ein  Beitrag  zur  Gesch. 


XIII,  D]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  321 

der  deut.  Dichtung  (Berlin:  1865);  H.  Fischer,  G.  R.  Weckherlins 
Gedichte  (Tiibingen :  1893-1907);  W.  Bohm,  Englands  Einfluss  auf 
G.R.W.  (Diss.,  Gottingen  :  1893).  —  On  Opitz,  see  Bartels,  114-116; 
on  Fleming,  117;  Dach,  1 20 ;  Rist,  121;  Harsdorffer,  1 24,  —  and  so 
with  regard  to  the  other  seventeenth-century  poets  mentioned  above.  — 
On  the  literary  societies  and  schools,  see  Barthold's  Geschichte  der 
Fruchtbringenden  Gesellschaft  (1848);  G.  Krause's  Der  Fruchtbrin- 
genden  Gesellschaft  altester  Ertzschrein  (1855);  Johann  Herdegen, 
Historische  Nachricht  von  des  loblichen  Hirten-  und  Blumen-Ordens  an 
der  Pegnitz  Anfang  und  Fortgang  (Niirnberg  :  1744);  J.  Tittmann,  Die 
Niirnberger  Dichterschule:  Harsdorffer,  Klai,  Birken  (Gottingen :  1847); 
Otto  Schulz,  Die  deutschen  Gesellschaften  des  1 7.  Jahrh.  —  The  follow- 
ing special  studies  will  also  be  useful :  Th.  Hansen,  Johann  Rist  und 
seine  Zeit  (Halle:  1872);  V.  Manheimer,  Die  Lyrik  des  Andreas 
Gryphius:  Studien  und  Materialien  (Berlin:  1904),  —  an  admirable 
work;  G.  Steinhausen,  Die  Anfange  des  franzosischen  Literatur-  und 
Kultureinflusses  in  Deutschland  (in  Zeitschr.  fiir  vgl.  Lit.,  Bd.  7) ; 
K.  Vossler,  Das  deutsche  Madrigal  (in  Schick  und  Waldberg's  Literarh. 
Forsch.,  No.  6.  Weimar:  1898);  C.  H.  Herford,  Studies  in  the  Literary 
Relations  of  England  and  Germany  in  the  i6th  Century  (1886); 
G.  Waterhouse,  The  Lit.  Relations  of  England  and  Germany  in  the 
1 7th  Century  (Cambridge:  1914),  Chaps.  II,  XI;  G.  Witkowski,  Die 
Vorlaufer  der  anakreontischen  Dichtung  in  Deutschland  (in  Zeitschr. 
fiir  vgl.  Lit.,  Bd.  3.  1890).  For  texts  of  the  poets  of  the  First 
Silesian  School,  the  Konigsberg,  Niirnberg  etc.,  and  the  religious 
lyrists,  see  in  general  K.  Goedeke  and  J.  Tittmann's  Deutsche  Dichter 
des  1 7.  Jahrhunderts ;  Goedeke's  Elf  Biicher  deutscher  Dichtung ;  the 
Bibliothek  des  Literarischen  Vereins  in  Stuttgart.  —  For  the  Second 
Silesian  School,  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  Nat.-Lit.,  and  C.  Miiller,  Bei- 
trage  zum  Leben  und  Dichten  Daniel  Kaspars  von  Lohenstein  (in 
German.  Abhand.,  No.  I.  1882). 

For  an  illustration  of  the  na'ive  state  of  historical  criticism  of  the  lyric 
at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  see  Sigmund  von  Birken's 
Teutsche  Redebind  und  Dichtkunst,  etc.  (Niirnberg:  1679).  Birken's 
literary  history  begins  with  the  songs  of  Moses  (he  gives  the  date, 
2415  B.C.),  though  he  suspects  that  Noah  and  Jacob  may  have  listened 
to  the  songs  of  shepherds.  He  regards  the  hymn  as  the  first  literary 
species,  and  to  it  and  its  allied  kinds  he  gives  far  more  space  than  was 
usually  devoted  to  the  lyric  by  early  critics  (cf.  pp.  223,  227,  230, 
of  K.  Borinski's  Die  Poetik  der  Renaissance  in  Deutschland  (Berlin : 
1886)). 


322  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

E.   The  Eighteenth  Century. 

In  studying  the  lyric  of  this  century  the  student  will  get  most  aid 
from  the  general  literary  histories  (see  Appendix),  especially  that  of 
Hettner;  but  he  will  do  well  to  consult  P.  Witkop's  Die  neuere 
deutsche  Lyrik  (Leipz. :  1910),  which  covers  the  period  from  von  Spec 
(first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century)  to  Holderlin  ;•  the  second  volume 
of  this  work  (1913)  continues  the  subject.  See  also  M.  Friedlaender, 
Das  deutsche  Lied  im  18.  Jahrh.  (Stuttgart:  1902).  On  the  first  half 
of  the  century,  see  A.  Schroter,  Ehtwicklung  des  deutschen  Lyrik  in 
der  ersten  Halfte  des  18.  Jahrh.  (Wolmirstadt :  1879). 

Of  collections  of  the  poetry  of  the  period  we  may  mention :  Brockhaus' 
Bibliothek  der  deutschen  Nationalliteratur  des  18.  und  19.  Jahrh. 
(44  vols.  1869-91);  B.  Seuffert  and  A.  Sauer's  excellent  Deutsche 
Literaturdenkmale  des  18.  und  19.  Jahrh.  (i8th  century,  Seuffert, 
50  parts,  1 882-94 ;  continuation,  1 8th  and  i  gth  centuries,  Sauer,  1 894  + ). 

About  the  beginning  of  the  century  some  minor  poets,  such  as 
von  Besser,  Konig,  von  Canitz,  and  Neukirch,  revolting  against 
the  excesses  of  the  Second  Silesian  School,  attempted,  but  with 
slight  inspiration,  a  return  to  simpler  subjects  and^more  regular 
forms  of  lyric  verse.  They  were  followed  by  Giinther  (1695-1723) 
and  Brockes  (1680-1747),  heralds  of  the  new  poetry:  the  former 
a  lyrist  of  warmth  and  vitality  who  expressed  with  artistic  power 
the  ecstasy  of  passion  and  of  pain ;  the  latter  a  descriptive  writer, 
whose  Irdisches  Vergniigen  in  Gott  (1723),  dignified  and  earnest, 
introduced  the  moralizing  strain  of  Pope,  and  whose  translation 
at  a  later  date  of  Thomson's  Seasons  affected  the  course  of 
landscape  poetry.  The  English  influence  was  reinforced  by  the 
Swiss  scholar  Johann4  Jakob  Bodmer  (1698-1783),  who,  in  his 
Diskurse  der  Maler  (1721),  written  after*  the  model  of  Addison's 
Spectator,  pointed  out  the  vanity  of  the  existing  French  school 
of  German  poets  and  critics,  and  by  his  translation  of  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost  in  1730  prepared  the  way  for  the  coming  age 
of  Begeisterung  in  German  poetry,  the  period  of  imagination  and 
emotion,  and  of  enthusiasm  for  the  wonderful  and  the  sublime. 

The  first  brilliant  lyric  poets  of  the  intervening  period  of  prep- 
aration were  Albrecht  von  Haller  (1708-1777)  and  Friedrich 


XIII,  E]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  323 

von  Hagedorn  (1708-1754).  The  former,  under  the  influence 
of  Pope's  style  and  undoubtedly  inspired  by  the  critical  doctrines 
of  his  countryman,  Bodmer,  produced  in  1732  a  volume  of  Swiss 
poems,  the  most  famous  of  which,  Die  Alpen,  at  once  carried  to 
a  higher  level  the  landscape  poetry  of  Brockes  and  initiated  the 
reflective  lyric  of  rural  simplicity  and  contentment.  In  this  manner 
of  verse,  Haller  is  the  predecessor  of  von  Creuz,  von  Kleist,  and 
a  numerous  train.  To  the  period  of  preparation  von  Hagedorn, 
on  the  other  hand,  contributed  the  Horatian  lyric  of  social  life, 
graceful  in  form  and  joyous  of  content,  and  by  his  Anacreontic 
verses  paved  the  way  for  one  of  the  characteristic  tendencies  of 
the  Halle  school  of  poets.  This,  sometimes  called  the  Prussian 
school,  cultivated  not  only  the  Anacreontic  lyric  of  the  Graces  and 
the  care-free  life,  but  also  the  serious  ode  (Uz,  1720-1796,  and 
Ramler,  1722-1798),  the  lyric  of .  war  and  patriotism  (von  Kleist, 
1715-1759;  Gleim,  1719-1803;  and  Ramler),  and  the  reflective 
poetry  of  nature  and  the  idyllic  life  —  of  which  von  Kleist's  Der 
Friihling  (1749)  is  the  masterpiece:  a  model  for  many  poets, 
contemporary  and  succeeding. 

During  the  second  quarter  of  the  century,  the  influence  of  the 
English  poets  already  mentioned,  and  of  Edward  Young,  gained 
steadily  in  significance.  In  1725,  however,  Johann  Christoph 
Gottsched  (1700-1766),  in  philosophy  a  rationalist  and  in  literary 
theory  a  stalwart  follower  of  Opitz  and  Boileau,  had,  in  his  lectures 
upon  poetry  at  Leipzig,  begun  to  advocate  the  regularity,  the 
thoughtful  balance,  and  lucidity  of  the  classical  French  poets,  and 
had  established  a  Leipzig  school  of  literary  criticism.  In  1729 
he  produced  the  first  edition  of  his  formal  Kritische  Dichtkunst, 
and,  from  1730  on,  he  ruled  poetics  as  a  dictator.  Naturally  op- 
posed to  the  English  cult  of  Bodmer  and  his  disciple,  Breitinger, 
he  viewed  askance  their  talk  of  phantasy,  emotion,  inspiration, 
and  their  worship  of  Milton  and  the  sublime.  When,  in  1737, 
he  published  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Kritische  Dichtkunst 
a  bitter  attack  upon  the  Paradise  Lost,  and  Bodmer  replied  with 
his  epoch-making  defence  of  the  poet,  Vom  Wunderbaren  in  der 


324  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Poesie  (Zurich:  1740),  the  war  was  on.  Gottsched  in  the  next 
year  retorted  with  his  Der  Dichterkrieg.  Some  of  the  poets 
among  Gottsched's  younger  scholars,  such  as  Gellert,  Ebert, 
Cramer,  at  first  stood  by  him;  but  in  1742,  wearying  of  his 
unimaginative  strife  and  doctrine,  they  broke  away  and  founded 
as  the  organ  of  their  "  contributions  to  the  enjoyment  of  under- 
standing and  wit "  the  Bremer  Beitrdge.  This  publication  was 
destined  to  be  the  most  important  vehicle  of  a  new  criticism  and 
poetry.  The  Saxon  school  thus  instituted  took  as  its  master  von 
Hagedorn,  and  soon  attracted  to  itself  Gleim  and  others  of  the 
Prussian  school  and,  finally,  the  poet  who  was  to  bring  to  a  close 
the  period  of  preparation  and  open  that  of  the  new  era,  Friedrich 
Gottlieb  Klopstock  (1724-1803).  So  far  as  the  history  of  the 
lyric  is  concerned,  the  student  will  be  interested  in  Gellert  (1716- 
1769),  Cramer,  and  Ebert  of  the  Saxon  school,  principally  because 
of  their  spiritual  songs.  Those  of  Gellert  betray  the  lingering 
didacticism  of  Gottsched ;  the  odes  of  Cramer  have  more  of 
the  enthusiasm  of  Klopstock. 

With  the  publication  in  the  Bremer  Beitrdge  (1748)  of  Klop- 
stock's  Messias  (the  -first  three  cantos)  the  New  Poetry  was 
established.  In  his  epic,  fervid,  noble,  but  tedious,  Klopstock's 
inspiration  is  from  Milton  by  way  of  Bodmer.  His  odes,  espe- 
cially those  written  before  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  Norse 
mythology,  have  the  quality  of  personal  and  intimate  emotion, 
lyric  swing  and  sustained  flight,  and  the  elements  of  originality 
and  elasticity.  His  surprising  adaptation  of  rhymeless,  Horatian 
metres  will  interest  the  student.  With  the  translation  of  Young's 
Conjectures  on  Original  Composition  in  1759,  and  of  the  same 
poet's  Night  Thoughts,  by  Ebert,  for  the  Beitrdge  in  1760,  and 
with  the  appearance  in  Germany  of  Macpherson's  Ossian  in  1764, 
Klopstock's  poems,  his  odes  included,  began  to  assume  the  tinge  of 
English  sentimentality,  the  symbolism  and  rhapsody  of  the  bardic 
incantation.  These  influences  —  and  that  of  Percy's  Reliques,  in 
and  after  1765,  which  apprised  Germany  of  the  healthier,  homelier 
simplicities  and  mysteries  of  the  English  ballad  —  bore  directly 


XIII,  E]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  32$ 

upon  the  school  of  Klopstock :  they  color  the  lyrical  output  of 
a  society  of  younger  poets  founded  in  1772  to  do  homage  to 
their  master,  and  incidentally  to  pour  contempt  on  Wieland  whose 
apotheosis  of  sensual  beauty  and  advocacy  of  the  French  literary 
fashions  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XV  ran  counter  to  the  prevailing 
current.  This  society,  the  '  Gottinger  Dichterbund,'  numbered- 
among  its  lyric  poets,  Burger  (1747-1794),  Holty  (1748-1776), 
Friedrich  Leopold  von  Stolberg  (1750—1819),  and  Voss  (1751— 
1826).  Beside  Klopstock,  these  young  men  honored  also  Herder 
and  they  greeted  the  rising  genius  of  Goethe.  Their  devotion, 
as  the  years  elapsed,  to  the  folk-songs  and  ballads  of  earlier 
Germany,  to  Shakespeare,  and  to  Homeric  and  other  Greek 
models  not  only  benefited  the  lyric  of  the  new  age  but  was 
prophetic  of  the  Romantic  school*  of  the  nineteenth  century.  In 
1774  appeared  Burger's  Lenore,  one  of  the  most  important 
documents  in  the  history  of  romantic  lyrism.  Among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Voss  and  Burger,  and  consequently  to  be  mentioned 
with  the  lyric  poets  of  the  Dichterbund,  were  Kosegarten,  Claudius, 
Johann  Martin  Miller,  and  L.  F.  Giinther  von  Gockingk. 

The  Dichterbund  with  its  source  in  the  wonderful  and  sublime 
of  Bodmer's  teaching  and  the  poetic  inspiration  of  Klopstock  was, 
however,  but  one  of  the  tributaries  that  swelled  the  rising  flood 
of  the  new  period  of  original  genius  —  the  period  which  ushered 
in  the  crowning  era  of  German  literature.  The  '  Sturm  und 
Drang'  period  (a  name  borrowed  from  Klinger's  tempestuous 
drama  of  1775)  had  sources  more  immediate  in  Rousseau's 
glorification  of  natural  impulse,  in  Wieland's  appeal  to  the  senses, 
in  Lessing's  revolt  against  the  formal  French  canons  of  criticism 
and  his  vivification  of  aesthetic  theory  (the  Laokoon  of  1766,  the 
Hamburgische  Dramaturgic  of  1767-1768),  and,  more  immediate 
still,  in  the  Fragmenten  der  deutschen  Litteratur  (1767)  and  the 
Kritische  Walder  (1768)  of  Johann  Gottfried  Herder  (1744-1803). 
In  these  and  succeeding  treatises  on  Ossian,  Shakespeare,  Homer, 
on  the  folk-song  (Stimmen  der  Volker  in  Liedern  :  1778),  and  on 
Hebrew  poetry  (1782),  Herder  taught  that  poetry  proceeds  not 


326  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

from  the  imitation  of  models  but  from  the  possession  of  the 
originality,  natural  freshness,  sincerity,  energy,  sensuous  creativity 
that  produce  the  '  models '  themselves!  The  characteristic  of 
the  Storm  and  Stress  period  (from  1767  to  about  1787)  was  the 
assertion  of  individual  genius  as  superior  to  all  conventions  of 
culture.  This  was  the  period  of  the  blossoming  individualism 
of  Herder,  Goethe,  and  Schiller  in  Germany.  It  corresponds 
with  the  period  in  France  when  Rousseau  had  finally  "  emanci- 
pated the  passions  from  the  domination  of  the  understanding, 
and  had  liberated  the  imagination."  In  this  glowing  period, 
under  the  influence  of  Herder  and  Rousseau,  the  liberation  of 
German  literature  from  the  false  formalism  of  the  first  half  of 
the  century  was  completed ;  and  under  the  enthusiastic  genius 
of  Goethe,  Lenz,  Schiller,  and  others^  the  lyric  became  again 
a  thing  of  natural  and  spontaneous  utterance.  —  With  the  close 
of  the  century  and  the  beginning  of  the  next,  we  associate  the 
maturer,  truly  classic  lyrics  of  Goethe  and  Schiller.  The  period 
is  usually  called  by  German  literary  historians  the  Classical. 

Texts  and  References.  For  texts,  in  general,  see  Kiirschner,  and  the 
collections  noted  at  the  head  of  this  subdivision  ;  for  bibliography  of  the 
various  poets,  works  and  criticism,  see  Bartels,  p.  151  ff.  —  On  Gottsched, 
see  M.  Koch,  Gottsched  und  die  Reform  der  deutschen  Literatur 
(Hamburg:  1887);  G.  Waniek,  Gottsched  und  die  deutsche  Literatur 
(Leipz. ;  1897);  E.  Reichel,  Gottsched  der  Deutsche;  and  of  earlier 
treatises,,  Th.  W.  Danzel,  Gottsched  und  seine  Zeit  (Leipz.:  1848),  and 
M.  Bernays,  J.  W.  von  Goethe  und  J.  C.  Gottsched  (Leipz.:  1880; 
the  Gottsched  reprinted  from  Allgemeine  Deutsche  Biographic,  vol.  IX, 
1 879).  See,  also,  for  Gottschect  ami  B&dmer,  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  301 , 
318,  423,  especially  the  work  mentioned  on  p.  423  —  O.  Neboliczka's 
Schaferdichtung  und  Foetik  im  iS.  Jahrh.  (Viertdjahrsch.f.  Lttteratur- 
.iVAY//.  2.  22),  which  gives  full  bibliography  and  an  excellent  history  of 
poetics  during  the  century.  The  most  critical  modern  discussion  of 
Bodmer  will  be  found  in  J.  Bach  told,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur 
in  der  Schweiz  (Frauenfeld  :  1 892).  —  For  Haller  see  the  introduction 
to  his  Gedichte,  edited  by  L.  Hirtzel  (Frauenfeld:  1882); — for -von 
•  /<»•/,,  H.  Schuster,  F.von  Hagedorn( Leipz.:  1882);  G.Witkowski, 
Die  Vorliiufer  der  anukreontisdicn  Dicbtung,  as  noted  above.  —  For 


XIII,  E]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  327 

the  Prussian  School,  W.  Korte's  edition  of  Gleim's  Sammtliche 
Werke  (vols.  I-VII,  Halberstadt :  1811-13;  vol.  VIII,  Leipz.:  1841), 
and  the  same  editor's  Sammtliche  Werke  of  von  Kleist  (Berlin : 
1803,  1853);  and  Gockingk's  edition  of  Ramler's  Poetische  Werke 
(2  vols.,  Berlin:  1800,  1825).  —  For  the  founders  of  the  Bremer 
Beitrage,  see  Hettner's  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  im  18.  Ja"hrh.,  vol.  I; 
O.  Neboliczka,  as  above,  Die  deutsche  Schaferdichtung  von  Gottsched 
bis  auf  die  Bremer  Beitrage ;  for  Gellert,  K.  Biedermann's  edition  in 
30  vols.  (Leipzig).  —  On  Klopstock  and  the  "  Gb'ttinger  Dichterbund" 
see  Bartels,  p.  193,  and  A.  Sauer's  Gottinger  Dichterbund  (Kiirschner, 
vol.  L) ;  for  the  poets  of  the  Dichterbund  in  general,  Kiirschner, 
vols.  XLIX,  L;  Prutz,  Der  Gottinger  Dichterbund  (1841);  and  the 
repository  of  their  literary  productions,  Der  Musenalmanach ;  cf. 
H.  Grantgow,  Gesch.  des  Gottinger  und  des  Vossischen  Musenalma- 
nachs  (in  Berliner  Beitrage,  No.  22.  1909).  On  Burger,  see  Bartels, 
p.  235,  and  G.  B.  Maury,  Burger  et  les  origines  anglaises  de  la  ballade 
litte'raire  en  Allemagne  (Paris :  1 889) ;  also,  W.  Wackernagel's  careful 
comparative  study  of  Burger's  Lenore  (in  Haupt  and  Hoffmann's  Blatter, 
vol.  I,  pp.  174-204);  W.  von  Wurzbach's  G.  A.  Burger  (1900); 
H.  Prohle's  Burger,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Dichtungen  (1856); 
K.  Goedeke's  Burger  in  Gottingen  und  Gelliehausen  (Hannover: 
1873),  and  A.  Strodtmann's  Briefe  von  und  an  Burger  (4  vols.  Berlin : 
1874).  His  poems  are  edited  by  Tittmann  (in  Bibl.  d.  deutsch.  Nat.-Litt. 
d.  18.  u.  19.  Jahrh.,  vols.  XXI,  XXII),  and  in  Kiirschner,  vol.  LXXVIII. 
On  Stolberg,  see  Menge,  Graf  Stolberg  und  seine  Zeitgenossen ;  and 
J.  Janssen,  F.  L.,  Graf  zu  Stolberg,  u.s.w.  (Freiburg:  1877).  On 
Claudius,  see  Monckeberg,  Matthias  Claudius  (Hamburg:  1869). — 
On  Klopstock,  see  a  useful  biography  by  Fr.  Muncker  (Stuttgart :  1888), 
and  Hamel's  edition  of  his  works  in  Kiirschner,  vols.  XLVI-XLVIII ; 
also  G.  Liebusch,  Ueber  das  Vaterlandische  in  Klopstocks  Oden 
(Quedlinburg :  1874);  J.  Schumacher,  Klopstock's  patriotische  Lyrik 
(Hamm :  1880);  E.  Schmidt,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Klopst.  Jugend- 
lyrik  (in  Quellen  und  Forsch.,  No.  39.  1880),  and  J.  M.  Lappenberg, 
Briefe  von  und  an  Klopstock  (1867).  —  On  the  English  influence,  con- 
sult M.  Koch,  Ueber  die  Beziehungen  der  englischen  Literatur  zur 
deutschen  im  18.  Jahrh.  (Leipz.:  1883),  and  R.  Tombo,  Ossian  in 
Germany  (N.Y. :  1901);  and  for  later  developments,  Danzel's  G.  E. 
Lessing,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (Leipz.:  1849),  and  E.  Schmidt's 
Richardson,  Rousseau  und  Goethe  (1875).  On  the  '  Sturm  und  Drang'1 
periods.?,  a  whole,  and  the  close  of  the  century,  see  Bartels,  p.  219  ff., 
and  on  the  particular  authors  of  the  time  see  Bartels  also.  For  the 


328  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

minor  poets  of  the  '  Sturm  und  Drang'  see  Kiirschner,  vols.  LXXIX- 
LXXXI.  Two  of  the  latest  works  on  the  period  are  those  of  Grisebach 
and  Weitbrecht,  mentioned  by  Bartels.  For  Wieland's  contribution  to 
the  period  consult  J.  G.  Griiber's  biography  (4  vols..  1827-28)  and  the 
estimate  of  his  works  by  J.  W.  Lobell  (Vorlesungen,  vol.  I).  For  Lessings 
contribution,  see  Fr.  Muncker,  Lessing's  Verhaltniss  zu  Klopstock 
(Frankf.  a.  M. :  1880);  the  Life  by  Danzel,  Guhrauer,  and  Boxberger 
(2d  ed.,  1880),  and  best  of  all  the  biography  by  E.  Schmidt  (2  vols., 
Berlin  :  1 899).  On  Herder,  see  Vilmar's  Die  Genieperiode  (Marburg : 
1872);  R.  Haym's  excellent  Herder  (2  vols.,  Berlin:  1880-1885),  and 
the  Life  by  E.  Kiihnemann  (Miinchen :  1895).  E.  Kircher's  Volkslied 
und  Volkspoesie  in  der  Sturm-  und  Drangzeit  (Strassburg :  1 903)  is 
helpful.  —  The  student  cannot  afford  to  overlook  Goethe's  Dichtung 
und  Wahrheit,  nor  its  predecessors,  Werther  and  Wilhelm  Meister, 
for  in  them  he  will  find  the  best  picture  gallery  of  the  successive 
strivings  of  the  Period  of  Genius. 

It  seems  unnecessary  at  this  point  to  attempt  an  account  of  the  mass 
of  critical  literature  dealing  with  Goethe  and  Schiller,  and  the  Classical 
period  in  general.  The  student  will  find  excellent  aid  in  Bartels,  p.  2 1 9  ff . : 
the  references  on  Goethe  may  be  found  in  the  account  beginning  on 
p.  245  ;  those  on  Schiller,  p.  3 1 2  ff.  Goedeke  will  be  of  great  aid  in 
threading  the  mazes  of  bibliography  down  to  1891.  For  a  condensed 
and  well-chosen  guide  to  works  on  Goethe,  see  K.  Hoyer,  Zur  Einfiihrung 
in  der  Goethe- Literatur  (Gelsenkirchen :  1904).  More  detailed  bibli- 
ography for  the  years  since  1880  will  be  found  in  the  Chronik  und 
Bibliographic  of  the  Goethe-Jahrbuch ;  in  the  Berichte  des  freien 
deutschen  Hochstifts  (Frankfurt) ;  and  in  the  industrious  work  of 
F.  H.  A.  Meyer  (Verzeichniss  einer  Goethe-Bibliothek,  Leipz. :  1908), 
which  extends  the  earlier  bibliographies  of  Hirzel  down  to  1905.  For 
the  student  the  best  edition  of  the  poems  is  the  one  with  commentary, 
by  G.  von  Loeper  (Berlin,  Hempel :  1882-84);  for  advanced  investiga- 
tion, the  critical  ed.  by  K.  Heinemann  (Leipz.:  1901  +),  the  Weimar 
edition  (about  130  vols.),  the  Hempel  edition  (36  vols.,  Berlin,  1868-79), 
and  Kiirschner,  and  the  Cotta  edition  (40  vols.  Stuttgart).  The  follow- 
ing monographs  are  cited  from  the  list  given  by  Bartels,  p.  283 : 
E.  Lichtenberger,  Etude  sur  les  poe'sies  lyriques  de  Goethe  (Paris : 
1878);  T.  Achelis,  Grundziige  der  Lyrik  Goethes  (Bielefeld:  1900); 
B.  Litzmann,  Goethes  Lyrik  (Berlin:  1903);  W.  Masing,  Sprachliche 
Musik  in  Goethes  Lyrik  (in  Quellen  und  Forsch.,  No.  108.  1910); 
A.  Kutscher,  Das  Naturgefiihl  in  Goethes  Lyrik  (in  Breslauer  Beitrdge, 
No.  8.  1906).  Of  general  works  upon  Goethe  may  be  mentioned  the 


XIII,  F]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  329 

biography  by  G.  H.  Lewes  (Lond.:  1856);  also,  and  much  better, 
H.  Grimm's  Vorlesungen  (Berlin:  1876;  8th  ed.  1903;  trans,  by 
S.  H.  Adams,  Boston:  1879);  R.  M.  Meyer's  Goethe -(3  vols.  2d  ed. 
Berlin:  1899),  and  A.  Bielschowsky's  Goethe  (Miinchen :  1895-1904; 
English  trans,  by  W.  A.  Cooper,  N.Y. :  1905-1908).  For  other  '  lives  ' 
see  C.  Thomas'  German  Literature,  p.  420.  See  also  the  essays  by 
Carlyle  and  Matthew  Arnold,  and  J.  G.  Robertson's  Goethe  and  the 
Twentieth  Century  (Camb.  Manuals  of  Sci.  and  Lit.).  —  For  bibliog- 
raphies of  the  Schiller  literature  besides  the  Goedeke,  see  E.  Balde,  Die 
Schiller-Literatur  in  Deutschland,  1781-1851  (Cassel :  1852,  2.  Aufl. 
1853);  L.  Unflad,  Die  Schiller-Literatur  in  Deutschland,  1781-1877 
(Miinchen:  1878);  M.  Koch,  Neuere  Schiller-Literatur  (in  the  Frank- 
furter Hochstiftsberichte,  since  1 890) ;  A.  Koster  (in  the  Jahres- 
berichte  fiir  neuere  deutsche  Literaturgeschichte,  since  1892).  The 
poems  are  issued  in  many  forms,  easy  of  access :  among  the  best  may 
be  mentioned  Goedeke's  (Stuttgart :  1 867-76)  and  the  Kiirschner.  The 
following  monographs  are  taken  from  the  list  in  Bartels,  p.  332 : 
H.  F.  W.  Hinrichs,  Schillers  Dichtungen  nach  ihren  historischen 
Beziehungen  und  nach  ihrem  innern  Zusammenhang  (Leipz. :  1837); 
H.  Viehoff,  Schillers  Gedichte  in  alien  Beziehungen  erlautert  (6.  Aufl. 
Stuttgart:  1887);  H.  Diintzer,  Schiller  als  lyrischer  Dichter  (Jena: 
1864;  as  Schillers  lyrische  Gedichte  erlautert,  3  Aufl.,  1891).  For 
biographies,  see  that  of  Calvin  Thomas  (N.Y. :  1901),  those  by  J.  Minor 
(2  vols.  Berlin:  1890)  and  J.  Wychgram  (Leipz.:  1898)  and  others 
mentioned  by  Thomas  in  his  German  Literature,  pp.  420-421. — For 
the  Protestant  hymn,  see  Bartels,  p.  208.  —  On  the  Epigram,  see 
E.  Urban,  Owenus  und  die  deutschen  Epigrammatiker  des  18.  Jahrh. 
(in  Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  1 1.  1900);  on  Anacreontic  verse,  F.  Ausfeld, 
Die  deutsche  anakreontische  Dichtung  des  18.  Jahrh.  (in  Qusllen  und 
Forsch.,  No.  101.  1907);  T.  Feigel,  Vom  Wesen  der  Anakreontik 
(Cassel:  1909);  and  G.  Witkowski,  as  noted  above. 

For  an  illustration  of  mid-eighteenth-century  criticism  (mostly  his- 
torical) of  the  lyric,  see  Hagedorn's  Sammtliche  Werke  (1757),  3  Th., 
Vorbericht,  and  Abhandlungen  von  den  Liedern  der  alten  Griechen.  - 

F.   The  Nineteenth  Century. 

For  bibliography  in  general,  see  Goedeke's  Grundriss,  vols.  VI-VIII; 
Bartels'  Handbuch;  Koch  and  Vogt's  Geschichte  d.  deutsch.  Lit.,  vol.  II ; 
the  Anmerkungen  to  Vilmar's  Geschichte,  pp.  705-711  (which  may  be 
supplemented  for  the  later  period  by  the  Appendix  to  Tille's  German 
Songs  of  To-day,  pp.  165-181);  R.  M.  Meyer's  Grundriss  d.  neuern 


330  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

deutsch.  Lit.-Geschichte  (Berlin:  1902);  the  Jahresberichte fur netiere 
deutsche  Literaturgeschichte  (1892  +)  and  Kiirschner's  Deutscher 
Literatur-Kalender  (Leipzig). 

In  working  with  the  lyric  of  this  century  the  student  will  find  very 
considerable  aid  in  Bartels'  Handbuch,  where  the  various  movements 
are  kept  apart  almost  too  successfully,  and  in  the  same  author's  literary 
history  of  this  century,  cited  in  the  Appendix,  which  is  especially  good 
for  the  Realistic  movement.  Bartels  maintains  he  was  the  first  ade- 
quately to  recognize  the  importance  of  this  movement  by  a  careful 
historical  treatment.  See  also  R.  M.  Meyer's  Geschichte  d.  deutsch.  Lit. 
des  19.  Jahrh.  (Berlin:  1900)  —  a  comprehensive  survey.  The  work 
by  E.  Wolff,  also  cited  in  the  Appendix,  treats  of  the  literature  of  the 
century  by  types,  which  renders  it  acceptable  to  the  student  of  the 
lyric ;  see  also  Witkop,  as  noted  at  the  head  of  E,  above.  A.  Biese's 
Lyrische  Dichtung  und  neuere  deutsche  Lyriker  (Berlin :  1 896)  and 

A.  Tille's  Introduction  to  his  German  Songs  of  To-day  (N.Y;;   1896) 
are  helpful  for  the  more  recent  developments.  —  For  further  general 
references,  on  the  Romantic  School,  Young  Germany,  etc.,  see  below, 
under  References. 

The  poets  of  the  century  are  well  represented  in  the  following 
anthologies,  to  which  the  student  should  turn  for  further  information : 
R.  F.  Arnold  and  K.  Wagner,  Achtzehnhundertneun,  Die  politische 
Lyrik  des  Kriegsjahres  (Wien :  1909.  Schr.  d.  lit.  Vereins  in  Wten, 
vol.  XI);  F.  Avenarius,  Deutsche  Lyrik  der  Gegenwart  seit  1850  (2d  ed. 
Dresden:  1884);  M.  Bern,  Deutsche  Lyrik  seit  Goethe's  Tode  (i  ith  ed. 
Leipz.:  n.d.);  H.  Bethge,  Deutsche  Lyrik  seit  Liliencron  (Leipz.:  1906); 

B.  Gaster,  Die  deutsche  Lyrik  in  den  letzten  f  iinfzig  Jahren  (Wolfenbiittel : 
1905);  A.  Tille,  German  Songs  of  To-day  (N.Y.:   1896,  —  for  the  lyric 
of  1881-1896);  also  other  collections  by  Bartels,  A.  Stern;  Storm,  etc. 
The  most  general  collections  are  the  two  mentioned  at  the  head  of  E, 
above.    Mention  should  also  be  made  of  C.  Busse's  series,  Neue  deutsche 
Lyriker  (Paquet,  Hoist,  Hesse,  Weise). 

•  During  the  first  third  of  the  century,  and  contemporaneous 
with  the  full  summer  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  the  Romantic 
movement  flourished.  It  was  the  outcome  not  only  -of  forces 
that  had  produced  the  '  Storm  and  Stress/  viz.,  Herder  and 
the  rest,  but  of  the  creative  suggestiveness  of  Goethe's  most 
artistic  work,  of  the  idealism  of  Fichte,  and  of  the  mystery  and 
symbolism,  the  perfection  of  emotional  expression,  that  the 


XIII,  F]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  331 

founders  of  the  movement  (between  1796  and  1804)  —  A.  W. 
and  Friedrich  von  Schlegel,  Novalis,  and  Tieck  —  imagined  they 
had  discovered  in  the  life  and  poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Of 
this  movement  Holderlin,  Tieck,  and  F.  von  Hardenberg  (Novalis) 
were  the  immediate  lyrists.  With  the  war  of  liberation  against 
Napoleon  the  patriotic  lyric  added  its  note  to  Romanticism :  see 
K.  T.  Korner,  E.  M.  Arndt,  M.  von  Schenkendorf,  Ruckert, 
Follen,  et  al.  —  Von  Arnim,  Brentano,  Gorres,  W.  Muller,  and 
Uhland  were  concerned  with  the  revival  of  national  popular 
song,  and  their  influence  was  great  and  far-reaching.  Chamisso 
and  Eichendorff  became  especially  famous  as  sentimental  lyric 
poets.  Lenau  (von  Strehlenau)  was  the  leader  of  the  Austrian 
contingency.  Goethe's  West-ostlicher  Divan,  and  the  poems  of 
Friedrich  Ruckert,  Platen,  Bodenstedt,  and  others,  showed  the 
influence  of  the  oriental  studies  of  Hammer-Purgstall.  In  the 
work  of  all  these  poets  the  student  will  find  the  characteristics 
of  romantic  lyrism  abundantly  illustrated, — -  its .  prevailing  vague- 
ness,  its  spirit  of  revolt,  its  Sehnsucht^  its  medievalism,  its  patriotic 
fervor,  its  mysticism  and  orientalism,  its  popular  strain,  its  fatalism, 
etc.  —  Somewhat  less  directly  connected  with  the  Romantic  move- 
ment are  Tiedge  and  von  Stagemann,  whose  inspiration  was  from 
the  Prussian  school  of  Gleim,  Ramler,  and  Kleist ;  and  the  descrip- 
tive poets  F.  von  Matthisson  and  the  Freiherr  von  Salis-Sewis, 
who  derive  partly  from  Kleist,  partly  from  Bodmer  and  Klopstock. 
The  revolt  against  the  extravagance  of  the  Romanticists,  about 
1835,  goes  by  the  name  of  '  Young  Germany.'  Its  concern  was 
largely  with  radicalism  in  political  and  practical  affairs.  It  turned 
to  contemporary  French  literature  for  its  models.  The  most 
distinguished  adherent  of  the  school  was  Heine,  whose  lyrics 
at  once  achieved  a  European  reputation.  Here,  too,  should 
be  considered  the  political  and  social  poetry  of  Becker,  Grim, 
Herwegh,  von  Fallersleben,  Schneckenburger,  Prutz,  Freiligrath, 
Geibel,  R.  Gottschall,  Scherr,  W.  Jordan,  etc.  —  The  realistic  and 
new-classic  reactions  against  Young  Germany  are  by  some  re- 
garded as  producing  the  master  poetry  of  the  century ;  but  these 


332  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

movements,  and  the  new-romantic  and  the  later  naturalistic,  de- 
cadent, and  symbolistic  movements,  are  too  near  our  own  times 
to  render  systematic  study  of  them  very  successful,  however 
interesting  and  stimulating. 

The  most  important  writers  of  lyrics  in  the  middle  of  the 
century  were  Geibel,  whose  resuscitation  of  the  manner  of  the 
early  folk  song  and  of  the  Minnesingers  in  perfection  of  melodious 
form  is  more  vital  than  his  contribution  to  political  poetry,  —  and 
Hebbel,  whose  yearning  after  pure  beauty  and  utterance  of  the 
fateful  problem  of  life  echo  the  philosophy  of  Schopenhauer. 
With  Geibel  should  be  studied  E.  Morike,  T.  Storm,  and  J.  von 
Scheffel,  as  poets  following  the  earlier  romantic  tradition ;  and  the 
aesthetic  and  hedonistic  verse  writers  of  the  Munich  group  of 
the  fifties  and  sixties  who  acknowledged  Geibel  as  their  head, 
—  F.  Bodenstedt,  Paul  Heyse,  and  others.  With  Hebbel  should 
be  considered  Storm,  again,  in  his  pessimistic  mood,  and  the 
later  lyric  disciples  of  Schopenhauer,  —  W.  Jensen,  E.  Grisebach, 
H.  Leuthold,  etc.  The  reaction  against  the  pessimism  with  which 
Darwin's  doctrines  of  evolution  affected  many  is  noticeable  in  the 
lyrics  of  W.  Jordan  (1871),  and  it  may  be  traced  in  the  optimism, 
based  not  upon  religious  belief  but  upon  science,  expressed  in 
the  poetry  of  younger  writers,  especially  Arno  Holz  and  J.  Grosse. 
The  realism  of  romantic  lyric  poets  of  the  older  generation, 
Gottfried  Keller  (b.  1819),  F.  T.  Vischer  (b.  1807),  J-.  G. 
Fischer  (b.  1816),  assumed  under  the  philosophical  influence  of 
Nietzsche  and  Ernst  Haeckel  the  modern  utilitarian  and  im- 
pressionistic aspect  presented,  from  1882  on,  in  the  lyrics  of 
Nietzsche  himself,  of  Julius  and  Heinrich  Hart,  of  Holz,  again, 
and  Grosse,  Hermann  Conradi,  K.  Henckell,  William  Arent,  O.  E. 
Hartleben,  Richard  Dehmel,  and  J.  G.  Oswald.  Other  poets  of  - 
recent  years  whom  the  student  may  take  pleasure  in  reading 
and  classifying  are  G.  Falke,  F.  Avenarius,  •  F.  Evers,  J.  Schlaf, 
K.  Bleibtreu ;  perhaps,  also,  O.  J.  Bierbaum,  R.  Waldmtiller,  Otto 
and  A.  W.  Ernst,  Ada  Christen,  and  a  score  more  whom  he  will 
find  represented  in  collections  such  as  Tille's  German  Songs. 


XIII,  F]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  333 

Texts  and  References.  For  texts  of  individual  authors,  see  Bartels ; 
it  is  unnecessary  to  give  here  a  list  of  editions  that  can  easily  be  made 
up  from  the  library  catalogue  of  any  large  university.  —  The  student's 
main  concern  will  be  with  the  various  aspects  of  the  Romantic  school 
in  both  its  earlier  and  later  manifestations,  and  in  that  interest  some  of 
the  works  following  should  not  escape  his  attention.  —  H.  Hettner's 
Die  romantische  Schule  in  ihrem  Zusammenhange  mit  Goethe  und 
Schiller  (Braunschweig:  1850)  is  the  earliest  production  of  critical 
impartiality  on  the  subject;  the  same  author  treats  of  the  beginnings 
of  the  movement  in  his  Literaturgeschichte  des  1 8.  Jahrh.,  cited  in  the 
Appendix.  R.  Haym's  Die  romantische  Schule  (Berlin:  1870)  is  the 
standard  history  of  the  movement  in  its  earlier  phases;  see  also 
S.  Bern's  Die  romantische  Schule  in  Deutschland  und  Frankreich 
(Heidelberg  :  1879).  Enlightening  criticism  will  be  found  in  the  second 
volume  of  G.  Brandes'  Main  Currents  in  Nineteenth  Century  Literature 
(English  translation,  N.Y. :  1902).  I.  Rouge  has  a  commendable  study 
in  his  F.  Schlegel  et  la  genese  du  romantisme  allemand,  1791-1797 
(Paris:  1904);  see  also  the  two  works  by  R.  Huch,  Bliitezeit  der 
Romantik  (Leipz. :  1899),  and  Ausbreitung  und  Verfall  der  Roman tik 
(Leipz. :  1902).  Marie  Joachimi's  Die  Weltanschauung  der  deutschen 
Romantik  (Jena  und  Leipz.:  1905)  is  suggestive,  and  C.  E.  Vaughan's 
The  Romantic  Revolt  presents  the  subject  in  broad  perspective.  Heine's 
Romantische  Schule  is,  of  course,  polemical.  —  On  f.  von  Hardenberg, 
see  E.  A.  L.  Bauer's  Novalis  als  religioser  Dichter  (Leipz.:  1877);  on 
Tieck,  W.  Miessner,  L.  Tiecks  Lyrik  (in  Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  24. 
1902),  Rud. •  Kopke's  Ludwig  Tieck:  Erinnerungen  u. s.w.  (2  vols. 
Leipz.:  1855),  and  the  Freiherr  von  Friesen's  L.  Tieck:  Erinnerung 
eines  alten  Freundes,  1825-1842  (2  vols.,  Wien :  1874);  on  Riickert, 
C.  Beyer's  Friedrich  Riickert  (Frankfurt :  1 868) ;  on  Platen,  H.  Tschersig, 
Das  Gasel  in  der  deut.  Dichtung  und  bei  Platen  (in  Breslauer  Beitrdge 
z.  Lifgesch.,  No.  n.  1907);  on  E.  M.  Arndt,  his  autobiography, 
Erinnerungen  aus  dem  ausseren  Leben  (1840);  on  L.  A.  -von  Arnim, 
W.  Grimm's  Einleitung  to  the  Werke  (19  vols.  Berlin:  1839);  on 
Brentano,  the  studies  by  J.  B.  Heinrich  (Koln :  1878)  and  J.  B.  Diel 
(Freiburg:  1878);  on  W.  Miiller,  the  introduction  by  Max  Miiller  to 
his  father's  poems  (Bibliothek  d.  deutsch.  Nationalliteratur,  vol.  XVII), 
and  P.  S.  Allen,  W.  Miiller  and  the  German  Volkslied  (in  Jr.  Germ. 
Phil.,  3  :  35.  1901);  for  Uhland^s  views,  his  Schriften  zur  Geschichte 
der  Dichtung  und  Sage  (8  vols.,  Stuttg. :  1865  +);  on  Chamisso,  the 
life  and  letters  in  vols.  V,  VI  of  his  Werke  (1838);  on  Eichendorff, 
Werke,  vol.  VI  (Leipz.:  1864),  and  J.  Nadler,  Eichendorffs  Lyrik  (in 


334  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Prager  deutsche  Studien,  No.  10.  1908).  For  the  other  'Romantics' 
see  the  bibliographies  and  collections  listed  at  the  beginning  of  these 
references.  —  A  very  considerable  portion  of  the  criticism  dealing  with 
the  movements  of  this  century  is  contained  in  literary  periodicals,  which 
the  advanced  student  should  never  fail  to  consult.  Such  an  article,  for 
instance,  as  W.  Miessner's  Ludwig  Tiecks  Lyrik  (in  Literarhistoriscke 
Forschungen,  No.  24.  Berlin:  1902)  is  of  undoubted  importance  in 
establishing  a  more  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  early  romantic  lyric. 
—  On  other  phases  of  Romanticism,  especially  those  of  later  appearance, 
little  of  impartial  critical  worth  exists.  The  student  must  be  on  his 
guard  against  works  of  Tendenz  and  visionary  purpose  that  assume 
historical-sounding  titles.  Works  by  Arno  Holz,  for  instance,  are 
feverish  symptoms  of  the  time,  and  only  confusing  if  taken  otherwise. 
Compare  E.  Seilliere,  L'influenoe  franchise  dans  la  litt.  allemande 
contemporaine  [Arno  Holz]  (in  Rev.  d.  D.  M.  15  avril  1900).  J.  J. 
Honegger's  Das  deutsche  Lied  der  Neuzeit  (Leipz. :  1891)  is  quite 
popular  in  character.  The  following  are  interesting  and  stimulating: 
O.  Ewald  (Friedlander),  Die  Probleme  der  Romantik  als  Grundfragen 
der  Gegenwart  (Berlin :  1904);  O.  Floeck,  as  noted  above,  §  5  ;  K.  Joel, 
Nietzsche  und  die  Romantik  (Jena  und  Leipz.:  1905);  E.  Kircher, 
Philosophic  der  Romantik  (Jena :  1 906). 

On  Young  Germany,  see  Bartels'  Handbuch ;  J.  Proelss,  Das  Junge 
Deutschland  (Stuttgart:  1892);  the  sixth  volume  of  Brandes'  Main 
Currents.  The  poetic  qualities  of  Heine  are  vividly  portrayed  in  the 
impartial  and  yet  sympathetic  estimate  of  Matthew  Arnold  (Essays  in 
Criticism).  For  further  discussion  of  his  lyric  genius,  see  the  Leben  by 
A.  Strodtmann  (2  vols.  Berlin:  1867-69),  and  by  Hermann  Hiiffer 
(Berlin:  1878),  and  R.  Prolss'  Heinrich  Heine  (Stuttg.:  1886),  A.  W. 
Fischer's  Ueber  die  volkstiim.  Elemente  in  den  Gedichten  Heines  (in 
Beitrdge  z.  deut.  Litivissensch.,  No.  15.  1905),  and  F.  Melchior's 
Heines  Verhaltniss  zu  Byron  (in  Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  27.  1903). 
For  references  bearing  on  Heine's  influence  in  France,  see  Betz-Balden- 
sperger,  La  littdrature  compare'e,  Essai  bibliographique,  III,  3,  pp.  42-79 
(2d  ed.  Strasbourg:  1904).  For  other  lyrists  of  Young  Germany,  and 
of  the  mid-century,  Freiligrath,  Geibel,  Hebbel,  Bodenstedt,  Heyse,  etc., 
see  the  anthologies,  collections,  and  bibliographies  mentioned  above. 
P.  Zincke's  F.  Hebbels  philosophische  Jugendlyrik  (in  Prager  deufxilic 
Studien,  No.  1 1.  1908)  will  interest  the  student  of  the  reflective  lyric. 

For  the  pessimistic  lyric  following  in  the  train  of  Schopenhauer,  read 
E.  Grisebach's  poems  in  Der  neue  Tannhauser  (1869;  Berlin:  1888) 
and  J.  Bachtold's  edition  of  Heinrich  Leuthold's  Gedichte  (Frauenfeld: 


XIII,  G]  THE  GERMAN  LYRIC  335 

1878)  and  K.  E.  Francos'  Deutsche  Dichtung^  vol.  I  (Stuttgart:  1886), 
—  For  Darwin's  influence  and  the  lyric  of  scientific  optimism-,  read 
Wilhelm  Jordan's  Strophen  uhd  Stabe  (Frankf.  a.  M.:  1871),  his 
Andachteri  (Frankf.  a.  M.:  1877),  and  Arno  Holz's  Das  Buch  der  Zeit 
(Ziirich  :  1 886).  —  For  Nietzsche  and  the  social  realism  of  modern  life, 
the  student  will  consult  his  Werke  (Leipz.:  1895)  in  general,  especially 
his  Jenseits  von  Gut  und  Bb'se,  and  the  Gedichte  in  vols.  V,  VI,  and 
VIII;  K.  Joel's  Nietzsche  und  die  Korriantik  (mentioned  above); 
H.  and  J.  Hart's  Kritische  Waffengange  (1882);  the  lyrics  contained 
in  Jungdeutschlahd  (Cotifadi  and  Henckell,  Berlin  and  Leipz,;  1886), 
and  the  periodicals  of  realism  arid  impressionism ;  Conradi  and  Bleibtreu's 
Die  Gesellschaft  (Leipz.:  1885  +),  L.  M.  Kafka's  Moderne  Dichtung 
(Leipz.,  Briinnj  Wien :  1890;  In  1891  Moderne  Rundschaii),  K.  E. 
Franzos'  Deutsche  Dichtung,  Brahm  and  Bolsche's  Freie  Biihne  (Berlin : 
1890  +  ;  since  1894  Neue  Deutsche  Rundschau]\  also  the  lyrics  of 
other  Nietzscheah  poets  —  Hermann  Conradi  (Lieder  Binds  Sunders, 
Leipz.:  1887),  Dehrriel  (Aber  die  Liebe,  Miinchen:  1893),  Grosse 
(Buch  der  ErinnerUhgen,  Strassburg:  1895),  etc. 

On  contemporary  poetry^  see  O.  E.  Lessing,  Masters  in  Modern 
German  Literature  (Dresden:  1912),  and  A.  Sorgel,  Dichtung  und 
Dichter  der  Zeit:  eine  Schilderung  der  deutsch.  Lit.  der  letzten 
Jahrzehnte  (Leipz.:  1911). 

On  German  patriotic  poetry,  see  the  references  under  Klopstock, 
above  (Eighteenth  Century),  and  A.  Baldi,  Da8  deutschpatriotieche 
nationale  Lied,  etc.,  1813-70  (Bamberg:  1871);  Ei  G.  O.  Fritsche,  Die 
franz.  Kriegslyrik  des  Jahres  1 870  in  ihrem  Verhalthiss  zur  gleichzeitigen 
deutschen  (Progr.  Zwickau  :  1899);  G.  Huyssen,  Die  Poesie  des  Krieges 
und  die  Kriegspoesie  (Berlin  :  1 883) ;  K.  Janicke,  Das  deutsche  Kriegs- 
lied  (Berlin:  1871);  C  Petzet,  Die  Bliitezeit  der  deutschen  politischen 
Lyrik  von  1840-50  (Miinchen:  1903);  O;  Weddingen,  Die  patriotische 
Dichtung  von  1870-71,  etc.  (Leipz.:  1880). 

G.   The  German  Hymn. 

A  good  introduction  to  German  hymnody  is  at  hand  in  Miss 
Winkworth's  Christian  Singers  of  Germany  (Lohd.:  1869),  Lord 
Sdborne's  article  on  Hymns  (mentioned  above,  under  the  fourth 
division  of  this  section,  viz.,  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  Hymns  of  M.  A. ; 
also  published  separately,  under  same  title,  Lond>:  1892)  is  based,  in 
that  part  which  treats  of  German  hymns,  upon  Miss  Winkworth's  mono- 
graph. The  principal  authorities  are  as  follows ;  H.  von  Fallersleben, 
Geschichte  des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes  bis  auf  Luthers  Zeit  (3d  ed. 


336  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Hannover:  1861),  which  contains  many  selections  from  the  German 
hymns;  K.  Goedeke  and  J.  Tittmann,  Deutsche  Dichter  des  17.  Jahr- 
hunderts;  P.  Wackernagel,  Das  deutsche  Kirchenlied  von  der  altesten 
Zeit  bis  zu  Anfang  des  17.  Jahrh.  (5  vols.  in  6.  Leipz. :  1864-76),  a 
standard  collection,  with  historical  material ;  A.  Fischer  and  W.  Tiimpel, 
Das  deutsche  evangelische  Kirchenlied  des  1 7.  Jahrh.  (5  vols.,  Giitersloh: 
1904-11);  B.  C.  Roosen,  Das  evangelische  Trostlied,  u.s.w.,  um  die 
Zeit  des  dreissigjahrigen  Krieges  (Dresden:  1862);  J.  Miitzell,  Geistliche 
Lieder  der  evangelischen  Kirche  aus  dem  1 6.  Jahrh.  (3  vols.  Berlin : 
1 855)>  with  a  chronological  table  that  is  valuable;  by  the  same,  a  work 
of  similar  title  for  the  seventeenth  and  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  centu- 
ries (Braunschweig:  1858);  E.  E.  Koch  and  R.  Lauxmann,  Geschichte 
des  Kirchenlieds  und  Kirchengesangs  der  christlichen,  insbesondere  der 
deutschen  evangelischen  Kirche  (3d  ed.  8  vols.  Stuttgart:  1866-76); 
W.  Baumker,  Das  katholische  deutsche  Kirchenlied,  etc.  (3  vols. 
Freib. :  1886-91),  —  with  an  excellent  bibliography;  Cunz,  Geschichte 
des  deutschen  Kirchenliedes  (Leipz.:  1855);  W.  Nelle,  Gesch.  des 
deutschen  evangelischen  Kirchenliedes  (2d  ed.  Hamburg:  1909).  For 
the  older  collections  of  Baron  von  Bunsen,  and  for  English  versions 
of  the  German  hymns,  see  Lord  Selborne's  article. 

H.  German  Popular  Poetry. 

For  a  long  list  of  works  upon  Volkslieder  and  collections  of  Volks- 
lieder,  see  Paul's  Grundriss,  2d  ed.,  II,  i,  p.  1 1 78  ff.  (notices  of  the  ballads 
in  the  same,  pp.  49-62,  69,  299,  385) ;  for  a  brief  note  on  the  Schnader- 
hiipfl,  see  above,  under  C.  Rotter,  §  5.  Among  the  collections,  Arnim 
and  Brentano's  Des  Knaben  Wunderhorn  (various  editions)  is  important 
historically,  as  are  also  Uhland's  Volkslieder  and  R.  von  Liliencron's 
Die  historischen  Volkslieder  (I3th  to  i6th  centuries.  4  vols.  Leipz.: 
1865-69).  Other  large  and  intrinsically  important  collections  are  F.  M. 
Bohme's  Altdeutsches  Liederbuch  ( 1 2th  to  1 7th  centuries.  Leipz. :  1877), 
L.  Erk's  Deutscher  Liederhort  (all  periods ;  ed.  by  F.  M.  Bb'hme. 
3  vols.  Leipz.:  1893-94),  Bohme's  Volksthumliche  Lieder  (i8th  to 
1 9th  centuries.  Leipz.:  1895),  and  A.  Hartmann's  Historische  Volks- 
lieder (i6th  to  igth  centuries.  2  +  vols.  Miinchen :  1907  +  ),  and  the 
collections  already  indicated  in  the  References  to  D,  Early  New  High 
German  Period,  above.  See  also  Georg  Forster's  Sammlung,  Ein  Aus- 
zug  guter  alter  und  neuer  teutscher  Liedlein  (Nurmb. :  1 539-40),  Oegier's 
Sammlung  of  1512,  Tittmann's  Liederbuch  des  16.  Jahrh.,  Karl  von 
Erlach's  Volkslieder  der  Deutschen,  Joseph  Bergmann's  Das  Ambraser 
Liederbuch  vom  Jahre  1582  (in  Stuttgarter  Literarischer  Verein  :  1845). 


XIV]  THE  DUTCH  LYRIC  337 

XIV.  The  Dutch  Lyric. 

For  histories  of  Dutch  literature  see  the  Appendix.  Gosse's  article, 
Dutch  Lit.,  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  iith  ed.,  furnishes  an  introduction  for 
the  English  student;  those  who  read  German  may  use  L.  Schneider's 
Gesch.  der  niederland.  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1887).  For  the  earlier  period,  to 
the  1 7th  century,  a  very  helpful  guide  is  Jan  te  Winkel's  Niederlandische 
Literatur  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  II,  r):  see  especially  Chap.  V  Die  Lyrik 
des  12.  bis  14.  Jahrh.,  and  Chap.  XI  Die  Lyrik  des  15.  und  16.  Jahrh. 
For  bibliography  of  the  folk-song  of  Holland,  see  Paul,  II,  i,  p.  H78ff. 
—  Dr.  John  Bowring's  Batavian  Anthology  (Lond. :  1824)  will  prove 
an  excellent  introduction  ;  the  preface  should  be  studied.  Of  this  work 
Longfellow  in  his  Remarks  on  the  Dutch  Language  and  Poetry,  in 
Poets,  etc.  of  Europe,  makes  use.  An  article  in  the  Foreign  Quart. 
Rev.  14:  164,  should  be  consulted;  it  is  the  earliest  form  of  Bowring's 
Sketch  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Holland  (afterwards  publ. 
1829,  Amsterd.).  Standard  collections  of  Dutch  verse  are  Blom- 
maert's  Oudvlaemsche  Gedichte  der  XIIe,  XIIIe  en  XIVe  Eeuwen 
(Ghent:  1838-41);  and  Hoffmann  von  Fallersleben's  Niederlandische 
Volkslieder  (1856). 

Aside  from  early  translations  of  the  Psalms,  from  folk  songs, 
ballads,  and  hymns,  from  the  poems  of  Maerlant  (c.  1230—1290) 
and  of  Dirk  Potter  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and 
a  few  remains  of  minstrelsy,  and  poetic  snatches  in  the  miracle 
plays  and  other  productions  of  the  medieval  guilds,  the  Dutch 
lyric  offers  little  before  1540  to  attract  the  student.  —  From  that 
time  on  to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century,  collections  of  psalms, 
hymns,  folk-songs,  and  of  songs  and  ballads  of  patriotism  were 
issued.  The  more  important  lyric  poets  were  Anna  Bijns  and 
Filips  van  Marnix.  As  a  refiner  of  style  and  a  humanist,  rather 
than  as  a  poet,  D.  V.  Coornhert  (1522-1590)  deserves  attention; 
so,  also,  Spieghel  and  R.  P.  Visscher.  —  During  the  seventeenth 
century  the  disciples  of  Visscher  in  Amsterdam  assert  themselves 
in  many  kinds  of  artistic  literature  —  history,  romance,  drama, 
epic,  satire,  pastoral,  reflective  poem,  the  pure  lyric,  and  the  ode. 
The  masters  of  this  creative  period,  in  whose  works  the  student 
of  lyrical  poetry  will  find  his  best  material,  were  P.  C.  Hooft 


338  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

(1581-1647),  G.  A.  Brederoo  (1585-1 6 18),  J.  J.  Starter  (yf.  1614- 
1625),  Constantijn  Huygens  (1596-1687),  and  the  most  distin- 
guished of  Dutch  poets,  the  dramatist  Joost  van  den  Vondel 
(1587-1679).  In  one  and  another  of  these — all  of  the  Amsterdam 
school  —  the  inspiration  of  the  classics,  the  Italian  renaissance, 
and  the  French  to  some  extent,  and  very  decidedly  of  the  great 
Elizabethans,  may  be  traced.  Apart  from  them  stood  the  didactic 
poet,  Jakob  Cats  of  Middleburg.  Of  the  younger  generation  may 
be  mentioned  Luiken  and  Jonctijs.  —  The  first  two  thirds  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  the  period  of  French  influence  and  pseudo- 
classicism.  The  only  lyric  poets  worth  recording  here  are 
H.  C.  Foot,  W.  van  Haren,  and  the  Baroness  de  Lannoy.  The 
end  of  the  century  witnessed  the  inrush  of  romanticism.  Its 
most  forceful  opponent  was  Willem  Bilderdijk  (1.756-1831),  a 
disciple  of  the  English  Augustan  school,  impressive  as  a  didactic 
poet  and  vastly  influential  in  the  poetry  of  formal  rule.  The  first 
popular  novelist  and  poet  of.  the  romantic  school  was  R.  Feith 
(1753-1824).  —  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century 
the  more  eminent  lyrists,  all  romantic  in  spirit  and  manner,  were 
Hendrik  Tollens  (1780-1856),  Adrianus  Bogaers  (1795-1870), 
A.  C.  W.  Staring  (1767-1840),  E.  J.  Potgieter  (1808-75),  and 
P.  A.  de  Genestet  (1829-61).  For  further  particulars,  see  Gosse's 
Studies  and  his  article  in  the  Encyc.  Brit. 

Texts.  For  Hooft,  the  edition  of  his  poetical  works  and  dramas 
by  P.  Leendertz  (2  vols.,  1871-75);  for  Brederoo,  his  works 
edited  by  J.  ten  Brink  (3  vols.  1885-90),  ten  Brink's  biography, 
Brederoo  (Utrecht:  1859,  3d  ed.  1887-88),  and  J.  H.  W.  Unger's 
Brederoo,  eine  Bibliographic  (1884);  for  Huygens,  his  JDe  vita 
propria  sermones  (ed.  1827),  and  his  Corn  Flowers  (eds.  1658,  1672); 
for  Vondel,  his  odes  and  the  lyrical  passages  in  his  tragedies,  especially 
Lucifer  (1654),  see  translation  by  C.  L.  van  Norden  (Greensboro, 
N.C. :  1917).  Vondel's  complete  works  have  been  edited  by  van 
Lennep  (12  vols.  1850-69),  revised  by  J.  H.  W.  Unger  (1888-94). 
Unger  has  also  published  a  bibliography  (1888)  of  Vondel.  —  See  also 
below,  §  1 2,  xii,  and  for  bibliography  of  the  earlier  poets,  Jan  te  Winkel, 
as  noted  above. 


XV]        THE  SCANDINAVIAN  LYRIC  IN  GENERAL        339 

XV.  The  Scandinavian  Lyric  in  General. 

On  the  Scandinavian  Lyric  in  general  see  P.  Schweitzer's  Gesch. 
der  scandinavischen  Litt.  (3  parts.  Leipz. :  1 886-8.9) ;  E.  W.  Gosse's 
Studies  in  the  Literature  of  Northern  Europe  (Lond. :  1879),  which 
treat  of  certain  poets  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Germany, 
and  Holland.  A  somewhat  systematic  account  of  the  Northern  litera- 
tures, with  occasional  reference  to  national  songs,  is  to  be  found  in 
William  and  Mary  Hewitt's  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern 
Europe  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1852),  which  deals  chiefly  with  the  literatures 
of  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  Iceland.  Other  works  to  be  con- 
sulted are  Frederick  Metcalf's  The  Englishman  and  the  Scandinavian 
(Boston:  1880);  Rasmus  B.  Anderson's  translation  of  F.  W.  Horn's 
History  of  the  Literature  of  the  Scandinavian  North  (Chicago:  1884; 
also  1 895  ;  the  bibliography  by  Thorwald  Solberg  of  English  works 
on  Scandinavian  is  a  mine  of  information);  E.  Kdlbing's  Beitrage  zur 
vergl.  Gesch.  d.  romant.  Poesie  u.  s.  w.  des  Mittelalters  unter  besond. 
Beriicksichtigung  der  Engl.  in  nordischen  Literatur  (Breslau  :  1876); 
E.  Magnusson  and  W.  Morris'  Story  of  the  Volsungs  and  Niblungs, 
p.  1 65  Certain  Songs  from  the  Elder  Edda  (trans.  Lond. :  1 870).  For 
exhaustive  bibliography  of  Scandinavian  Folk-songs,  see  Paul's  Grundriss 
(1901),  II,  i,  p.  i  i35ff.;  for  references  on  versification,  see  Gayley  and 
Scott,  pp.  513-514. 

XVI.  The  Icelandic  Lyric. 

In  tracing  the  lyric  element  through  Icelandic  poetry,  consult  for 
brief  introductions  the  article  Iceland  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed., 
and  the  admirable  little  volume  by  W.  A.  Craigie,  The  Icelandic  Sagas 
(Camb.  Manuals  of  Sc.  and  Lit).  F.  W.  Horn's  work,  referred  to 
above,  under  xv,  is  the  most  useful  guide  in  English  not  only  to  the 
lyric  but  to  the  general  poetry  of  Iceland.  For  the  earlier  periods,  up 
to  the  1 7th  century,  E.  Mogk's  Norwegisch-islandische  Lit.,  with 
its  bibliographical  aids,  is  indispensable  (in  Paul's  Grundriss  (1901), 
II,  i,  p.  555  ff.),  as  is  also  G.  Vigfusson's  outline  of  the  classic  period 
in  his  Prolegomena  to  Sturlunga  Saga  (Oxford:  1879).  See  also  the 
best  work  in  its  field,  F.  Jdnsson's  Den  Oldnorske  og  Oldislanske 
Litteraturs  Historic  (Copenhagen:  1893-1900),  and  compare  below, 
under  the  Epic,  §  12,  xin.  For  modern  poetry  see  C.  Kiichler, 
Gesch.  der  islandischen  Dichtung  der  Neuzeit  (Leipz.:  1896);  J.  C. 
Poestion,  Islandische  Dichter  der  Neuzeit  (Leipz.:  1897).  For  notices 
of  works  that  have  appeared  since  1 879  se.e  the  Jahresbericht  iiber  die 


340  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§6 

Erschein.  auf  dem  Gebiet  der  germ.  Philol.,  i88off. — Among  texts 
and  collections,  consult  first  of  all  Vigfusson  and  Powell's  Corpus 
Poeticum  Boreale  (Oxford:  1883),  and  B.  Sijmons'  Die  Lieder  der 
Edda  (in  German.  'Handbib.  VIII,  3.  Halle  a.  S.:  1906);  for  editions 
of  the  epic  literature  see  below,  §  12.  For  the  ballads  of  Iceland  see 
a  collection  by  Grundtvig  and  Jon  SigurSsson  (1854-85). 

XVII.  The  Swedish  Lyric. 

See  first  the  general  history  of  Swedish  poetry,  pp.  289-378  of 
F.  W.  Horn's  work,  mentioned  above ;  then,  Gosse's  article  on 
Swedish  literature  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.;  Longfellow's  Sketch  in  his 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  Europe ;  H.  Schiick,  Svensk  literaturhistoria 
(1885  etc.),  and  the  brief  article,  Schwedisch-danische  Lit.,  in  Paul's 
Grundriss  (1901);  Schiick  and  Warburg,  Illustrerad  svensk  literatur- 
historia (1896);  P.  A.  Sonddn's  Bibliographisk  ofversigt  ofver  svenska 
vitterheten  (1810-1832);  L.  Hammarskold's  Svenska  vitterheten,  andra 
upplagen  ofversedd  af  Sonde"n  (Stockh. :  1833);  B.  E.  Malmstrbm's 
Grunddragen  af  svenska  vitterhetens  historia  (Orebro:  1866-68); 
Notice  sur  la  litterature  et  les  beaux  arts  en  Suede  par  Marianne 
d'Ehrenstrom  (Stockh.:  1826);  Howitt's  Literature  of  Northern 
Europe ;  Schweitzer's  Gesch.  der  scandinav.  Litt. ;  and  Gosse's  Studies. 
For  collections  of  ballads  and  Swedish  lyrics,  see  P.  Hanselli,  Samlade 
vitterhetsarbeten  af  svenska  forfattere  fran  Stjernhjelm  till  Dalin  (Upsala :. 
1856),  L.  Pineau,  Les  vieux  chants  populaires  scandinaves(i898);  collec- 
tions by  Geijer  and  Afzelius  (1814-16,  1 880)  and  Arwidsson  (1834-42); 
Longfellow's  Poets,  etc.  of  Europe.  The  bibliographical  appendix  to 
Horn's  History  mentioned  above  supplies  the  necessary  references  to 
literary  histories  and  the  texts  of  the  various  authors.  Gosse  mentions 
also  (Encyc.  Brit.)  P.  Wieselgren,  Sveriges  skona  literatur;  Warburg, 
Svensk  litteraturhistoria  i  sammandrag. 

The  Swedish  lyric  of  the  Middle  Ages;  1200-1500,  was  ap- 
parently limited  to  the  folk  song,  which  in  common  with  the 
Danish-Norwegian  had  its  origins  in  old  Scandinavian  mythical 
and  poetic  materials.  The  forms  in  which  they  have  been  trans- 
mitted are  of  the  i4th,  i5th,  and  i6th  centuries.  Nicholaus 
Hermanni  (d.  1391)  and  Tomas  (d.  1443)  wrote  poems  after 
the  fashion  of  the  folk  song :  the  latter,  called  the  first  Swedish 
poet,  one  on  Freedom,  one  on  Truth,  and  a  famous  song  of 
the  national  hero  —  Engelbrekt. 


XVII]  THE  SWEDISH  LYRIC  341 

During  the  sixteenth  century  the  chief  contributions  to  lyric 
poetry  were  the  sacred  songs  of  the  Petri  brothers,  Olaus  and 
Laurentius,  theologians  of  the  Reformation. 

About  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  secular 
lyric  echoing  the  folk-song  appears  in  the  historical  dramas  of 
Messenius  (1579-1636).  The  most  important  figure  in  the 
literature  of  this  century  was  Georg  Stjernhjelm  (1598-1672), 
the  founder  of  Swedish  poetics  and  the  '  Father  of  Swedish 
Poetry.'  As  the  apostle  of  humanistic  culture,  he  occupies  a 
position  analogous  to  that  of  his  contemporary  in  Germany, 
Opitz.  His  masques  are  musical  with  airy  lyrics ;  and  the  comic- 
lyric  style  of  his  Epithalamium  in  hexameters,  The  Inconveniences 
of  Wedding,  set  the  pace  for  Swedish  writers  of  humorous  verse. 
In  opposition  to  the  formal  classicism  of  Stjernhjelm's  poetics  a 
younger  poet,  Gustaf  Rosenhane  (1619-84),  a  disciple  of  the 
Second  Silesian  School  of  German  poetry,  wrote  his  Thet  svenska 
spraketz  klagemal  (The  Complaint  of  the  Swedish  Tongue),  and 
in  his  sonnets  of  the  Venerid  exemplified  the  influence  not  oflly 
of  Lohenstein  but  of  Italian  models.  Among  the  more  important 
followers  of  Stjernhjelm  were  the  '  Swedish  Flaccus '  Samuel 
Columbus,  whose  odes  are  written  in  hexameter  form,  and  Peter 
Lagerlof,  who  composed  erotic  songs.  Eurelius  Dahlstjerna,  on 
the  other  hand,  with  the  ottava  rima  of  his  epic  poetry. and  the 
Marinisms  of  his  more  lyric  verse,  was  an  adherent  of  Rosenhane 
and  the  Second  Silesian  School.  In  the  poetry  of  religious  songs 
the  best  work  of  the  erratic  Lars  Lucidor  deserves  attention,  and 
the  church  hymns  of  Svedberg  and  Bishop  Spegel. 

The  eighteenth  century  opened  with  the  idyllic  and  elegiac 
poems  of  Jacob  Frese,  true  to  nature  and  graceful  in  form,  and 
his  religious  verses  replete  with  emotion.  T-he  dominating  force 
in  poetry  of  the  first  half  of  the  century  was,  however,  the 
pseudo-classic,  derived  from  French  masters  of  the  Illumination 
and  from  the  Augustan  school  in  England  of  Addison,  Pope,  etc. 
The  most  distinguished  literary  figure  of  the  period  was  Olof  von 
Dalin  (1708-63).  In  epic,  drama,  and  prose,  Dalin  is  simplex 


342  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

munditiis,  facile  in  diction,  keen  of  wit,  governed  by  foreign 
culture.  In  some  of  his  lyrics,  however,  he  escaped  formalism  and 
reproduced  the  artlessness  of  the  folk  song.  The  influence,  also 
pseudo-classical,  of  his  younger  contemporary,  Fru  Nordenflycht, 
who  wrote  charming  and  pathetic  lyrics,  was  even  more  cast  in 
favor  of  French  models  and  mannerisms.  Her  most  distinguished 
follower,  G.  F.  Creutz,  was  the  most  genuine  and  successful 
idyllic  poet  of  the  period.  His  Atis  och  Camilla  (about  1760) 
reaches  the  high-water  mark  of  sentiment,  fancy,  and  graceful 
execution.  The  more  native  manner  of  the  folk  song  persisted, 
meanwhile,  and  is  to  be  found  in  Anders  Odel's  Song  of  Malcolm 
Sinclair  (1739).  —  The  second  literary  period  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  Gustavian,  begins  about  1765,  shortly  before  the 
accession  of  Gustavus  III,  and  includes  the  first  decade  of  the 
next  century.  It  was  characterized  in  lyric  as  in  other  poetry 
by  two  distinct  tendencies  —  the  National  and  the  Academic.  At 
the  head  of  the  national  group  of  poets  was  the  most  original 
and  spontaneous  of  Swedish  lyrists,  Karl  Mikael  Bellman 
(1740-95),  the  'Anacreon  of  the  North,'  a  dithyrambic  im- 
provisatore  of  the  foremost  rank.  At  first  a  follower  of  Dalin, 
in  1765  he  gave  rein  to  his  native  popular  and  lyrical  bent,  and 
during  the  succeeding  twenty  years  produced  in  such  works  as 
the  Epistles  and  Songs  of  Fredman  the  most  tuneful  and  un- 
fettered, homely  and  humorous,  pathetic  and  idyllic  poetry  of 
the  common  people  that  Sweden  has  known.  Of  the  academic 
movement,  on  the  other  hand,  the  leader  was  J.  H.  Kellgren 
(1751-95),  as  aesthetician  and  critic  a  continuator  of  the  rational 
and  formal  French  influence,  the  Gottsched  of  Sweden;  but,  as 
a  writer  of  lyrics  and  lyrical  dramas,  distinguished  by  inspiration 
and  hearty  emotion  as  well  as  polish  and  wit.  Among  the  best 
of  his  lyrical  poems  are  The  New  Creation  and  To  Christina. 
The  associate  and  successor  of  Kellgren  in  the  academic  group, 
K.  G.  af  Leopold,  a  dramatist  and  satirist  who  lived  until  1829, 
contributed  to  the  formation  of  literary  taste  rather  by  his 
aesthetic  criticism  than  by  genuine  lyrical  creativity.  To  another 


XVII]  THE  SWEDISH   LYRIC  343 

associate,  Anna  Maria  Lenngren,  Swedish  poetry  is  indebted  for 
idyllic  poems  charming  in  vivacity  and  truthful  to  the  facts  of 
common  life.  —  The  end  of  the  century  witnessed  the  preparation 
for  the  Romantic  movement  in  the  work  of  two  writers :  Bengt 
Lidner  (1759-93))  who  during  his  youth  had  come  under  the 
sway  of  the  German  romantics,  and  whose  lyrical  and  elegiac 
poems  display  a  wealth  of  fancy  and  exaggerated  sentiment ;  and 
Tomas  Thorild,  who,  from  1791  on,  principally  by  his  contribu- 
tions to  poetics,  written  in  opposition  to  the  formalism  of  the 
academic  group  and  in  glorification  of  'genius,'  familiarized 
Sweden  with  the  doctrines  of  Rousseau  and  the  poetry  of 
Klopstock  and  the  Ossianic  fragments.  Meanwhile,  by  the 
graceful  lyric  and  idyllic  poems  of  Franze'n  (1772-1847),  the 
taste  and  manner  of  the  school  of  Kellgren  were  carried 
well  into  the  period  of  the  new  poetry. 

The  Romantic  period  was  inaugurated  during  the  first  and 
second  decades  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the  Phosphorists, 
admirers  of  Hardenberg,  Tieck,  and  the  Schlegels.  Of  the 
Phosphorists,  the  most  brilliant  and  spontaneous  in  lyric  verse, 
as  well  as  the  ablest  in  criticism,  was  Atterbom  (1790-1855); 
among  the  less  distinguished,  but  still  worthy  of  the  student's 
attention,  were  Dahlgren,  Julia  Nyberg,  and  the  hymnodist 
Hedborn.  Less  directly  connected  with  the  school  of  Atterbom, 
but  of  surprising  freshness  as  romantic  lyrists,  were  the  author 
of  the  mystical  religious  cycle,  Lilies  in  Sharon,  Stagnelius, 
one  of  the  most  original  geniuses  of  Swedish  poetry,  and  Vitalis 
(Sjoberg),  humorous,  profoundly  elegiac,  and  religious  by  turns.  — 
To  the  Gothic  League  founded  by  Geijer  and  some  of  his  friends, 
in  1 8 1 1 ,  for  the  revival  of  interest  in  ancient  Scandinavian  history 
and  literature,  the  romantic  lyric  owes  even  more  than  to  the 
Phosphorists.  The  native  element  imbues  the  songs  and  hymns 
of  Geijer  and  the  lyrics  of  Ling,  and,  also,  the  masterpieces  of 
their  associate  in  the  Gothic  League,  Esaias  Tegner  (1782-1846), 
—  the  most  popular  of  Swedish  poets,  and  one  of  the  two  or 
three  most  eminent.  To  the  lyrical  episodes  in  his  idyl,  Children 


344  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

at  their  First  Communion,  and  of  his  epoch-making  Frithiofs-saga, 
one  should  turn  for  an  especially  artistic  expression  of  the  national 
consciousness  in  lyrical  form.  In  his  successor  as  poet  of  the 
nation,  Johan  Ludvig  Runeberg  (1804-77),  a  writer  of  like 
eminence  in  several  respects,  the  student  will  perhaps  recognize 
a  lyrist  of  more  varied  range  and  of  even  finer  inspiration  and 
finish.  In  realistic  and  graceful  simplicity  Runeberg's  idyllic  epics, 
Christmas  Eve  and  The  Elk-hunters,  have  not  been  surpassed  in 
Swedish  poetry.  B.  E.  Malmstrom,  with  his  elegies,  ballads,  and 
lyrics  —  few,  but  noteworthy ;  K.  V.  Bottiger,  with  his  sentimen- 
talism ;  A.  D.  von  Braun,  with  his  humorous  lyrics ;  Strandberg, 
"  Orvar  Odd "  (O.  P.  Sturzen- Becker),  and  other  minor  poets 
fill  out  the  lyrism  of  the  first  half  of  the  century.  The  historical 
fiction  and  the  graceful  and  patriotic  lyrics  of  the  Finn,  Zakris 
Topelius  (1818-98),  have  been  most  popular.  Last  of  the 
romanticists  and  idealists  was  Viktor  Rydberg  (1828-95),  an<3 
with  him,  as  standing  in  opposition  to  the  violent  realism,  natu- 
ralism, and  Nietzscheism  (1878  ff.)  of  J.  A.  Strindberg  (b.  1849) 
and  his  followers,  we  may  associate  C.  D.  af  Wirsen  (b.  1842) 
and  Carl  Snoilsky  (1841—1903).  Snoilsky's  plenteous  vein  is 
instinct  with  youth,  beauty,  and  the  joy  of  living.  Of  the  lyrists 
of  the  pessimistic  and  naturalistic  movement  A.  U.  Baath  (b.  1853) 
was  preeminent.  But  the  lyrics  of  O.  Levertin,  E.  Kle'en,  and 
G.  Froding  are  rich  and  sensuous  in  imagery  and  harmony,  and 
Verner  von  Heidenstam's  romantic  idealism  is  a  telling  protest 
against  the  coarse  realism  of  the  Strindbergians. 

Texts  and  References.  On  Stjernhjelm  see  Hanselli's  Samlade 
vitterhetsarbeten,  mentioned  above  (Upsala :  1 856) ;  on  Dalin,  the 
same,  and  E.  W.  Lindblad's  O.  v.  Dalin's  valda  skrifter  (1872).  On 
the  literary  societies  of  Dalin's  time,  see  G.  Gothe's  Historisk  ofversigt 
af  de  vittra  samfunden  i  Sverige  fore  svenska  Akademiens  stiftelse 
(Stockholm:  1875).  For  Bellman,  see  the  editions  by  J.  G.  Carle'n 
(Stockholm:  1856-61),  and  C.  Eichhorn  (Stockholm:  1876-77);  also 
G.  Ljunggren's  edition  of  Fredman's  Epistles  (Lond. :  1867).  On 
Kellgren,  see  the  edition  by  Regndr  and  Lengblom  (last  ed.,  Orebro : 
1 860),  also  C.  W.  Bottiger  in  Transactions  of  the  Swedish  Academy 


XVIII]  THE  DANISH-NORWEGIAN  LYRIC  345 

(vol.  XLV,  1870);  G.  Ljunggren's  Kellgren,  Leopold,  och  Thorild 
(1873)  and  his  Svenska  vitterhetens  hafder  (1877);  Wieselgren's 
Sveriges  skona  literatur  (1833-49)  and  Atterbom's  Svenska  siare 
och  skalder  (1841-55).  For  Atterbom,  his  Samlade  dikter  (Orebro: 
1854-63);  his  Samlade  skrifter  i  obunden  stil  (Orebro:  1859-1864) 
and  the  files  of  the  Fosforus  (1810-1813).  On  the  Gothic  League, 
R.  Hjarne's  Gotiska  forbundet  och  dess  hufvudman  (Stockholm : 
1878).  For  Geijer,  hrs  Samlade  skrifter  (1873-76);  his  Minnen 
(1834);  S.  A.  Hollander's  Minne  af  E.  G.  Geijer  (1869);  and 
Malmstrom  in  his  Tal  och  esthetiska  afhandlingar  (1868).  For  Tegner, 
his  Samlade  skrifter  (Stockholm :  1876);  Bottiger's  Teckning  af  TegneVs 
Lefnad ;  G.  Brandes'  Esaias  Tegner ;  and  Thomander,  Tankar  och 
Lojen.  On  Runeberg,  Nyblom's  introduction  to  the  Samlade  skrifter 
(1873-76).  See  Gosse's  Studies  in  Lit.  North.  Europe  for  nearly  all 
these  poets. 

XVIII.  The  Danish-Norwegian  Lyric. 

The  histories  of  Danish  and  Norwegian  poetry  are  given  in  the 
Appendix.  As  introductions  the  student  will  use  Gosse's  articles  in 
the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. ;  the  proper  sections  of  Horn's  history, 
already  noted,  in  the  bibliographical  appendix  of  which  there  is  a 
list  of  texts  and  literary-historical  studies ;  the  popular  account  in 
W.  and  M.  Howitt's  Lit.  of  Northern  Europe ;  and  the  suggestive 
sections  in  Longfellow's  Poets  of  Europe.  See  also  other  general  his- 
tories of  Scandinavian  literature  mentioned  above,  under  xv.  H.  Schiick's 
Schwedisch-danische  Lit.,  and  E.  Mogk's  Norwegisch-islandische  Lit., 
both  dealing  with  the  earlier  periods  (to  the  I7th  century),  and  both 
contained  in  Paul's  Grundriss  (1901),  are  well  supplied  with  critical 
apparatus.  Brandes'  Kritiker  og  Portraiter  (1870)  and  his  Danske 
Digtere  (1877)  are  helpful,  as  are  also  the  articles  on  the  various 
authors  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encycl.  On  Danish  ballads 
see  A.  Olrik,  Danske  Folkeviser  i  Udvalg  (Copenh. :  1 899).  —  General 
collections  of  songs  and  ballads  are  the  Udvalgte  Danske  Viser,  fra 
Midten  af  det  i6de  Aarhundrede  til  henimod  Midten  af  det  i8de,  met 
Melodier  (2  vols.  Copenh.:  1821);  Abrahamson,  Nyerup  and  Rahbek's 
Udvalgte  Danske  Viser  fra  Middelalderen  (5  vols.  Copenh. :  1812-14) ; 
Thiele's  Danske  Folkesagn  (9  vols.  Copenh.:  1820-23).  The  most 
comprehensive  is  Sv.  Grundtvig's  Danmarks  gamle  Folkeviser  (5  vols. 
Copenh.:  1853-1890),  continued  by  A.  Olrik  as  Danske  Ridderviser, 
1895  +.  The  Norwegian  ballads  have  been  collected  by  Landstad  (1853) 


346  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

and  S.  Bugge  (1858).  For  translations  of  the  more  famous  ballads, 
and  of  certain  lyrics  of  Kingo,  Tullin,  Ewald,  Storm,  Oehlenschlager, 
Ingemann,  and  others,  see  Longfellow's  Collection  ;  also,  R.  C.  A.  Prior, 
Ancient  Danish  Ballads  (3  vols.  Lond. :  1 860). 

A.  Danish-Norwegian  poetry,  which  extends  from  about  1500 
to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  bears  in  the  Middle 
Ages  practically  the  same  relation  to  the  Icelandic  origins  as  does 
the  Swedish.  Till  the  period  of  the  Reformation  it  is  composed 
exclusively  of  ballad  and  folk  song.  —  In  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  Biblical  translator  Pedersen  made  possible 
a  new  national  lyric  by  his  creation  of  a  literary  language  and 
by  his  cultivation  of  the  earlier  folk  material.  He  was,  however, 
not  a  lyrist;  and,  save  for  a  crude  growth  of  psalmody  and  the 
more  individual  hymnody  of  the  Rose-Garland  of  the  Virgin  Mary 
by  the  priest  Mikkel  of  Odense  (publ.  1514-15)  and  of  Hans 
Sthen  (1544-1603),  the  student  will  find  nothing  of  moment 
until  the  appearance  in  1591  of  the  famous  collection  and 
recension  of  the  old  ballads  by  A.  S.  Vedel. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  modern  era  begins.  It  is 
ushered  in  by  Anders  Arrebo  (1587-1637),  the  'Father  of 
Danish  Poetry.'  His  contributions  to  the  lyric  are  to  be  found 
principally  in  his  metrical  translation  of  the  Psalms  and  his 
didactic  epic,  the  Hexaemeron,  the  latter  of  which  occasionally 
presents  the  quality  of  the  folk  song.  It  is  an  imitative  adapta- 
tion of  Du  Bartas'  Creation,  partly  in  hexameters,  partly  in 
accentual  alexandrines  suggested  by-  the  teaching  of  Opitz  (the 
Prosodia  Germanica,  1624).  As  introducing  the  culture  of  the 
Renaissance  and  refining  poetry,  Arrebo  is  in  a  way  the  Stjern- 
hjelm  of  Denmark.  His  influence  may  be  traced  in  the  poetics 
of  Ravn  (Rhythmologia  Danica)  and  in  Terkelsen's  lyrical 
translations  of  portions  of  D'tMe^s  Astre'e  (The  Song-Book  of 
Astraea,  1648).  The  most  facile  and  important  poet  of  the 
second  half  of  the  century  was,  however,  Thomas  Kingo  (1634- 
1703),  a  writer  of  sacred  verse,  whose  Hymns  of  1681  and  two 
Psalters  of  later  years  possess  emotional  fervor  and  fire,  poetic 


XVIII,  A]       THE  DANISH-NORWEGIAN   LYRIC  347 

imagination  and  lyrical  charm.  Another  hymnodist,  Fetter  Dass 
(1647-1708),  was,  also,  the  first  significant  writer  of  secular  songs : 
his  Nordlands  Trompet  is  still  popular  among  the  common  classes. 
With  the  religious  and  moral  verses  of  his  contemporary  '  The 
Eleventh  Muse,'  Dorthe  Engelbrechtsdatter,  the  survey  of  the 
formative  period  in  Danish  literature  may  close. 

The  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  signalized  not  so 
much  by  definite  lyrical  productivity  as  by  the  development  of 
a  distinctively  national  literature,  —  a  literature  not  of  learned 
or  provincial  quality,  but  cultivated  and  European;  and  of  this 
the  creator  was  Ludvig  Holberg  (1684-14754),  the  most  eminent 
of  Scandinavian  authors,  well-nigh  of  European,  in  that  period. 
The  influence  of  Moliere  and  Boileau  arid  of  the  English  Augustan 
school  under  which  his  mock-heroics  and  comedies  were  produced 
does  not  confine  itself  to  his  writings  alone.  Holberg's  inspiration 
tells  upon  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  succeeding  generation.  Only  three 
poets  of  lyrical  endowment  occupy  the  period :  H.  A.  Brorson, 
the  continuator  of  Kingo's  psalmody ;  Thoger  Reenberg,  whose 
drinking  songs  are  of  a  delightful  spontaneity;  and  a  decidedly 
poetic  writer  of  sacred  verse  and  of  witty  and  joyous  lyrics, 
Ambrosius  Stub,  who  died  in  1758,  but  whose  poems  were 
practically  unknown  for  thirteen  years  later.  — •  The  second  half 
of  the  century  is  marked  in  drama  by  a  revolt  led  by  J.  H.  Wessel 
against  the  rhetorical  French  fashions  that  had  usurped  the  stage 
soon  after  the  death  of  Holberg;  and  by  the  influence  in  poetry 
of  other  kinds  of  the  Swiss  school  of  Bodmer,  through  Klopstock, 
who,  coming  to  Copenhagen  in  1751,  became  the  idol  of  the 
rising  literary  generation,  and  (after  the  foundation  of  his  Society 
of  the  Fine  Arts  and  the  Sciences  in  1759)  the  promoter  of  prize 
poetry.  The  first  prize  poet  evoked  by  the  Klopstockian  com- 
petition was  a  Norwegian,  C.  B. .  Tullin.  He  had  already,  in 
1758,  introduced  the  descriptive  nature-poetry  of  Thomson's 
style  in  an  idyllic  epithalamium,  May-Day.  The  next  year  he 
was  awarded  the  Society's  prize  for  a  poem  on  sea-faring.  The 
influence  of  Klopstock  was  even  more  decided  upon  the  early 


348  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

poetry  of  one  who  was  soon  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  distin- 
guished northern  lyric  writer  of  the  century,  Johannes  Ewald 
(1743-1781).  His  elegy  upon  the  death  of  Frederick  V  (a  prize 
poem,  1766)  was  the  finest  creation  of  the  kind  that  Denmark 
had  so  far  produced,  and  even  it  is  surpassed  by  his  later 
songs  and  by  his  exquisite  lyrical  dramas.  Especially  note- 
worthy are  his  dramatized  description  The  Fishers  and  the' 
lyrical  portions  of  his  tragedy  Balder's  Death.  Attention 
should  be  directed  to  his  love  of  Scandinavian  antiquity,  his 
clarity  of  diction  and  mastery  of  form,  and  his  introduction  of 
the  iambic  pentameter..  Next  to  Ewald  the  most  important  poet 
of  this  period  was  J.  H.  Wessel  (1742-85),  the  centre  of  a 
Norwegian  group  of  writers,  mainly  lyrical,  who  with  him  were 
in  opposition  not  only  to  the  affected  French  and  Italian  taste 
that  governed  the  theatre  but  to  the  turgidities  of  German  style 
that  characterized  the  lesser  poets  of  the  Klopstock-Ewald  school. 
Wessel  himself  produced  lyrics  of  rich  content,  but  is  best  known 
for  a  burlesque  tragedy,  Kjarlighed  uden  Stromper  (Love  without 
Stockings),  which  exploded  the  bombastic  drama  and  Italian  opera 
of  the  day.  His  associates  in  the  Norwegian  Society  (1772), 
the  brothers  Frimann,  etc.,  and  other  countrymen,  not  of  the 
Society  —  such  as  E.  Storm  —  devoted  themselves  to  a  poetry 
the  purpose  of  which  was  to  express  the  distinctive  spirit  of 
Norway :  songs  of  patriotism,  and  lyrics  descriptive  of  the  scenery 
and  peasant  life  of  their  fatherland.  This  was  a  genuine  contri- 
bution to  national  literature  and,  because  of  its  spontaneity,  return 
to  the  folk,  and  reflection  of  the  new  literature  of  revolt  then  gen- 
erating in  France,  was  something  of  a  preparation  for  the  poetry 
of  romanticism.  —  Among  Danes,  meanwhile,  a  writer  welcomed 
by  Wessel,  had  arisen :  the  '  Poet  of  the  Graces,'  Jens  Baggesen 
(1764-1826).  Baggesen  was,  on  the  one  hand,  an  admirer  of 
the  Kantian  philosophy,  a  personal  acquaintance  of  Wieland 
and  Herder  (the  heralds  of  the  German  romantic  movement), 
and  a  transmitter  by  his  prose  writings  of  the  new  ideas  to 
his  countrymen ;  he  was,  on  the  other  hand,  the  most  polished 


XVIII,  A]       THE  DANISH-NORWEGIAN  LYRIC  349 

and  spontaneous  writer  of  comic  tales  in  verse  that  Denmark  had 
known.  He  was  not  only  the  inheritor  and  refiner  of  Wessel's 
style  in  this  respect,  but  a  most  distinguished  master  in  the 
composition  of  the  descriptive  poem,  the  humorous  lyric,  and 
•vers  de  societe.  Though  never  in  sympathy  with  the  extravagant 
tendencies  of  the  new  Danish  poetry,  nay,  directly  antagonistic 
in  his  later  years  to  the  standard-bearers  of  romanticism,  he  was 
by  training  one  of  the  precursors  of  the  modern  movement. 

Of  the  romanticism  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  philosopher 
Steffens  was  the  father.  His  lectures  in  1802  upon  Schilling's 
philosophy  of  nature  and  of  history,  and  upon  the  romantic  poetry 
of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  were  the  inspiration  of  Adam  Gottlob 
Oehlenschlager,  the  greatest  of  the  romantic  poets  of  Denmark. 
Oehlenschlager  (1779-1850)  drew  the  materials  of  his  most 
famous  tragedies,  verse-romances,  idyllic  and  epic  poems,  from 
mythological  and  historical  sources  of  the  Scandinavian  past.  In 
these  will  be  noted  the  folk  spirit,  the  lyrical  current,  sublime, 
romantic,  tender,  the  colored  fancy  and  depth  of  feeling,  that 
characterize,  also,  his  poems  of  specifically  lyrical  form.  Likewise 
influenced  by  the  new  romanticism  and  idealistic  philosophy  of 
Germany  was  his  senior  contemporary,  Schack  von  Staffeldt, 
whose  lyrics  are  distinguished  by  a  fresh  and  melodious  refine- 
ment of  form  and  a  depth  of  reflective  content.  Another  con- 
temporary, influenced  by  the  teachings  of  Steffens,  but  more 
independent  of  the  romantic  school  in  poetry,  was  the  scholar, 
religious  teacher,  and  man  of  action,  Grundtvig  (1783-1872).  A 
fruitful  writer  of  lyrics,  historical,  national,  and  sacred,  he  is  even 
more  than  Oehlenschlager  Scandinavian  in  tone,  —  the  prophet 
of  a  unified  national  consciousness  centering  in  simplicity  of 
Christian  life.  In  the  critical  attack  made  by  Baggesen  upon 
the  less  inspired  extravagances  of  Oehlenschlager's  romanticism, 
Grundtvig  stood  by  the  former.  —  Among  the  more  eminent  of 
the  immediate  followers  of  Oehlenschlager  was  Ingemann  (1789- 
1862)  —  of  mystical  tendency  and  best  known  for  his  romantic 
novels  but,  as  a  lyrist  of  nature  and  of  religious  themes,  also 


350  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

of  decided  excellence.  Another  of  this  younger  romantic  genera- 
tion and,  like  Ingemann,  mystical  by  predilection  was  the  serious 
and  zealous  idealist  Hauch,  a  Norwegian  writer  of  exquisite  lyrics 
and  lyrical  dramas  and  romances,  as  well  as  of  historical  novel  and 
tragedy.  A  few  years  younger  than  Hauch  and  Ingemann  were 
three  other  lyrists :  Bodtcher,  a  poet  of  joy  and  love,  and  of 
Italian  atmosphere  and  skies ;  the  humorous  and  cheery  Moller ; 
and,  more  distinguished  than  either,  a  national  poet  of  love,  the 
beauty  of  nature,  and  the  charm  of  pastoral  life,  Christian  Winther 
(1796-1876).  Most  of  these  men  were  attached  to  the  interest 
of  Oehlenschlager  during  his  literary  feud  with  Baggesen  and 
Grundtvig.  Of  the  more  conservative  school  supporting  the  two 
latter,  the  most  eminent  writers  were  Heiberg  and  Hertz. 
J.  L.  Heiberg  (1791-1860)  was  a  critic  and  aesthetician,  an 
able  lyrist  as  well  as  an  effective  dramatist  and  satirist,  the  ex- 
ponent in  Denmark  of  Hegel's  philosophy,  and  the  literary 
dictator  of  his  day.  His  friend,  Hertz,  the  comic  dramatist, 
was  also  a  lyrist  of  opulent  fancy  and  highly  polished  diction 
and  versification.  —  The  .most  poetic  genius  of  the  mi£-century 
was  F.  Paludan-Miiller  (1809-1876),  whose  religious  idealism  and 
classical  grace  will  be  noted  in  epic,  satirical  and  lyrical,  in  tragedy, 
and  in  lyric  pure  and  simple.  With  him  may  be  mentioned  also 
C.  C.  Bagger  and  the  erotic  and  ironic  poet,  E.  Aarestrup.  Slightly 
younger  were  the  practical  and  patriotic  song-writer,  Carl  Ploug; 
the  musical  writer  of  lyrics,  and  composer  of  comedies  and  operas, 
J.  C.  Hostrup;  and  H.  V.  Kaalund.  —  Of  the  poets  of  the 
younger  generation  the  most  original  and  deeply  emotional  in 
the  lyrical  field  would  appear  to  be  Christian  Richardt  (b.  1831); 
but  as  representing  the  new  tendency  toward  realism  the  poet, 
especially  lyric  poet,  Holger  Drachmann  is  preeminent,  —  and 
the  critic  and  literary  historian,  Georg  Brandes. 

B.  The  Poetry  of  Neiv  Norway,  after  the  separation  from 
Denmark  in  1814,  began  with  the  patriotic  verse  of  a  few  minor 
writers  who  made  the  transition  from  the  poetry  of  the  Norwegian 
Society  (mentioned  under  Wessel  above)  to  that  of  a  politically 


XVIII,  B]       THE  DANISH-NORWEGIAN  LYRIC  351 

independent  and  original  Norwegian  consciousness.  Such  con- 
sciousness first  expressed  itself  (1829)  in  the  extravagant  odes 
and  other  lyrics  of  Henrik  Wergeland  (1808-1845),  and  in  his 
rationalistic  lyrical  epic  —  The  Creation,  Man,  and  Messiah* — of 
1830.  The  wild  and  uninformed  idealism  of  his  exclusively 
Norwegian  point  of  view  and  the  inartistic  quality  of  his  verse 
were  attacked  in  1832  by  a  thoroughly  trained  scholar  and  poet, 
J.  S.  C.  Welhaven  (1807-1873).  About  him  gathered  in  the 
controversy  that  ensued  a  body  of  writers,  the  Intelligents,  be- 
lievers in  historical  and  cosmopolitan  prerequisites  for  any  serious 
development  of  Norwegian  literature.  In  1834  Welhaven  pub- 
lished his  Dawn  of  Norway,  a  series  of  exquisite  and  satirical 
sonnets  which  had  incalculable  influence  in  shaping  the  course 
of  the  national  literature  toward  sane  and  artistic  performance. 
The  later  lyrics  of  his  opponent,  Wergeland,  were  an  improvement 
upon  the  earlier;  the  lyrics  of  Welhaven  are  the  most  graceful 
that  Norway  has  produced.  Other  poets  of  this  generation,  worthy 
of  consideration,  were  Munch,  Vinje  (the  leader  of  the  movement 
for  a  distinctively  Norwegian  tongue),  and  preeminently  Bishop 
Jorgen  Moe  —  who  not  only  wrote  excellent  lyrics  but  cultivated 
the  taste  for  original  Norwegian  literature  by  collecting  folk- 
material.  — •  In  the  period  which  closed  with  the  end  of  the  century, 
the  literature  of  Norway  at  last  became  truly  European  in  signifi- 
cance ;  but  its  two  great  writers,  Ibsen  and  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson, 
are  better  known  in  the  field  of  drama  and  of  novel  than  by  their 
lyrics,  admirable  though  some  of  them  are. 

Texts  and  References.  For  Vedel,  his  100  udvalgte  danske  Viser 
(Ribe:  1591)  and  C.  F.  Wegener's  Biographie  (in  the  transl.  of  Saxo 
Grammaticus,  Copenh. :  1851).  On  Arrebo,  H.  F.  Rordam's  Arrebo's 
Levnet  og  Skrifter  (Copenh.:  1857).  On  Kingo,  A.  C.  L.  Heiberg's 
Thomas  Kingo  (Odense :  1852).  On  Holberg,  R.  Prutz's  Ludwig 
Holberg,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Schriften  (Stuttg.  and  Augsb. :  1857), 
and  on  the  comedies,  A.  Legrelle's  Holberg  conside're'  comme  imitateur 
de  Moli^re  (Paris:  1864).  On  Tullin,  the  article  in  H.  Jaeger's 
Literaturhistoriske  Pennetegninger  (Copenh.:  1878).  On  Ewald,  the 
Levnet  by  Hammerich  (Copenh.:  1861).  On  Wessel,  the  biography  in 


352  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

J.  Levin's  edition  of  the  Digte  (2d  ed.,  Copenh. :  1878),  and  Welhaven's 
Ewald  og  de  norske  Digtere  (in  Welhaven's  Samlede  Skrifter,  VIII, 
Copenh.:  1868).  On  Baggesen,  the  biography  by  A.  Baggesen  (4  vols., 
Copenh.:  1843-56)  and  Kr.  Arentzen's  Baggesen  og  Oehlenschlager 
(8  vols.,  Copenh.:  1870-78).  On  Oehlenschlager,  the  preceding,  and 
Arentzen's  Adam  Oehlenschlager  (Copenh.:  1879);  also  C.  L.  N. 
Mynster's  Mindeblade  om  Oehlenschlager  og  hans  Kreds  (Copenh.: 
1879).  On  Staffeldt,  F.  L.  Liebenberg's  Samlinger  til  Staff eldt's  Levnet 
(4  vols.,  Copenh. :  1846-51).  On  Grundtvig,  Julius  Kaftan's  Grundtvig, 
der  Profet  des  Nordens  (Basel:  1877).  For  Heiberg,  his  Poetiske 
Skrifter,  and  his  Prosaiske  Skrifter  (n  vols.  each,  Copenh.:  1861-62). 
For  Paludan-Muller  his  Poetiske  Skrifter  (8  vols.,  Copenh. :  1878-79). 
On  Wergeland,  H.  Lassen's  study  of  Wergeland  og  hans  Samtid 
(Christiania :  1866)  and  H.  Schwanenfliigel's  Henrik  Wergeland 
(Copenh.:  1877).  For  Welhaven,  his  Samlede  Skrifter  (8  vols., 
Copenh.:  1867-68). 

XIX.  Lyric  Poetry  of  the  Lapps  and  Finns. 

On  the  lyric  poetry  of  the  Lapps  see  O.  Donner's  Lieder  der 
Lappen  (Helsingfors :  1876,  p.  21-29  Die  Lyrik).  Donner's  authorities 
are  Scheffer's  Lapponia  (Frankfurt:  1673);  J.  A.  Friis'  Lappisk 
Mythologi,  eventyr  og  folkesagn  (Christiania:  1871);  von  Diiben's 
Lappland;  Jakob  Fellman's  Swedish  transl.  of  five  songs  in  the 
Fosterlandskt  Album,  III  (Helsingfors:  1847). 

A  fine  German  collection  and  translation  of  Finnish  Songs  is  given 
by  Hermann  Paul :  Kanteletar,  die  Volkslyrik  d.  Finnen  (Helsingfors : 
1882).  See  the  remarks  An  den  Leser.  C.  J.  Billson's  Popular  Poetry 
of  the  Finns  (Lond. :  1900)  should  also  be  used;  it  contains  a  list  of 
English,  French,  and  German  works  on  Finnish  poetry.  Comparetti's 
important  Traditional  Poetry  of  the  Finns  is  noted  elsewhere  (see  Index). 
For  histories  of  Finnish  literature  see  Gosse's  article  in  the  Encyc.  Brit., 
1 1  th  ed.  See  also  the  notes  on  versification  given  by  Gayley  and  Scott, 
PP-  SH-SiS- 

XX.  The  Russian  Lyric. 

In  general,  the  student  should  consult  Leo  Wiener's  Anthology  of 
Russian  Literature  (2  vols.  N.Y.:  1902),  where  bibliographical  and 
historical  material,  as  well  as  translations,  will  be  found.  See  also 
de  Gubernatis  as  cited  above,  §  5.  The  first  collection  of  Russian 
popular  songs  was  made  by  Richard  James  in  1619.  Bowring's 
Anthology  of  Russian  Poetry  (2  vols.  1821-23)  suffers  from  an 


XX]  THE  RUSSIAN  LYRIC  353 

incomplete  knowledge  of  the  Russian  language.  The  history  of  the 
lyric  may  be  traced  in  the  appropriate  chapters  of  K.  Waliszewski's 
Russian  Literature  (Literatures  of  the  World  Series,  Lond.  and  N.Y.). 
On  more  recent  Russian  lyric  poetry  see  W.  R.  Morfill's  article  on 
Russian  Literature  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.;  Miss  I.  F.  Hapgood's  A  Survey 
of  Russian  Literature  (N.Y. :  1902);  and  other  works  mentioned  by 
Wiener,  vol.  I,  pp.  vii-xi.  Especially  noteworthy  are  the  lyrics  of 
Bogdanovich  (Dushenka),  Derzhavin  (Ode  to  God),  Zhukdvskiy  (Trans- 
lations, The  Poet  in  the  Camp  of  the  Russian  Warriors),  Pushkin  (of 
prime  importance).  Lermontov,  Koltzov,  Nekrasov,  Maikov,  and  Palonski 
are  the  best  of  recent  lyrists.  See  A.  Bruckner's  work,  cited  in  the 
Appendix,  as  follows :  pp.  84  ff.  Lomonosov  and  his  times,  the  ode ; 
126-132  Derzhdvin,  and  others,  and  more  odes;  126-127  Derzhavin's 
recipe  for  the  ode ;  1 78  ff.  Pushkin ;  Chap.  VII  romantic  poets ;  thence 
passim,  and,  especially,  Chap.  XVIII.  Specimen  verses  may  be  found 
in  C.  T.  Wilson's  Russian  Lyrics  in  English  Verse  (Lond.:  1887)  and 
J.  Pollen's  Rhymes  from  the  Russian  (Lond. :  1 891).  —  For  versification, 
see  Gay  ley  and  Scott,  p.  513. 

XXL  Serbian,  Cheskian,  Magyar,  and  Polish  Lyrics. 

For  Anthologies  of  Serbian,  Cheskian,  Magyar,  and  Polish  lyrics, 
easy  reference  may  be  made  to  Dr.  Bowling's  series  of  translations. 
They  do  not  include  poems  of  later  date  than  1832.  His  Serbian  lyrics 
(Servian  Popular  Poetry.  London:  1827)  are  translated  principally 
from  the  famous  collection  by  Vuk  Stefdnovich  Kardjich,  Servian 
National  Songs  (10  vols.,  Leipz. :  1823-24;  new  Government  ed., 
1891);  he  has  also  made  use  of  E.  Wessely's  Serbische  Hochzeitslieder 
(Pesth :  1826).  The  most  scholarly  and  poetic  modern  collection  in 
English  is,  however,  that  by  G.  R.  Noyes  and  Leonard  Bacon,  Heroic 
Ballads  of  Servia  (Boston:  1913).  It  includes  thirty-seven  ballads 
translated  (with  one  exception  from  the  Serbian  of  Kardjich's  edition) 
by  Noyes  and  put  into  vigorous  metres  by  Bacon.  The  Introduction 
gives  an  admirable  and  concise  account  of  the  type.  Among  the  authori- 
ties to  which  reference  is  made  are  Professor  Pdpovich,  Sketch  of 
Servian  Literature  (in  Serbian;  Belgrade:  1909);  E.  L.  Mijatovich, 
Kossovo  (Lond. :  1881);  D'Avril,  La  Bataille  de  Kossovo  (Paris :  1868); 
Vogl,  Marko  Kraljevits  (Vienna  :  1851), — and  others  on  Serbian  history 
and  customs.  For  other  references  to  Serbian  ballads  and  lyrics,  see 
Encyc.  Brit.,  Art.  on  Servia,  and  the  literary  histories  given  in  the 
Appendix.  —  On  Cheskian  (Bohemian)  lyrics  the  principal  authorities 
(cited  by  Bowring)  are  Hanke's  collection  in  four  volumes  (the  Starobyld 


354  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§6 

Skladanie,  and  his  edition  of  the  false  Kralodworsky,  MSS.);  collec- 
tions made  by  Wenzel  Tham  (Prague:  1785),  by  Chelakowsky,  and  by 
Ritter  von  Rittersberg  (Prague:  1825).  A  critical  review  of  Bohemian 
Popular  Poetry  by  M.  Miiller  appeared  in  the  Prague  Monthly  Periodical, 
August,  1827.  See  also  the  histories  of  literature  cited  in  the  Appendix. 
—  The  most  comprehensive  Anthology  of  Hungarian  (Magyar)  liter- 
ature is  probably  Fr.  J.  Schedel's  Handbuch  der  ungarischen  Poesie 
(2  vols.  Pesth  and  Vienna:  1828).  Bowring's  Poetry  of  the  Magyars 
was  issued  in  1830.  Another  valuable  collection  is  Count  Mailath's 
Magyarische  Gedichte  (Stuttg.  und  Tubingen :  1825).  Reference  should 
also  be  made  to  the  article  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  by  E.  D.  Butler 
and  to  J.  H.  Schwicker,  Gesch.  der  ungarischen  Lit.  (1889);  also  to 
C.  Horvdth,  etc.,  Histoire  de  la  litterature  hongroise  (Paris:  1900),  and 
to  F.  Riedl,  History  of  Hungarian  Literature  (Literatures  of  the  World 
Series ;  Lond.  and  N.  Y.).  Specially  beautiful  are  the  lyrics  of  Alexander 
Petof,  Tompa,  and  Arany.  For  references  on  the  influence  of  the 
Hungarian  lyric,  see  Betz-Baldensperger,  La  litt.  compare'e,  Essai 
bibliog.,  Chap.  XI  (2d  ed.  Strasbourg:  1904).  —  On  the  Polish  lyric 
W.  R.  Morfill's  article  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.  (Poland)  is  very  instructive. 
See  also  A.  Bruckner's  Gesch.  der  polnischen  Litt.  (Leipz.:  1901);  the 
History  of  Polish  Literature  by  Anton  Malecki  (hi  Polish) ;  Braun's  De 
Scriptorum  Poloniae  Virtutibus  et  Vitiis ;  Kaluski's  Bibliotheca  Poetarum 
Polonorum;  Duclos'  Essai  sur  1'histoire  litte"raire  de  Pologne;  Miinnich's 
Gesch.  d.  polnischen  Lit.;  and  other  works  referred  to  by  Morfill  and 
Bowring.  Adalb.  Cybalski's  Geschichte  der  polnischen  Dichtkunst  in 
der  iten  Halfte  des  laiifigen  Jahrh.  (Posen:  1880)  is  one  of  the  best 
of  recent  studies  of  the  subject.  Paul  Soboleski's  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  Poland  (Chicago:  1881)  is  a  much  fuller  collection  (selections  from 
sixty  poets ;  also  biographical  and  historical  notes)  than  Bowring's,  but 
the  translations  are  of  uneven  merit.  For  references  on  Mickiewicz, 
see  below,  §  1 2,  xvi.  See  also  G.  M.  C.  Brandes,  Poland,  A  Study  of 
Land,  People,  and  Literature  (Lond.:  1903). 

Brief  outlines  of  the  history  of  Cheskian,  Magyar,  and  Polish  lyric 
literature,  and  specimen  translations  into  Italian,  will  be  found  in  de 
Gubernatis  as  cited  above,  §  5. 

XXII.  The  Turkish  Lyric. 

For  the  lyric  literature  of  the  Orient  in  general  the  student  is  referred 
to  the  bibliography  of  oriental  philology  listed  in  the  Appendix.  —  On 
Turkish  poetry,  see  von  Hammer- Purgstall,  Die  Geschichte  der  osmani- 
schen  Dichtkunst,  which  includes  translations  from  the  priginal ;  E.  J.  W. 


XXV]  THE  LYRIC  OF  ARABIA  355 

Gibb,  A  History  of  Ottoman  Poetry  (6  vols.  Lond. :  1900-1909),  and 
a  very  brief  outline  of  Turkish  literature  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. ; 
by  the  same,  Ottoman  Poems,  containing  an  introduction  and  trans- 
lations (Lond.:  1882),  and  Ottoman  Literature,  translations  with  notes 
(Lond.:  1901);  J.  Redhouse,  On  the  History,  System,  and  Varieties  of 
Turkish  Poetry  (1879);  de  Gubernatis  as  cited  above,  §  5  ;  P.  Horn 
in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d.  Gegenwart,  T.  I  Abt.  VII  (1906).  Translations 
of  Turkish  folk  songs  have  been  published  by  Ignaz  Kunos  in  the 
Wiener  Zeitschr.  f.  d.  Kunde  d.  Morgenl.  (vols.  II,  III,  IV),  and  by 
Maximilian  Bittner  in  vol.  XI  of  the  same  series. 

XXIII.  The  Afghan  Lyric. 

Students  employing  the  comparative  method  of  study  will  be  interested 
in  J.  Darmesteter's  account  of  the  popular  poetry  of  the  Afghans  (Chants 
populaires  des  Afghans.  1 888-90).  For  further  materials  see  the  works 
of  Capt.  H.  G.  Raverty,  including  his  Selections  from  the  Poetry  of  the 
Afghans  (Lond. :  1 862). 

XXIV.  The  Syriac  and  Armenian  Lyric. 

For  the  Syrian  lyric,  see  Noldeke  and  Finck  in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d. 
Gegenwart,  T.  I  Abt.  VII  (1906),  Baumgartner,  vol.  I,  p.  179  ff.,  and 
W.  Wright's  Short  History  of  Syriac  Literature  (Lond.:  1894),  which 
is  a  reprint,  with  additions,  of  the  author's  article  on  Syriac  literature 
in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  gth  ed.  Some  Syrian  songs  will  be  found  in  an 
English  translation  by  H.  M.  Huxley  (Journal  of  the  American  Oriental 
Society,  23  :  175  ff.).  A  pamphlet  of  Armenian  Popular  Songs  (Venice:, 
1 888)  contains  nineteen  folk  songs  collected  from  Armenian  manuscripts 
in  the  library  of  St.  Lazarus.  English  translations,  exceedingly  crude 
but  intelligible,  accompany  the  originals. 

XXV.  The  Lyric  of  Arabia. 

Students  using  this  book  will  in  all  probability  be  concerned  with 
the  lyric  phase  only  of  Arabic  literature,  and  for  this  reason  the 
various  histories  of  the  literature  of  the  Arabians  are  placed  here 
rather  than  in  the  Appendix.  The  best  materials  will  be  found  by 
referring  to  the  following  works :  Cle"ment  Huart,  History  of  Arabic 
Literature  (Literatures  of  the  World  Series,  Lond.  and  N.Y.); 
Nicholson,  Literary  History  of  the  Arabs  (N.Y. :  1907);  Hammer- 
Purgstall,  Literatur-Geschichte  der  Araber  (7  vols.  Wien :  1850-56); 
•W.  Ahlwardt,  Uber  Poesie  und  Poetik  der  Araber  (Gotha:  1856); 
T.  Noldeke,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  der  Poesie  der  alten  Araber 


356  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§6 

(Hannover:  1864);  J.  G.  Wenig,  Zur  allgemeinen  Charakteristik  der 
arabischen  Poesie  (Innsbruck:  1870);  A.  von  Kremer,  Culturgeschichte 
des  Orients  (2  vols.  Wien:  1877;  vol.  II,  pp.  341-395  Poesie); 
Arbuthnot,  Arabic  Authors  —  A  Manual  of  Arabian  History  and 
Literature  (Lond. :  1890);  C.  Brockelmann,  Geschichte  der  arabischen 
Litteratur  (Weimar:  1898);  and  a  work  of  the  same  title,  and  by  the 
same  author,  in  Die  Litteraturen  des  Ostens  (Leipz. :  1901);  Hartmann, 
Das  arabische  Strophengedicht  (Weimar :  1 897).  For  a  brief  view,  see 
M.  Junde  Goeje  in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d.  Gegenwart,  T.  I  Abt.  VII 
(1906).  For  translations  of  Arabian  lyric  poetry,  see  notes  in  Baum- 
gartner,  vol.  I,  p.  301  ff . ;  Brockelmann;  Huart;  etc.  Fr.  Riickert 
published  several  volumes  of  translations  into  German.  Short  transla- 
tions and  accounts  of  Arabic  literature  have  appeared  in  the  Wisdom 
of  the  East  series  (John  Murray,  Lond.),  such  as  Al  Ghazzali's  Alchemy 
of  Happiness  and  Confessions,  Ibn  Tufail's  Awakening  of  the  Soul, 
the  Diwan  of  Abu'1-ala,  and  "  some  echoes  of  Arabian  poetry  "  in  The 
Singing  Caravan,  by  H.  Baerlein.  On  poetry  of  the  people  see  Schaefer, 
Songs  of  an  Egyptian  Peasant,  English  ed.  by  J.  H.  Breasted  (Leipz.: 
1904);  Littmann,  Neuarabische  Volkspoesie  (Berlin  :  1902). 


XXVI.  The  Persian  Lyric. 

For  general  histories  of  Persian  literature,  see  the  Appendix.  Specific 
references  to  the  lyric  will  be  found  in  the  following:  E.  G.  Browne, 
Lit.  Hist,  of  Persia  (vol.  I,  pp.  95-102  The  Avesta;  see  also,  and  espe- 
cially, Chap.  XIII,  on  Sufi  Mysticism  and  its  relation  to  the  poets, — 
bibliog.  note,  p.  444;  to  which  add  references  in  the  Grundriss,  vol.  II, 
p.  273);  the  second  volume  of  Browne's  work  (N.Y. :  1906)  carries 
the  history  from  the  1 1  th  to  the  1 3th  century  (Firdawsl  to  Sa'di) ; 
J.  Darmesteter,  Les  engines  de  la  poe"sie  persane  (Paris:  1887);  R.  W. 
Emerson,  Persian  Poetry  (Works,  Centenary  ed.,  vol.  VIII,  pp.  237- 
265);  K.  Geldner  and  Paul  Horn  in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d.  Gegenwart, 
T.  I  Abt.  VII  (1906);  H.  Ethd,  Neupersische  Litteratur  (in  Geiger 
and  Kuhn's  Grundriss  d.  iran.  Philol.,  Strassburg:  1895-1904,  vol.  II, 
p.  2l2ff.),  —  the  best  account  of  the  subject,  with  bibliographical  notes 
that  should  be  consulted :  the  student  of  Persian  literature  must  make 
this  Grundriss  his  point  of  departure.  The  article  on  Persian  Lit. 
in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  is  also  by  Elbe".  J.  H.  Moulton's  Early  Religious 
Poetry  of  Persia  (Cambridge  Manuals  of  Sc.  and  Lit.  1911)  affords 
a  brief  introduction  to  the  older  literature,  —  perhaps  the  best  survey- 
for  the  beginner. 


XXVI]  THE  PERSIAN  LYRIC  357 

Because  of  its  distinct  and  strongly  marked  characteristics,  its 
wide  difference  from  the  native  European  lyric,  and  its  influence 
upon  an  exotic  development  in  the  history  of  European  poetry, 
the  lyric  literature  of  Persia  offers  profitable  fields  of  investigation 
to  the  student  who  is  equipped  for  the  undertaking.  For  the 
comparative  study  of  the  nature  and  progress  of  the  lyric,  such 
investigation  is  essential. 

The  Persian  lyric,  like  that  of  all  ancient  nations,  and  most  of 
the  modern,  is  in  general  of  two  sorts :  (a)  the  early,  impersonal, 
and,  by  comparison,  objective,  religious-heroic  lyric,  belonging  to 
the  remote  development  of  the  people,  and  found  in  their  oldest 
religious  texts,  —  in  this  case,  in  the  Avesta;  and  (fr)  the  later, 
subjective,  personal  lyric,  —  in  this  case  the  lyric,  say,  of  Omar 
('Umar),  c.  noo,  Sa'di  and  Jalalu'd-Din  Rumi,  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  Hafiz  (Hafidh)  of  the  fourteenth,  Jami  of  the  fifteenth, 
if  these  poets  may  be  taken  as  representative  of  the  love  poetry 
and  philosophical  poetry,  both  mystical,  into  which  the  secular 
lyric  divides.  Of  course  the  Persian  lyric  has  developed  other 
minor  kinds,  especially  the  lyric  of  wit.  The  Persian  classifica- 
tion of  poetic  kinds  is  given  by  H.  Ethe  as  follows :  gasida,  or 
hymn  (Loblied),  with  the  hajw,  or  satire,  and  the  marthiya,  or 
elegy ;  the  git* a,  or  fragment,  differentiated  from  the  first  by  a 
prosodical  change;  the  ghazal,  or  ode,  subdivided  into  religious 
hymn,  love-song,  and  wine-song ;  the  mathnawl  (epic  or  didactic- 
mystical  poetry),  divided  into  historic  epic,  romantic  epic,  and 
learned  and  descriptive  poetry  (the  last  of  which  may  be  purely 
ethical,  purely  mystical,  or  both),  and  the  rubd'i  (pi.,  rubaiyat; 
lit.,  quatrains)  or  philosophical  wit-poem  (see  Grundriss  der  iran. 
Philol.,  vol.  II,  p.  219).  E.  G.  Browne  gives  a  more  complete  and 
satisfactory  classification  (op.  cit.,  vol.  II,  p.  22  ff.). 

The  Avesta  (for  the  conflicting  views  of  its  origin  and  age, 
see  E.  G.  Browne,  Lit.  Hist,  of  Persia,  pp.  95-96)  as  it  exists 
to-day  is  only  a  fragment.  It  is  made  up  of :  (r)  the  Yasna, 
"  consisting  of  hymns  recited  in  honour  of  the  different  angels, 
spirits,  and  divine  beings,"  and  including  the  ancient  Gdthas 


358  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

(or ''songs,' — see  Grundriss  d.  iran.  Philol.,  vol.  II,  p.  29, 
§  25),  which,  according  to  some  authorities,  Zoroaster  himself 
composed ;  (2)  the  Vispered,  containing  supplementary  liturgical 
material;  (3)  the  Vendidad,  containing  religious  laws  and  mythol- 
ogy ;  (4)  the  Yas/its,  made  up  of  hymns  celebrating  angels,  etc. ; 
(5)  the  Korda  Avesta  ('  Little  Avesta '),  consisting  principally  of 
a  collection  of  prayers.  The  student  of  the  lyric  will  find  most 
of  his  material  in  the  first  and  fourth  parts,  and  will  be  particularly 
interested  in  the  Gathas.  A  valuable  comparative  study  might  be 
made  of  the  lyric  parts  of  the  Avesta,  the  Vedas,  and  other  similar 
religious  or  '  inspired '  lyrics  of  the  ancient  nations,  including  the 
Babylonians,  the  Egyptians,  the  Hebrews,  etc.  The  nature  of 
the  study  might  well  consist  of  (a)  an  analysis  to  determine 
similarities  and  variations  of  form,  content,  and  purpose ;  (b}  an 
attempt  to  explain  such  similarities  and  variations  by  antecedent 
and  environmental  social  and  other  conditions ;  (c)  generalizations 
on  the  probable  law  of  development  involved  in  the  variations, 
and  on  the  probable  relation  of  such  religious  lyrics  to  the  secular 
heroic  lyric  (such  as  Pindar's),  and  to  the  secular  personal  lyric 
(such  as  those  of  Sappho  or  Hafiz).  Could  such  laws  be  deter- 
mined, doubtless  they  would  throw  much  light  upon  the  laws  of 
culture-development,  —  light  that  would  illumine  in  turn  the 
antecedents  of  some  of  our  present  cultural  conditions. 

The  Persian  secular  lyric  is  of  great  importance,  not  only 
because  of  its  influence  upon  the  European  lyric  (see  Goethe's 
West-ostliche  Divan,  Bodenstedt's  Mirza  Schaffy,  and  the  flock 
of  occidental  imitations,  for  which  cf.  above,  division  xm,  F  of 
this  section,  A.  V.  W.  Jackson,  Our  Interest  in  Persia,  etc.  — 
St.  Louis  Congress  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  III,  358.  Boston : 
1906,  —  and  P.  Horn,  Was  verdanken  wir  Persien?  —  in  Nord 
und  Siid,  Sept.  1900,  p.  384  ff.,  —  also  Fitzgerald's  Omar,  with 
its  flock  of  imitations),  but  also  because  of  the  peculiar  exten- 
sion of  the  nature  of  the  lyric  involved  in  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
the  Persian  varieties.  Monotony  of  form  and  conventionality  of 
setting  and  diction  exist  side  by  side  with  extraordinary  richness 


XXVI]  THE  PERSIAN  LYRIC  359 

and  unusual  ardor  of  imagination :  the  erotic  and  the  convivial 
are  inextricably  intertwined  with  the  mystical  and  sceptical,— 
often  with  a  mystical  pessimism.  Instructive  comparisons  might 
be  instituted  between  the  conventionality  of  the  ghazal  (ode) 
and  that  of  the  sonnet.  Psychological  studies  might  be  made 
of  the  influence  of  such  forms  on  the  lyric  state  of  mind, 
or  '  inspiration.'  An  interesting  problem  for  investigation  is 
the  influence  exercised  upon  the  content  of  the  lyric  —  even 
on  its  monotony  of  form  —  by  the  social  position  of  Persian 
women  and  by  the  teachings  of  the  Koran  about  the  connubial 
blisses  of  Paradise.  The  peculiar  attitude  of  the  Koran  toward 
wine-drinking  when  considered  in  contrast  with  the  lyrical  praise 
of  the  grape  presents  another  problem.  Many  such  considerations, 
social,  political,  religious,  economic,  await  comparative  investiga- 
tion ;  nor  is  it  too  much  to  suppose  that  profound  but  subtle 
influences  behind  the  lyric  may  be  traced  in  part,  at  least,  to 
conditions  of  natural,  physical  environment.  The  lyric  of  Asia 
and  the  lyric  of  Europe  are  not  more  characteristically  alike  or 
different  in  their  general  tendencies  than  are  the  physical  condi- 
tions of  the  two  continents.  But,  at  any  rate,  the  striking  peculi- 
arities of  the  Persian  lyric  and  of  Persian  society  present  to  the 
European  or  American  student's  observation  that  fortunate  con- 
trast with  the  habitual  that  very  often  opens  the  eye  of  discovery. 

Translations.  Translations  of  the  Avesta :  (a)  English :  by  Mills 
and  Darmesteter  (in  Sacred  Books  of  the  East.  Ed.  by  Max  Miiller, 
vols.  IV,  XXIII,  XXXI.  Oxford:  1877,  1880,  1883);  by  A.  Bleek, 
an  English  translation  from  the  German  of  Spiegel  (Hertford :  1 864) ; 
by  L.  H.  Mills,  The  Five  Zoroastrian  Gathas  (Leipz. :  1894),  and  The 
Gathas  of  Zarathushtra  (2d  ed.  Oxford:  1900);  by  M.  N.  Dhalla, 
The  Nyaishes  or  Zoroastrian  Litanies  (N.Y.,  Columbia  University: 
1908);  by  L.  C.  Casartelli,  Leaves  from  my  Eastern  Garden  (mostly 
from  the  Avesta;  Market  Weighton :  1908).  (b)  French:  the  first 
translation  of  the  Avesta  was  made  by  Anquetil  du  Perron  (3  vols. 
Paris :  1 771).  The  standard  French  translation  is  that  by  J.  Darmesteter, 
Le  Zend-Avesta,  etc.,  with  historical  and  philological  commentary  (3  vols. 
Paris  :  1892-93,  being  vols.  XXI,  XXII,  and  XXIV  of  the  Annales  du 


360  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Muste  Guimet).  See  also  the  translation  of  C.  de  Harlez,  Avesta,  etc. 
(3  vols.  Liege:  1875-77;  2d  ed.  Paris:  1881  ;  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Orientale,  vol.  V).  (c)  German  :  F.  Spiegel,  Avesta,  etc.  (3  vols.  Leipz. : 
1852-63);  earlier. translations  and  adaptations  by  F.  J.  Klenker  (Riga: 
1776,  etc.;  see  Grundriss  d.  iran.  Philol.,  II,  i).  C.  Bartholomae's  Die 
Gatha  des  Avesta  (Strassburg :  1905)  is  the  most  trustworthy. 

English  translations  of  the  more  important  lyric  poets  are  listed  under 
the  names  of  the  poets  in  Ethe's  article  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
Grundriss  (see  above).  Notices  of  translations  into  modern  languages 
will  be  found  in  Moulton  and  in  Baumgartner,  vol.  I,  p.  453  ff.  Of 
late  it  has  become  something  of  a  fad  to  publish  small  books  of  trans- 
lations from  the  Persian,  but  the  student  must  beware  of  accepting  all 
of  these  as  faithfully  representing  the  Persian  originals.  For  several 
volumes  of  value  see  the  Wisdom  of  the  East  Series  (John  Murray, 
Lond.).  The  student  of  the  popular  lyric  will  consult  A.  Chodzko's 
Specimens  of  the  Popular  Poetry  of  Persia,  etc.  (in  Publications 
of  the  Oriental  Translation  Fund  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
Lond.:  1842). 

References.  See  the  following  works  by  Ethe  :  Art.,  Modern  Persian 
Lit.  (Encyc.  Brit.,  Qth  ed.),  Die  hofische  und  romantische  Poesie  der 
Perser  (in  Samml.  gemeinverst.  wiss.  Vortrage.  Ed.  by  Virchow  and 
Holtzendorff,  N.  F.  II,  7.  Hamburg:  1887),  Die  mystische,  didaktische 
und  lyrische  Poesie  .  .  .  der  Perser  (ibid.  Ill,  53.  Hamburg:  1888), 
Rudagi  der  Samaniden-Dichter  (in  Gbttinger  Nachrichten,  1873, 
pp.  663-742),  Rudagi's  Vorlaufer,  etc.  (in  Morgenldndische  For- 
schungen,  1875,  pp.  33-68),  Art.,  Rudagi  (Encyc.  Brit.,  gth  ed.),  Firdusi 
als  Lyriker  (in  Miinchener  Sitzungsberichte,  1872,  pp.  275-304,  and 
1873,  pp.  623-653),  etc.  etc.  The  Farhang-i  Shu'ara,  or  '  Dictionary  of 
the  Poets,'  has  been  translated  by  Hammer-Purgstall  in  his  Duftkorner 
aus  persischen  Dichtern  (2d  ed.  Stuttgart:  1860).  Consult  also  K.  F. 
Geldner,  Art.,  Zend-Avesta  (Encyc.  Brit.),  and  the  admirable  Art, 
Avestalitteratur  (in  vol.  II  of  the  Grundriss  der  iran.  Philol.,  where 
the  student  will  find  further  bibliography);  C.  de  Harlez,  Introduction 
to  his  translation  of  the  Avesta,  noted  above ;  M.  Haug,  Essays  on 
the  Sacred  Language,  Writings,  and  Religion  of  the  Parsis  (2d  ed. 
Ed.  by  E.  W.  West.  Lond.:  1878;  3d  ed.  1884);  P.  Horn  (as  cited 
in  Appendix),  p.  i  ff.  Avesta,  H4ff.  Lyric,  including  Hafiz,  I45ff.  Re- 
ligious and  mystic  lyric,  including  Omar;  A.  Hovelacque,  L' Avesta, 
Zoroastre  et  le  Mazde*isme  (Paris  :  1880) ;  H.  Hiibschmann,  Ein  zoroas- 
trisches  Lied  mit  Riicksicht  auf  die  Tradition  iibersetzt  und  erklart 
(Miinchen:  1872);  A.  V.  W.  Jackson,  Persia  Past  and  Present  (an 


XXVII]  THE  INDIAN  LYRIC  361 

admirable  introduction  to  the  study  of  Persian  life  and  literature  in 
general);  by  the  same,  A  Hymn  of  Zoroaster  (Yasna,  XXXI),  and 
Zoroaster  (N.Y. :  1899;  most  important  for  a  knowledge  of  historical 
facts);  by  the  same,  Die  iranische  Religion  (in  the  Grundriss,  vol.  II; 
indispensable  to  the  understanding  of  the  thought  underlying  the 
Avesta) ;  by  the  same,  the  article  on  Zoroastrianism  in  Hastings' 
Bible  Dictionary,  vol.  IV;  Sir  G.  Ouseley,  Biographical  Notices  of 
Persian  Poets,  etc.  (Lond. :  1846);  C.  J.  Pickering's  articles  (A  Persian 
Chaucer,  in  Nat.  Rev.,  May:  1890;  The  Beginnings  of  Persian  Liter- 
ature, ibid.,  July:  1890;  Firdausi's  Lyrical  Poetry,  ibid.,  Feb.:  1890) 
—  merely  a  working  over  of  material  drawn  from  German  (H.  Ethe') 
and  French  publications;  I.  Pizzi,  Storia  della  poesia  persiana  (2  vols. 
Torino:  1894);  E.  A.  Reed,  Persian  Literature,  Ancient  and  Modern, 
p.  I3off.  Gdthas, —  other  lyric  poetry  passim  (Chicago:  1893). —  On 
the  Prosody  of  the  Persians,  see  H.  Blochmann,  The  Prosody  of  the 
Persians  (Calcutta:  1872);  F.  Gladwin,  Dissertations  on  the  Rhetoric, 
Prosody,  and  Rhyme  of  the  Persians  (Lond. :  1801);  C.  Huart,  a  French 
translation  of  Sharafu'd-Din  Rdmi's  Anisu  T-Ushshdq  ('  Lover's  Com- 
panion')  (Paris:  1875),  —  "a  valuable  guide  to  Persian  lyric  verse"; 
cf.  Riickert's  Grammatik,  Poetik  und  Rhetorik  der  Perser  (2d  ed. 
Gotha:  1874). 

XXVII.  The  Indian  Lyric. 

E.  W.  Hopkins  (The  Early  Lyric  Poetry  of  India,  in  his  India  Old 
and  New,  N.Y.:  1901;  cf.  A.  Weber,  Hist,  of  Indian  Lit.,  1878, 
pp.  208-210)  notices  four  stages  of  lyric  development  in  India: 
(i)  about  800  B.C.,  —  religious  and  heroic  stage,  to  which  belong  the 
Vedas ;  (2)  about  400  B.  c.,  —  devotional  and  sentimental,  or  epic-lyric 
stage ;  (3)  the  stage  of  the  simple  love-lyric ;  (4)  the  complex  love-lyric 
of  the  later  poets,  —  a  mystical  fusion  of  erotic  and  religious  elements. 

For  the  lyrism  of  the  Vedic  hymns  —  hymns  to  the  gods  and  in 
praise  of  the  heroic  past  —  see  the  two  works  mentioned  above,  the 
general  histories  of  Indian  literature  listed  in  the  Appendix,  Biihler 
and  Kielhorn's  Encyclopaedia  of  Indo-Aryan  Research,  and  the  follow- 
ing :  H.  Blodget,  Vedic  Hymns  ("Journ.  of  the  Amer.  Oriental  Soc., 
vol.  XIII, .Proc.,  pp.  H2ff.,  132  ff.);  M.  Bloomfield,  The  Atharva-veda 
(in  Biihler-Kielhorn,  II,  I,  B,  1899);  H.  Brunnhofer,  Uber  den  Geist 
der  indischen  Lyrik  (Leipz.:  1882);  E.  Bournouf,  Essai  sur  la  Ve"da, 
etc.  (Paris:  1863);  H.  T.  Colebrook,  the  first  to  present  a  survey  of 
the  Vedas,  in  his  essay  On  the  Vedas  (Asiat.  Res.,  vol.  VIII,  pp.  369- 
476.  Calcutta:  1805;  also  in  Colebrook's  Miscellaneous  Essays,  ed. 


362  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

by  Cowell,  1873;  vol.  I,  pp.  8-132), —  valuable  now  only  as  a  seminal 
publication;  the  third  part  of  Henry's, work,  cited  in  the  Appendix,— 
very  sketchy;  A.  Kaegi,  Der  Rigveda  (2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1880;  English 
translation  by  R.  Arrowsmith,  Boston  :  1 898),  —  valuable  as  an  historical 
and  bibliographical  guide,  but  already  out  of  date ;  Macdonell's  History 
of  Sanskrit  Literature,  cited  in  the  Appendix  (the  best  introduction  for 
the  English  student  —  see  p.  438  ff.  of  the  work  for  bibliography); 
A.  A.  Macdonell's  Early  Religious  Poetry  of  India  (Camb.  Manuals 
of  Sci.  and  Lit.)  has  been  announced ;  Max  Miiller,  Chips  from  a 
German  Workshop  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1868,  vol.  I  Lecture  on  the  Vedas); 
H.  Oldenberg,  Die  Hymnen  des  Rigveda,  Bd.  I  Metrische  Prolegomena 
(Berlin  :  1 888) ;  by  the  same,  Die  Religion  des  Veda  (Berlin :  1 894), 
with  which  compare  Professor  Lanman's  studies  in  the  chronological 
strata  of  the  hymns  of  the  Rig-Veda,  and  Bergaigne's  La  Religion 
vedique  (3  vols.  Paris:  1878-83);  R.  Roth  —  the  founder  of  Vedic 
philology  —  various  works :  especially  On  the  Literature  and  History 
of  the  Veda  (translation  into  English  by  J.  Muir.  Calcutta :  1 880),  the 
German  original  of  which,  Zur  Litteratur  und  Geschichte  des  Weda 
(Stuttgart :  1 846),  was  one  of  the  earliest  incentives  to  the  study  of  the 
Vedas ;  W.  D.  Whitney,  several  papers  on  the  Veda  in  his  Oriental 
and  Linguistic  Studies  (vol.  I.  N.Y. :  1873). 

Translations  of  the  Vedas :  For  the  Rig- Veda  and  other  Vedic 
literature,  see  the  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  ed.  by  Max  Miiller 
(Rig-veda,  vols.  XXXII,  XLVI,  trans,  by  Miiller  and  Oldenberg; 
Atharva-veda,  vol.  XLII,  trans,  by  M.  Bloomfield);  also  Miiller's  Rig- 
Veda-Sanhita :  The  Sacred  Hymns  of  the  Brahmans  (Lond.:  1869); 
R.  T.  H.  Griffith,  The  Rigveda  Metrically  Translated  into  English 
(2  vols.  Benares :  1 896-97).  .  There  are  German  translations  by 
H.  Grassmann,  Rig-Veda  (2  vols.  Leipz.:  1876-77),  and  by  A.  Ludwig, 
into  German  prose  (6  vols.  Prag:  1876-88).  For  further  bibliography 
of  translations,  see  the  notes  to  the  English  translation  of  Kaegi's  work 
mentioned  above.  Compare  W.  D.  Whitney's  essay  On  the  Translation 
of  the  Veda  (in  his  Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies.  2  vols.  N.Y. : 
1 873-74;  vol.  I,  pp.  100-132);  and  Kaegi-Arrowsmith,  op.  cit.,  pp.  9-10. 

For  later  lyric  poetry  (A.  D.  400^-1100),  see  the  general  histories, 
especially  Chap.  XII  of  Macdonell.  Oldenberg's  Die  Literatur  des  alten 
Indiens  (Berlin:  1903)  is  important  and  trustworthy,  —  see  Chap.  IV, 
§  III.  W.  R.  Alger's  The  Poetry  of  the  Orient  (Boston:  1865)  does 
not  assign  its  translations  to  the  original  authors,  and  is  generally 
untrustworthy.  Kalidasa's  Meghaduta  ('  Cloud  Messenger ')  has  been 
translated  into  English  verse  by  H.  H.  Wilson  (3d  ed.  Lond.:  1867), 


XXVIII]     SUMERIAN  AND  BABYLONIAN  LYRIC  363 

T.  Clark  (Lond.:  1882),  A.  W.  Ryder  (in  The  University  of  California 
Chronicle,  vol.  XIII,  Jan.  1911;  and  in  his  Kalidasa,  Everyman's 
Library,  1912).  German  translations  by  Max  Miiller  (Konigsberg: 
1847),  Schiitz  (Bielefeld:  1859),  Fritze  (Chemnitz  :  1879).  Other  lyrics 
are  translated  by  A.  W.  Ryder  in  his  Women's  Eyes  (S.F. :  1910)  and 
More  Verses  from  the  Sanskrit  (Univ.  Calif.  Chron.,  vol.  XIV,  No.  3). 
For  bibliography  of  lyrics  of  the  period,  see  Macdonell,  p.  448.  For 
the  folk-lyric,  see  C.  E.  Cover,  Folk-Songs  of  Southern  India  (Triibner 
&  Co. :  n.  d.),  and  other  works. 

For  references  on  Indian  versification,  see  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  515-516,  and  E.  V.  Arnold,  Vedic  Metre  (Lond.:  1905)  —  very 
valuable  in  its  analysis  of  the  metrical  materials  of  the  Rig- Veda. 

XXVIII.  The  Sumerian  and  Babylonian  Lyric. 

Of  the  works  cited  in  the  Appendix,  the  student  will  find  readiest 
aid  in  Weber,  pp.  114-147,  and  Bezold  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der 
Gegenwart,  I,  VII).  Translations  of  Babylonian  hymns  may  be  found 
in  the  histories  of  the  literature  and  in  The  Journal  of  the  American 
Oriental  Society.  The  latter  contains  considerable  material,  such  as 
J.  D.  Prince's  translation  of  a  Hymn  to<Nergal  (vol.  XXVIII,  ist  Half, 
p.  1 68  ff.),  or  the  same  author's  Hymn  to  Belit  (vol.  XXIV,  103  ff.), 
or  F.  A.  Vanderburgh's  translation  of  a  Hymn  to  Bel  (vol.  XXIX),  etc., 
etc.  (see  Index,  vol.  XXI,  ist  Half).  See  also  Bezold,  Babyl.-assyr. 
Litt.  (Leipz. :  1886);  Craig,  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Relig.  Texts 
(Leipz. :  1895);  C.  D.  Gray,  The  Samas  Relig.  Texts  (Chicago  :  1901); 
M.  I.  Hussey,  Some  Sumerian-Babyl.  Hymns  of  the  Berlin  Collection 
(in  Am.  Jr.  of  Semitic  Langs,  and  Lits.,  vol.  XXIII.'  1907);  S.  Lang- 
don,  Sumerian  and  Babyl.  Psalms  (Paris:  1909);  by  the  same,  Babyl. 
Liturgies  (Paris:  1913);  Martin,  Textes  relig.  assyr.  et  babyl.  (in 
Bibl.  de  rEcole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  vol.  CXXX.  1900);  Pinckert, 
Hymnen  und  Gebete  an  Nebo  (Leipz.:  1907);  Reisner,  Sumerisch- 
babyl.  Hymnen  (Berlin:  1896);  R.  W.  Rogers,  Cuneiform  Parallels  to 
the  Old  Testament  (Oxford:  1912);  Vanderburgh,  Sumerian  Hymns 
(N.Y. :  1908);  H.  Zimmern,  Babyl.  Busspsalmen  (Leipz.:  1885);  by 
the  same,  Babylonische  Hymnen,  etc.  (in  Der  Alte  Orient,  VII. 
Leipz.:  1905);  by  the  same,  Sumerisch-babylonische  Tamuz-lieder  (in 
Konig.-sdchs,  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissensch.  Berichte  it.  d.  Verhandl.  philol.- 
hist.  Klasse,  vol.  LIX,  pp.  201-252.  Leipz.:  1907);  the  vols.  of  the 
Am.  Jr.  of  Semitic  Langs,  and  Lits.,  the  Zeitschr.  fur  Assyriologie, 
and  Delitzsch  and  Haupt's  Beitrage  zur  Assyriologie.  On  Babylonian 
metrics  see  H.  Zimmern  in  Zeitschr.  f.  Assyr.,  vols.  VIII,  X,  XI,  XII. 


364  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

XXIX.  The  Egyptian  Lyric. 

The  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead  contains  a  collection  of  ritualistic 
lyrics  and  religious  formulae  that  should  be  taken  into  account  in  a 
comparative  study  of  the  ancient  religious  lyric.  In  these  lyrics  it  is 
not  hard  to  detect  late  explanatory  passages  that  were  added  to  the 
original  texts  by  priestly  redactors ;  and  this  circumstance  is  of  aid  to 
the  student  of  the  development  of  such  poetry  from  naive  beginnings, 
entirely  lyrical,  to  later  stages  in  which  the  accretion  of  explanatory  and 
didactic  materials  convert  it  from  its  pure  lyrism  to  something  at  once 
sacred  and  pedantic.  See  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge,  The  Book  of  the  Dead 
(Lond. :  1 898),  which  contains  a  valuable  introduction  in  addition  to  text 
and  translation.  For  an  account  of  the  book,  and  for  further  bibliography, 
see  Baumgartner,  vol.  I,  p.  88  ff.,  and  A.  Erman  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur 
der  Gegenwart,  I,  VII).  The  laments  of  Isis  and  Nephthys  have  been 
translated  by  J.  T.  Dennis,  The  Burden  of  Isis  (Wisdom  of  the  East 
Series,  1910);  see  also  Budge's  Lit.  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians  (Lond.: 
1914),  Breasted's  Ancient  Records  of  Egypt  (Chicago:  1906)  and  De 
Hymnis  in  Solem  (Berlin :.  1894),  the  volumes  of  the  Records  of  the 
Past  Series,  and  the  Zeitschr.  fur  Aeg.  Spr.-,  further  references  in 
Budge,  as  just  noted,  pp.  256-2^8.  A.  Wiedemann's  Popular  Literature 
in  Ancient  Egypt  (Lond.:  1902)  and  W.  M.  Miiller's  Die  Liebespoesie 
der  alten  Agypter  (1899)  will  serve  as  introductions  to  other  remnants 
of  the  Egyptian  lyric.  —  For  a  note  on  Egyptian  versification,  see  Gayley 
and  Scott,  p.  516. 

XXX.  The  Ancient  Hebrew  Lyric. 

Driver's  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament  (roth  ed.  N.Y. :  1910), 
G.  F.  Moore's  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament  (Home  University 
Library.  N.Y. :  1913),  H.  Gunkel  in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d.  Gegenwart, 
T.  I  Abt.  VII  (1906),  Kautzsch's  Outline  History  of  the  Literature 
of  the  Old  Testament  (trans,  by  J.  Taylor.  Lond.:  1898),  and  H.  E. 
Ryle's  Study  of  the  Old  Testament  (Internal.  Theol.  Library,  N.Y.)  are 
useful  as  introductory  guides  to  the  history  of  the  whole  subject.  For 
the  kinds  of  poetry  and  of  versification  the  student  had  better  begin 
with  E.  G.  King's  compendious  statement  in  Early  Religious  Poetry  of 
the  Hebrews  (Camb.  Manuals  of  Sci.  and  Lit.  Cambridge:  1911)  and 
W.  H.  Cobb's  Criticism  of  Systems  of  Hebrew  Metre  (Oxford:  1905). 
Other  recent  works  upon  the  poetry  in  general  are  K.  Budde's  Hebrew 
Poetry  (in  Hastings'  Diet.  Bible),  E.  Kautzsch's  Die  Poesie  und  die 
poet.  Biicher  des  Alten  Testaments  (1902),  C.  F.  Kent's  The  Songs, 


XXX]  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREW  LYRIC  365 

Hymns,  and  Prayers  of  the  Old  Testament,  E.  G.  King's  The  Psalms 
in  Three  Collections  (Deighton,  Bell),  and  E.  Konig's  Die  Poesie  des 
Alten  Testaments  (1911).  For  some  of  the  earlier  authorities,  Lowth, 
Herder,  Ewald,  Saalschutz,  etc.,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  516.  —  The 
student's  readiest  and  most  reliable  aid,  however,  in  getting  at  the 
results  of  modern  scholarship  rests  in  the  German  commentaries  on 
the  Old  Testament,  and  of  these  one  may  especially  recommend  the 
various  volumes  of  the  Handkommentar  zum  Alten  Testament,  edited 
by  W.  Nowack.  For  commentaries  in  English,  see  The  International 
Critical  Commentary,  edited  by  S.  R.  Driver,  A.  Plummer,  C.  A. 
Briggs ;  and  The  Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools  and  Colleges,  of 
which  A.  F.  Kirkpatrick  is  the  general  editor  for  the  Old  Testament. 
If  the  student  desires  information  regarding  a  particular  lyric  or  book, 
he  will  consult  the  appropriate  volume  in  each  of  these  commentaries. 
If,  for  instance,  he  intends  to  work  upon  the  book  of  Psalms,  he  will 
at  once  turn  to  D.  F.  Baethgen's  edition  of  the  Psalms  in  Nowack's 
Handkommentar,  to  E.  G.  Briggs'  edition  in  the  International  Com- 
mentary, and  to  Kirkpatrick's  edition  in  the  Cambridge  Bible.  Moul ton's 
Modern  Reader's  Bible  provides  classification  and  literary  appreciation 
rather  than  textual  or  historical  criticism.  —  Extremely  valuable  aid  is 
furnished  also  by  encyclopedias  and"  dictionaries :  for  instance,  the 
Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  edited  by  T.  K.  Cheyne  and  J.  S.  Black,  which 
contains  a  mass  of  information  of  all  sorts,  and  is  representative  of  the 
most  advanced  and  reliable  scholarship,  having  the  exceptional  virtue 
of  everywhere  distinguishing  fact  from  theory  (4  vols.  Lond.  and 
N.Y. :  1899-1903).  Here  will  be  found  not  only  extended  reviews 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  the  history  and  nature  of  the  various 
books  of  the  Bible,  but  also  a  host  of  valuable  articles  of  historical, 
biographical,  archaeological,  economic,  political,  and  social  nature.  Bibli- 
ographies are  given  in  connection  with  all  the  more  important  subjects. 
Other  scholarly  encyclopedias  are  the  Catholic,  the  Jewish,  the  Schaff- 
Herzog  (of  Religious  Knowledge),  and  the  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible.  —  Finally,  the  aid  afforded  by  the  various  histories  of  the  Jews 
should  be  mentioned.  Among  the  more  available  in  English  are 
Kent's  History  of  the  Hebrew  People,  and  H.  P.  Smith's  Old  Testa- 
ment History  (N.Y. :  1903).  In  the  works  of  Ewald,  Graetz,  and 
Wellhausen  will  be  found  the  more  famous  and  extensive  surveys, 
and  Geiger,  Kittel,  and  Milman  offer  surveys  that  are  also  famous. 
But  all  of  these  need  to  be  checked  with  more  recent  investigations. 
For  further  bibliography,  see  works  listed  in  the  Commentaries  and  in 
the  Encyclopaedia  Biblica. 


366  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

For  versification,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  516,  and  Encyc.  Biblica, 
III,  3803.  Cobb's  Systems  of  Hebrew  Metre,  already  mentioned, 
contains  a  bibliography  up  to  1904.  More  recent  works  on  versification 
are  J..W.  Rothstein,  Grundziige  d.  heb.  Rhythmus  (Leipz. :  1909),  and 
O.  P.  Zapletal,  De  Poesi  Hebraeorum  (in  Latin:  1909).  L.  I.  Newman 
and  W.  Popper's  Studies  in  Biblical  Parallelism :  Amos  and  Isaiah, 
Chaps,  i-io  (Univ.  of  Calif .  Pubs.,  Semitic  Philol.,  vol.  I,  1918),  is  a 
valuable  contribution  ;  it  contains  a  comparative  study  of  parallelism  in 
Semitic  and  non-Semitic  poetry. 

For  an  admirable  summary  and  classification  of  the  poetry  of 
the  Old  Testament  and  an  indication  of  problems  of  study,  see  in 
the  Encyclopaedia  Biblica  the  article  Poetical  Literature.  The  field 
of  the  Hebrew  lyric  may  be  divided  as  follows:  (i)  remnants 
of  early  popular  songs,  such  as  the  Song  of  Lamech,  the  Song  of 
Deborah,  etc.,  imbedded  in  texts  of  a  later  date;  (2)  possible 
songs  and  elegies  of  David,  and  those  due  to  "  the  establishment 
by  David  of  three  orders  of  singers  and  players  upon  musical 
instruments  for  the  services  of  the  Tabernacle "  (see  the  first 
part  of  Lord  Selborne's  Art.  on  Hymns,  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.) ; 
(3)  lyrics  that  originated  in  the  period  from  the  Divided  Mon- 
archy to  the  close  of  the  Exile  and  are  imbedded  in  historical 
and,  especially,  prophetic  books ;  (4)  post-exilic  lyric  literature, 
especially  the  Psalter  and  Song  of  Songs.  Much  attention 
should  be  paid  to  the  lyric  character  of  the  prophetic  books, 
to  the  First  and  Second  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah  in  particular.  The 
Hebrew  lyric  presents  a  wide  range  of  variation :  from  the  objec- 
tive hymn  of  ritualistic  occasion  to  the  personal,  subjective  cry 
of  love  and  despair;  from  the  song  of  triumph  in  battle  to  the 
elegy  of  spiritual  •  defeat ;  from  the  songs  of  alternating  hope 
and  reproach  of  the  prophet-patriot  to  the  highly  artificial  and 
beautifully  allegoric  wooing  of  an  oriental  lover.  The  nu- 
merous systematic  studies  of  the  texts  and  antiquities  of  the 
Old  Testament  that  have  accumulated  during  recent  years  pro- 
vide the  literary  student  with  exceptional  facilities  for  research 
into  the  nature  of  this  varied  lyric  literature  and  into  its  laws 
of  development. 


XXXI]  THE  CHINESE  LYRIC  367 

XXXI.  The  Chinese  Lyric. 

The  student  will  find  a  list  of  bibliographies,  histories  of  Chinese 
literature,  and  periodicals  in  the  Appendix.  In  Giles  he  should  note 
the  following  pages:  12-21,  50-55,  97-101,  119-136,  143-188,  232- 
237,  247-255,  329-334.  Other  works  are  noted  by  Gayley  and  Scott, 
p.  517.  —  Translations  :  The  great  repositories  for  the  English  student 
are  the  Sacred  Books  of  China,  translated  by  J.  Legge  (in  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East.  6  vols.),  and  Legge's  The  Chinese  Classics  (5  vols.  in  8. 
Oxford  and  Lond. :  1861-1893).  Zottoli's  monumental  Cursus  Litera- 
turae  Sinicae  (5  vols.  Shanghai:  1879-82)  contains  translations  into 
Latin  from  all  branches  of  the  literature,  —  see  vol.  IV.  The  pieces 
of  the  Shih  Ching  offer  suggestive  material  to  the  student  of  the  early 
objective  lyric.  For  translations,  see  Legge  as  noted  above ;  W.  Jennings, 
Shih-King,  etc.  (Lond.:  1891);  C.  F.  R.  Allen,  Book  of  Chinese  Poetry 
(Lond.:  1891).  See  also  Sir  J.  F.  Davis,  Poetry  of  the  Chinese  (new 
ed.  Lond.:  1870);  H.  A.  Giles,  Gems  of  Chinese  Literature  (Lond.: 
1884);  C.  Budd,  Chinese  Poems  "(Lond. :  1912);  H.  Waddell,  Lyrics 
from  the  Chinese  (Boston:  1913);  C.  Clementi,  Cantonese  Love  Songs 
(Oxford:  1905);  W.  Scarborough,  Collection  of  Chinese  Proverbs 
(Shanghai:  1875);  A.  Forke,  Bliithen  chinesischer  Dichtung  (Magde- 
burg: 1899);  H.  Heilmann,  Chinesische  Lyrik,  etc.  (Leipz. :  1905); 
H.  Bethge,  Die  chinesische  Floete  (Leipz.:  1910);  and  several  volumes 
in  the  Wisdom  of  the  East  Series  (John  Murray,  Lond.),  such  as 
L.  Cranmer-Byng's  Lute  of  Jade  and  The  Book  of  Odes. 

Chinese  poetry  is  chiefly  lyrical.  There  is  no  Chinese  epic; 
for  the  drama,  see  Encyc.  Brit.,  VIII,  484.  Of  lyric  verse  there 
is  an  immense  amount.  The  -collection  of  the  poetry  of  the  T'ang 
Dynasty  (A. D.  600-900),  published  in  1707,  "contains  48,900 
poems  of  all  kinds,  arranged  in  900  books,  and  filling  thirty 
good-sized  volumes."  This  Tang  Dynasty  witnessed  the  per- 
fection of  the  Chinese  lyric.  Among  the  people  lyric  poetry 
had  begun  in  remote  antiquity.  The  first  known  collection, 
the  Shih  Ching,  or  '  Book  of  Odes,'  contains  305  poems,  all 
composed  before  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  The 
poems  are  arranged  under  four  divisions:  (i)  ballads  of  popular 
origin ;  (2)  odes  for  ordinary  entertainments ;  (3)  odes  for  state 
entertainments ;  (4)  panegyrics  and  sacrificial  odes.  The  poems 
have  undergone  an  endless  process  of  commentary  and  allegorical 


368  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§6 

and  symbolical  interpretation :  but  in  themselves  they  are  reflec- 
tions of  .the  public  and  domestic  life  of  their  times.  Between 
the  death  of  Confucius  and  the  second  century  B.C.  the  lyric, 
typified  by  the  Li  Sao  of  Ch'ii  Yuan,  becomes  wild  and  irregular 
in  form  and  content,  and  often  unintelligible  because  of  the  mass 
of  allegory.  The  Li  Sao  served  as  a  model  up  to  the  time  of 
Christ ;  but  gradually,  from  the  second  century  B.  c.  on,  the 
quieter  and  more  regular  poetry  of  the  Shih  Ching  became 
the  accepted  pattern  for  the  lyric  poet,  and  in  the  Tang  Dynasty 
the  art  lyric,  as  has  already  been  said,  attained  its  climax.  It  is 
typically  short :  Chinese  poetry  seems,  indeed,  to  exemplify  Poe's 
contention  that,  ideally  speaking,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  long 
poem.  The  ideal  length  of  the  art  lyric  is  twelve  lines,  "  and  this 
is  the  limit  set  to  candidates  at  the  great  public  examinations  at 

• 

the  present  day,  the  Chinese  holding  that  if  a  poet  cannot  say 
within  such  compass  what  he  has  to  say  it  may  very  well  be  left 
unsaid."  The  construction  of  the  poems  is  highly  artificial ;  and 
the  greatest  attention  is  paid  to  an  embellished  style. 

All  later  Chinese  poetry  has  modelled  itself  upon  the  T'ang 
lyric,  and  it  may  be  said  that  little  that  is  new  in  form  or  content 
has  been  added  to  the  Chinese  lyric  since  the  tenth  century 
of  our  era. 

XXXII.  The  Japanese  Lyric. 

Critical  material  on  the  Japanese  lyric  will  have  to  "be  culled  from 
the  references  given  in  the  Appendix.  B.  H.  Chamberlain's  Japanese 
Classical  Poetry  (Lond.  1880),  and  studies  by  A.  Pfizmaier,  L.  de 
Rosny,  R.  Lange,  etc.,  have  been  mentioned  by  Gayley  and  Scott, 
PP-  5 1 7-5 ! 8.  W.  G.  Aston's  Japanese  Lit.  (Lits.  of  the  World  Series) 
offers  a  convenient  introduction  in  English,  and  K.  Florenz's  Die 
japanische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg,  T.  I  Abt.  VII.  1906),  in  German.  On 
popular  poetry  see  Lafcadio  Hearn,  Japanese  Folk-Songs  (in  Atlantic 
Mo.,  78 :  347  ff.).  For  translations,  see  Baumgartner's  list,  and  other 
works  given  below,  Appendix  ;  also  two  recent  volumes :  F.  V.  Dickins, 
Early  Japanese  Poetry  and  Romance  (Oxford:  1913);  W.  N.  Porter, 
A  Hundred  Verses  from  Old  Japan  (Oxford:  1913).  In  the  Wisdom 
of  the  East  Series  (John  Murray,  Lond.)  is  Clara  A.  Walsh's  The 


XXXIII]  LOWER  RACES  369 

Master-Singers  of  Japan.  Of  Japanese  collections,  the  most  important 
is  the  Maftyefushifu,  or  '  Collection  of  Myriad  Leaves,'  compiled  during 
the  first  half  of  the  eighth  century.  Many  others  were  made  in  obedi- 
ence to  imperial  orders  during  the  period  from  the  tenth  to  the 
fifteenth  century ;  as  a  whole  they  are  known  as  the  '  Collections  of 
the  One-and- Twenty  Reigns.' 

As  in  the  case  of  the  Chinese,  the  bulk  of  Japanese  poetry 
is  lyrical.  The  creative  period  was  the  oldest,  —  before  the 
tenth  century  of  our  era.  The  centuries  of  greatest  literary 
output,  except  in  respect  of  the  lyric,  were  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  thirteenth.  At  the  commencement  of  that  epoch  the  sources 
of  true  lyric  poetry  suddenly  dried  up.  "  Thenceforward,  instead 
of  the  heart-outpourings  of  the  older  poets,  we  find  nothing  but 
empty  prettinesses  and  conceits,  confined  within  the  narrowest 
limits."  To  this  critical  epoch  succeeded  a  second,  critical  and 
antiquarian,  distinguished  by  research  and  collection  of  the  old 
literature,  —  an  age  that  extended  through  the  two  centuries 
preceding  the  arrival  of  the  Americans  and  the  opening  of 
Japan  to  foreign  influences. 

XXXIII.  Lower  Races. 

The  study  of  the  lyric  expression  of  the  lower  and  so-called 
'  primitive '  races,  bringing  us  as  it  does  near  to  the  beginnings, 
if  not  origins,  of  the  lyric,  should  perhaps  have  been  given  the 
first  place  in  these  historical  notes.  But  such  a  position  would 
have  suggested  a  general  arrangement  of  poetic  materials  in 
the  order  of  development,  which  clearly  would  be  incompatible 
with  what  for  us  is  still  the  most  perspicuous  outline,  that  by 
nationalities.  At  this  point,  therefore,  may  be  inserted  a  brief 
consideration  of  the  lyrics  of  such  lower  races  as  the  Andamanese, 
Veddas,  Australians,  Malays,  Africans,  Esquimaux,  and  North  and 
South  American  Indians. 

Upon  applying  himself  to  this  phase  of  the  subject  the  student 
will  encounter  certain  preliminary  and  peculiar  difficulties,  (i)  How 
may  the  lower  races  be  classified  so  that  we  may  avoid  confusing 
the  lyric  productions  of  widely  differing  cultural  conditions  ?  The 


370  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

primitive  Andamanese  must  not  be  put  on  a  level  with  the  Malay, 
nor  the  Malay  on  a  par  with  the  ancient  Mexican.  What  are 
the  available  bases  for  cultural  differentiation  ?  The  anthropologist, 
believing  that  his  data  are  too  meagre  to  warrant  classification 
according  to  stages  of  development,  for  the  present  contents 
himself  with  careful  study  of  small  social  groups  and  looks 
askance  at  all  efforts  to  schematize  the  levels  of  culture.  But 
if  the  study  of  early  poetry  is  to  be  comparative,  some  method 
must  be  devised  for  checking  the  wider  divergences.  The  follow- 
ing attempts  at  division  should  therefore  be  studied :  E.  Grosse, 
Beginnings  of  Art  (N.  Y. :  1897),  p.  35  ff.,  suggestion  of  classi- 
fication on  the  basis  of  productive  industry ;  L.  T.  Hobhouse, 
G.  C.  Wheeler,  M.  Ginsberg,  The  Material  Culture  and  Social 
Institutions  of  the  Simpler  Peoples  (Lond. :  1915),  —  on  basis 
of  methods  of  securing  food ;  L.  H.  Morgan,  Ancient  Society 
(Chicago:  1877),  —  on  basis  of  useful  arts;  Herbert- Spencer, 
Principles  of  Sociology  (Lond.:  1876+),  —  on  basis  of  forms 
of  government;  W.  Wundt,  Elements  of  Folk  Psychology  (Eng. 
trans,  by  E.  L.  Schaub,  Lond.:  1916),  —  on  psychological  basis. 
For  an  attempt  to  define  the  savage  see  A.  Lang,  Myth,  Ritual 
and  Religion  (Silver  ed.,  p.  34,  note).  (2)  In  view  of  the  well- 
known  paucity  of  our  collections  of  the  lyrics  of  these  peoples, 
can  we  draw  any  trustworthy  inductions  ?  (3)  To  what  extent 
may  we  believe  that  the  collections  we  do  possess  are  authentic 
and  truly  .representative?  The  great  difficulty  of  winning  the 
confidence  of  these  races,  understanding  their  language  and, 
what  is  more  important,  their  point  of  view,  has  proverbially 
been  the  cause  of  our  failure  to  discover  and  interpret  primitive 
songs  and  customs.  We  have  fallen  back  upon  inadequate 
methods,  and  reported  half-spurious,  inexact,  and  even  prejudiced 
results.  Superficial  travelers  and  missionaries  whose  zeal  for 
certain  definite  ends  has  not  rendered  them  ideal  observers, 
have  not  seldom  provided  us  with  such  garbled  versions  or 
unrepresentative  compositions  as  to  render  induction  precarious. 
The  student  should  base  his  observations  only  upon  songs  that 


XXXIII]  LOWER  RACES  371 

have  been  reported  by  trained  and  reliable  collectors,  especially 
anthropologists.  Fortunately  the  amount  of  such  material  is 
steadily  increasing.  (4)  In  his  ignorance  of  the  native  languages 
can  the  literary  student  trust  to  the  literal  fidelity  of  the  trans- 
lations with  which  he  must  work  ?  He  must  always  distrust 
'  poetic '  translations :  their  very  smoothness  "  gives  them  away." 
Literal,  interlinear  translations  of  the  originals  should  be  exhausted 
before  passing  to  other  translations.  If  he  observe  this  advice 
faithfully,  the  student  will  find  himself  well  enough  acquainted 
with  the  gerieral  characteristics  of  the  poetry  of  lower  races 
to  detect  and  discard  the  colored  rendering.  (5)  Does  not  the 
characteristically  allusive,  abbreviated  style  of  the  songs  of  these 
races  render  them  obscure  to  our  understanding?  Obviously  a 
wide  understanding  of  the  general  psychology  and  sociology  of 
the  lower  races  —  such  as  is  to  be  gained  from  the  works  of 
J.  G.  Frazer,  A.  Lang,  E.  B.  Tylor,  Sidney  Hartland,  Boas, 
Wundt,  and  Westermarck  (see  below  for  references)  —  will 
minimize  this  obstacle. 

Passing  from  preliminary  difficulties,  we  may  enumerate  some 
of  the  objects  of  the  study  here  contemplated,  (i)  The  lyrics, 
once  assembled  and  perhaps  differentiated  according  to  cultural 
levels,  must  be  classified  (on  each  level).  The  proper  principle 
of  division  is  that  of  occasion  or  purpose,  for  one  of  the  most 
salient  features  of  early  song  is  its  prevailingly  occasional  character 
(cf.  ancient  Greek  and  Proven9al  lyrics).  Here,  too,  one  may 
note  whether  occasions  become  more  varied  and  plentiful  as 
civilization  advances;  to  what  degree  the  occasions  are  social 
(communal)  rather  than  individual,  and  how  this  degree  differs 
in  the  lower  and  higher  races ;  the  extent  to  which  the  occasional 
song  is  magical ;  and  when  and  how  the  utility  of  occasion  is 
coincident  with  or  yields  to  the  urge  of  free,  aesthetic  expression. 
(2)  After  determining  his  classes  and  arranging  therein  his 
materials,  the  student  should  compare  his  divisions  with  the 
sub-types  of  the  lyric  as  they  are  commonly  but  loosely  recog- 
nized. Relations  will  at  once  become  obvious,  e.g.  between  the 


372  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

primitive  wedding  song  and  the  epithalamium,  the  death  song 
and  the  threnodic  elegy,  the  courting  song  and  the  erotic  elegy, 
the  proverb  and  the  epigram,  the  religious  dance-song  and  the 
choral  ode.  How  are  the  similarities  to  be  explained  ?  How,  and 
this  is  more  important,  the  differences  of  content,  construction, 
utterance,  and  accompaniment?  How  have  changed  conditions 
—  religious,  political,  economic  —  influenced  the  early  occasion- 
types?  To  what  extent  has  the  early  purpose  or  occasion  of 
some  song  (such  as  the  magical  food-song  or  totemic  initiation- 
song),  which  is  perfectly  clear  to  primitive  participants,  been  for- 
gotten, misinterpreted,  conventionalized  in  the  higher  levels  of 
culture?  Are  such  changes  regular  methods  of  the  variation  or 
growth  of  the  early  occasion-types  ?  (3)  Again,  instead  of  working 
forward  from  the  lyric  occasion-types,  we  may  work  backward 
by  considering  the  development  of  the  classes  in  respect  of  com- 
munal and  individual  authorship.  Some  division  of  the  songs 
upon  the  basis  of  authorship  may  be  possible  when  we  have  a 
systematic  collection  and  interpretation  of  early  lyrics.  (4)  The 
relation  of  the  song  to  the  dance,  the  rhythmic  construction  of 
the  verses,  the  harmony  of  stanzaic  effects  and  refrains,  the  gen- 
eral technical  patterning  of  lyrical  expression,  must  be  investigated 
comparatively  before  the  questions  suggested  above  under  (2)  can 
be  treated  exhaustively.  (5)  Here,  also,  belongs  the  analytical 
study  of  content  (images,  ideas,  and  emotions)  and  treatment 
(including  figures,  rhetorical  ornament,  exaggeration  and  idealiza- 
tion, suspense,  acme,  and  other  technical  means).  The  study  of 
content,  again,  may  be  divided  into  the  enumeration  of  the  actual 
objects  mentioned  in  the  song  and  the  determination  of  the  kinds 
of  thought  that  are  found  (such  as  associated  images,  simple 
predications,  comparisons,  generalizations,  examples,  inferences, 
definitions,  and  divisions).  Is  the  food  song  the  most  primitive? 
Are  love  songs,  war  and  mourning  songs,  of  later  appearance? 
Is  the  love  song  at  first  a  mere  melody  with  meaningless  vo- 
cables ?  What  of  the  subordination  of  meaning  to  rhythm,  of 
the  content  of  the  song  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  dance?  Are 


XXXIII]  LOWER  RACES  373 

reflective  songs  found  side  by  side  with  songs  of  spontaneous 
emotion  and  magical  or  occasional  utility  ?  satirical  songs  ?  retro- 
spective and  descriptive  songs  ?  songs  with  a  narrative  content  ? 
Are  song  and  narrative  actually  differenced  ?  How  and  when  ? 
How  and  when  does  the  song  of  personal  subjectivity  appear? 
(6)  What  examples  of .  a  poetic  dialect  may  be  found  ?  Is  the 
poetic  dialect  always  a  taboo  language,  as  in  some  songs  that 
are  chanted  during  the  collection  of  certain  sorts  of  food  ?  How 
does  poetic  dialect  develop  ?  (7)  What  is  the  influence  of  oral 
transmission  upon  the  form  and  content  of  the  song  ?  (8)  On  the 
comparative  study  of  repetition  and  parallelism,  see  Biedermann, 
above,  §  5,  and  compare  Newman  and  Popper  as  cited  under 
xxx,  above. 

When  such  analysis  as  this  is  carried  forward  comparatively  to 
later  stages  of  culture,  and  its  results  are  associated  with  types 
of  social  environment,  it  may  become  possible  somewhat  clearly 
to  define  the  terms  lyric,  folk  poetry,  primitive  poetry,  art  poetry, 
popular  poetry  (i.e.  poetry  of  the  people  in  the  higher  stages  of 
'  civilization). 

References.  I.  General  accounts  of  primitive  customs  and  beliefs. 
The  most  important  are:  J.  G.  Frazer,  The  Golden  Bough  (3d  ed. 
ii  vols.  Lond. :  1907-15);  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture  (2  vols. 
1871);  W.  Wundt,  Volkerpsychologie  (2  vols.  in  5.  Leipz.:  1900-09; 
see  also  the  English  trans,  of  a  shorter  work,  Elements  of  Folk 
Psychology,  tr.  E.  L.  Schaub,  Lond.:  1916);  L.  T.  Hobhouse,  G.  C. 
Wheeler,  and  M.  Ginsberg,  as  noted  above;  F.  Boas,  The  Mind  of 
Primitive  Man  (N.Y. :  1913)-  See  also  Biicher,  Arbeit  und  Rhythmus 
(3d  ed.  1902);  Karl  Groos,  Die  Spiele  der  Tiere  (1896)  and  Die 
Spiele  der  Menschen  (1899);  S.  Hartland,  Legend  of  Perseus ;  A.  Lang, 
Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1887);  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
Prehistoric  Times  (1865  ;  later  eds.);  F.  Miiller,  Allgemeine  Ethnologic 
(1879);  Herbert  Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociology;  F.  Ratzel,  The 
History  of  Mankind  (Eng.  trans.  3  vols.  Lond.:  1897);  Waitz  and 
Gerland,  Anthropologie  der  Naturvolker  (1859-73);  A.  Vierkandt, 
Naturvcilker  und  Kulturvolker  (Leipz. :  1896).  See  also  the  Jr. 
Anthrop.  Inst.  of  Grt.  Brit.,  Revue  d'Anthrop.  (Paris),  Zeitschr. 
f.  Ethnol.  (Berlin),  etc. 


374  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  t§6 

2.  Reliable  accounts  of  particular  tribes.  For  guidance  the  student 
may  turn  to  the  work  by  Hobhouse,  Wheeler,  and  Ginsberg,  noted 
above ;  also  to  articles  and  bibliographies  in  the  1 1  th  edition  of  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  such  as  the  following :  Indians,  North 
American  (by  A.  F.  Chamberlain),  which  contains  long  tables  of 
tribes  and  authorities;  America,  III  Ethnology  and  Archaeology; 
Negro ;  Africa,  Ethnology ;  Polynesia ;  Samoa ;  Hawaii ;  Australia, 
Aborigines;  and  briefer  articles  on  particular  tribes  or  peoples,  a  list 
of  which  is  given  in  vol.  XXIX,  p.  883.  But  the  brief  bibliographies 
must  be  supplemented  with  other  important  works,  and  for  publications 
later  than  1909  the  reviews  of  the  anthropological  journals  must  be 
consulted.  For  instance,  the  article  on  the  Veddas  in  the  Britannica 
neglects  to-  mention  P.  and  F.  Sarasin,  Ergebnisse  wissenschaftlicher 
Forschungen  auf  Ceylon,  Bd.  3  :  Die  Weddas  (1892  +),  and  was  written 
before  the  appearance  of  C.  G.  Seligmann's  The  Veddas  (Univ.  of 
Cambridge:  1911).  See  also  the  Handbook  of  Am.  Indians.  —  For  a 
long  list  of  works  upon  European  folk-poetry,  and  of  collections,  see 
Paul's  Grundr.  d.  germ.  Phil.,  ad  ed.,  2:  i,  H35ff. :  Scandinavian 
1 1 38  ff.,  German  and  Netherlandish  1 1 78  ff.  See  also  works  listed  at 
the  close  of  the  former  subdivisions  of  this  section. 

•3.  Studies  of  primitive  poetry.  For  a  brief  review  see  E.  Schmidt 
as  noted  above,  §  5 ;  for  longer  treatises,  which,  however,  are  not 
limited  to  the  poetry  of  the  lower  races,  see  Grosse,  Gummere  (Begs. 
of  Poetry),  and  Posnett,  above,  §  5  ;  also  Hirn,  Jacobowski,  Mackenzie, 
and  Macculloch,  below,  §  1 1 .  Before  an  adequate  study  can  be  under- 
taken a  more  comprehensive  and  critical  collection  of  primitive  songs 
must  be  made.  Mr.  Guy  Montgomery,  of  the  University  of  California, 
is  now  preparing  such  a  collection.  On  primitive  music  see  Wallaschek, 
Primitive  Music  (Lond. :  1893);  C.  Engel,  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  National  Music  (Lond.:  1866),  and  Literature  of  National  Music 
(Lond.:  1879);  M.  V.  Portman,  Andamanese  Music  (in  Jr.  Royal 
Asiatic  Soc.,  vol.  XX). 

XXXIV.  Special  Forms. 
A.  The  Elegy. 

There  is  no  satisfactory  work  covering  scientifically  the  history  of 
the  elegy  as  a  whole.  The  articles  in  most  of  the  encyclopedias  are 
very  brief;  Charles  Le  Goffic,  however,  has  written  for  La  Grande 
Encyclopedic  an  informing  account  of  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  French 
Elegy ;  and  in  Larousse's  Grand  Dictionnaire  Universel  (vol.  VII, 


XXXIV]  SPECIAL  FORMS  375 

1870)  is  an  enjoyable,  enthusiastic  description  of  ancient  and  modern 
elegy,  carried  to  considerable  length,  with  much  appreciative  criticism 
and  citation;  for  Mary  Lloyd's  sketch  see  above,  §  5.  For  the  ancient 
elegy  (Greek,  Alexandrian,  and  Roman)  the  article  by  Crusius  (above, 
§  5)  is  exhaustive  and  illuminating.  Other  works  dealing  with  vari- 
ous periods  of  elegiac  development  are  noted  below ;  if  names  of 
authors  are  given  without  titles  see  §§  2  -or  5,  or  the  Index,  for 
further  information. 

i.  Origin  of  the  Elegy.  As  we  have  already  noticed,  the  elegy 
has  not  always  been  restricted  to  the  song  of  sorrow.  It  has  com- 
prised songs  of  martial,  patriotic,  erotic,  convivial,  and  even  di- 
dactic character.  In  attempting  to  determine  the  nature  of  the 
original  poem  from  which  the  later  elegy  sprang,  the  student  may 
pursue  three  lines  of  inquiry,  (i)  The  evidence  suggested  by 
the  derivation  of  the  term  '  elegy.'  See  Crusius,  K.  F.  Smith, 
Flach  157-158,  Wackernagel  3d  ed.  170-171.  (2)  The  early 
history  of  the  elegiac  distich.  When  did  it  first  receive  the  name 
elegost  See  Crusius,  Zacher  (Philologns,  57:  8  ff.).  On  the  in- 
dependent use  of  the  pentameter  see  Usener,  Altgriech.  Versbau, 
99  ;  K.  F.  Smith  (A  JP,  22  :  165-194)  ;  O.  Immisch,  Philologen- 
versammlung  zu  Gorlitz,  p.  380  (1889);  Rasi,  De  Eleg.  Lat,  p.  36; 
Reitzenstein,  Pauly-Wissowa,  Real-Encyc.,  VI,  76.  (3)  Theories, 
traditional  and  critical,  of  the  origin  of  the  sub-type.  The  primitive 
pre-literary  origins  of  the  elegy  are  a  subject  of  speculation.  Per- 
haps the  most  probable  conjecture  is  that  which  apprehends  the 
germ  in  early  songs  of  lamentation  for  the  dead  and  of  the  call 
to  arms  (to  avenge  the  dead  ?).  Compare  the  early  Ionian  use 
of  the  pentameter  for  the  dirge,  and  see  Iliad  24:  725ff.  See 
Crusius;  Christ,  Metrik  312,  Gr.  Lit.  §  93  ;  and  Zacher  as  noted 
under  (2)  above.  The  traditional  association  of  the  elegy  with  the 
flute  has  suggested  patriotic  ecstasy  (orgiastic)  as  a  possible  origin. 
See  F.  Dummler,  Philologus,  53  :  201  =  Kl.  Schr.  2  :  405  ff. ;  cf. 
Immisch,  op.  at.,  on  the  Cypris- Adonis  cult;  Rohde,  2d  ed.,  149, 
Note,  on  the  musical  delivery  of  the  ancient  elegy,  —  a  note  that 
very  conveniently  collects  the  ancient  evidence  upon  this  point ; 
and  Bottiger,  in  Wieland's  Aft.  Museum,  i  :  292,  on  the  relation 


376  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

of  the  elegy  to  ancient  Lydian  war  songs.  The  elegy  was  in 
historical  times  associated  with  the  symposium,  and  therefore  it 
has  been  conjectured  that  its  origin  is  to  be  sought  in  the  customs 
surrounding  the  symposia ;  on  the  "  sympotic "  origin  compare 
K.  O.  Miiller,  Hist.  Lit  of  Anc.  Greece,  and  Reitzenstein,  Epi- 
gramm  und  Skolion  (1893).  Other  theories,  with  less  probability, 
suggest  primitive  magical  songs  (C.  Dilthey,  Anal.  Callim.  p.  46, 
Sent,  i)  or  satirical  verse  (H.  Usener,  Altgr.  Versbau,  113)  as 
the  origin.  On  the  relation  pf  the  elegy  to  the  epic  —  elegy  as 
epic-lyric  (cf .  above,  §  i ,  iv,  F)  —  see  Crusius,  Wackernagel, 
Boeckh,  Miiller,  Jebb,  Mure,  Carriere  (Die  Kunst  2  :  1 1 6),  etc. ; 
and  compare  what  Rohde  (26.  ed.,  151)  has  to  say  on  the  elegy 
as  supplying  the  need  of  a  more  subjective  form  of  narrative  than 
the  epic.  A  valuable  study  might  be  made  of  the  various  forms 
that  this  epic-lyric  exigency  has  developed  in  different  literatures ; 
see  Rohde's  note  on  this  subject  (loc.  «'/.). 

2.   The  Old  Greek  Elegy  (600-300  s.c.~). 

See  Crusius,  Christ  (Gr.  Lit.),  Jevons,  K.  F.  Smith,  Jebb,  K.  O. 
Miiller,  Mahaffy,  Bernhardy,  etc.  Further  bibliography  in  Crusius  and 
Christ.  Bernhardy,  Th.  2,  Abt.  I,  p.  463  ff.,  gives  annotated  references 
from  Abbe  Souchay  (1726)  to  C.  I.  Caesar  (1837),  and  also,  passim, 
the  older  references  for  the  various  elegists.  For  a  study  of  Mimnermus, 
see  G.  Vanzolini,  Mimnermo  (1883),  which  includes  a  verse  translation 
of  the  fragments.  Bergk's  Poetae  Lyrici  Graeci  is,  of  course,  the  great 
repository  for  Greek  lyric,  including  elegiac,  poetry ;  see  also  the  edition 
by  Hartung,  noted  above,  §  5.  Editions,  translations,  and  monographs 
are  cited  by  P.  Masqueray,  Bibliographic  pratique  de  la  litt.  grecque, 
p.  52  ff.  (Paris:  1914). 

Already  in  the  old  Ionian  school  (seventh  and  sixth  centuries), 
to  which  belonged  Archilochus,  Callinus,  and  Mimnermus,  almost 
the  full  variety  of  subjects  that  characterized  the  ancient  elegy  is 
apparent.  Their  fragments  contain  funereal,  martial,  philosophical, 
and  didactic  elements ;  and  in  his  poems  to  Nanno,  Mimnermus 
furnishes,  also,  the  prototype  of  the  sentimental-erotic  elegy  of 
the  Alexandrian  and  all  later,  including  modern,  poems  of  similar 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  377 

character.  A  detailed  study  of  the  Nanno  poems  might  well  be 
followed  by  an  extensive  inquiry  into  the  actual  variations  (together 
with  their  causes)  by  which  the  sentimental-erotic  type  has  pro- 
gressed. To  what  ^extent  has  it  been  plaintive,  thus  supporting 
the  French  view  (cf.  Larousse,  Art.  Elegie)  that  a  plaintive  note, 
whether  of  love  or  death  or  misfortune,  or  melancholy,  is  the 
essential  characteristic  of  the  elegy  ?  It  should  be  noted  that 
Mimnermus  does  not  express  emotion  in  the  direct,  presentative 
fashion  of  the  Aeolic  lyric  (see  above,  I,  (3))  but  analytically 
and  rhetorically  (cf.  the  old  gnomic  poetry  of  Greece).  He  also 
illustrates  his  subjects  with  parallels  from  myths.  In  all  these 
respects  he  is  followed  by  the  Alexandrians.  The  Ionian  elegy 
should  be  compared  not  only  with  the  Aeolic  lyric  but  also  the 
Doric,  and  with  the  Ionian  epic,  as  respects  objectivity,  emotional 
tendencies,  style,  and  narrative-lyric  proclivities. 

Three  other. schools  of  the  elegy  belong  to  this  period:  the 
Dorian  school  of  the  Peloponnesus;  Solon,  Theognis,  and  their 
contemporaries ;  and  the  Attic  school.  To  the  first  school  belong 
the  rough  war  elegies  of  Tyrtaeus.  At  the  time  of  Solon  the 
elegiac  distich  was  applied  to  inscriptions  and  epitaphs  (cf.  its 
threnodic  mood).  Simonides,  Aeschylus,  and  Phrynicus  developed 
this  variation.  To  both  Solon  and  Theognis,  perhaps,  may  be 
traced  some  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  Augustan  elegy, 
such  as  satirical  purpose,  praise  of  abstract  ideas,  and  erotic 
application  of  myth  (A.  .L.  Wheeler,  infra}.  But  during  the  Attic 
period  the  elegy  declined,  because,  perhaps,  of  the  newly  awakened 
interest  in  the  drama.  A  plaintive  note  in  these  late  elegies  should 
be  traced,  possibly,  to  the  questioning  spirit  of  the  times,  the  age 
of  Euripides  and  the  Sophists. 

While  following  the  development  of  the  old  Greek  elegy  one 
should  endeavor  to  reach  some  conclusion  as  to  how  far  the 
changing  political  and  social  conditions  of  the  period,  and  the 
growth  of  individualism,  were  responsible  for  the  gradual  democ- 
ratization and  differentiation  of  the  poetic  sub-type,  and  to  what 
extent  particular  strains  —  such  as  the  erotic,  the  pathetic,  or  the 


378  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

satirical  —  were  due  to  the  idiosyncrasies  of  particular  authors,  — 
Mimnermus,  Simonides,  Xenophanes,  etc.  Especially  suggestive 
is  the  decline  of  the  war  elegy  and  the  rise  of  the  political  and 
sentimental  elegy  as  Greece  passed  to  cosmopolitan  ideals  of  the 
state  and  the  individual.  Again,  by  what  degrees  did  the  elegy 
tend  to  lose  its  musical  accompaniment,  and  what  were  the  causes 
of  this  most  important  variation  —  the  inappropriateness  of  melody 
to  the  elegiac  metre  as  recognized  in  a  more  highly  individualistic, 
less  communal,  age,  or  the  change  in  the  character  of  the  elegy  from 
a  song  fit  for  occasional  extemporization  to  a  work  of  polished  art  ? 

3.  The  New  or  Alexandrian  Elegy  (joo  B.C.  to  the  Christian  era). 

See  Crusius,  Christ  (Gr.  Lit.),  K.  O.  Miiller,  Susemihl,  Couat, 
Bernhardy,  Jebb,  Jacoby,  K.  F.  Smith,  etc. ;  further  references  in 
Crusius,  Christ,  and  Bernhardy,  and  in  P.  Masqueray's  Bibliog.  pra- 
tique de  la  litt.  grecque  (p.  244  ff.).  For  a  collection  of  the  Hellenistic 
elegiac  fragments,  see  Hartung  (vol.  II);  A.  Meinek»,  Analecta  Alex- 
andrina  (1843).  On  Callimachus  see  the  references  cited  above,  I,  (8); 
on  the  pastoral  elegy,  see  the  article  by  Hanford,  noted  above,  §  5, 
P.  E.  Legrand's  Etude  sur  Thdocrite  (Paris:  1898),  W.  P.  Trent  in 
Sewanee  Rev.,  i  :  410-418,  6:  1-28,  257-275,  and  articles  on  pastoral 
poetry  in  general  as  listed  below  (§  10). 

In  this  period  the  elegy  becomes  very  popular  and  undergoes 
many  variations.  Antimachus  of  Colophon,  who  in  his  poems  to 
Lyde  imitated  Mimnermus'  use  of  illustrative  myths,  affords  the 
transition  to  the  new  elegy.  Among  the  characteristic  variations 
of  the  type  the  following  should  be  observed :  reduction  of  the 
personal  note  until  the  illustrative  myth  becomes  the  principal 
subject  of  the  poem,  —  in  other  words,  the  emphasis  of  narrative 
and  descriptive  elements ;  the  expansion  of  the  narrative  elegy 
to  include  love-stories  and  gossip,  and  popular  legend  rather  than 
myth  (Alexander  the  Aetolian),  with  a  tendency  to  restrict  the 
narrative  to  the  most  telling  episodes,  especially  the  catastrophe, 
—  a  tendency  that  in  its  general  cause  and  aim  suggests  the 
method  of  the  modern  short-story ;  emphasis  of  erotic  and  senti- 
mental gallantry,  with  addition  of  irony  and  persiflage ;  great 


XXXIV,' A]  THE  ELEGY  379 

elaboration  of  details,  mastery  of  formal  excellence,  until  the 
elegy  becomes  the  most  polished  and  pointed  of  poetic  exercises, 
—  a  vers  de  societe;  development  of  the  elegiac  epigram  (see 
Reitzenstein) ;  rise  of  an  archaistic  and  fin  de  sihle  return-to- 
nature  movement  (Callimachus,  the  representative  elegist  of 
Hellenism),  and  the  rise  of  the  pastoral  and  romantic  elegy 
(Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus) ;  variations  in  verse  structure,  such 
as  the  employment  of  hexameters  in  both  lines  of  the  distich  and 
an  exaggerated  use  of  spondees,  —  important  as  contributing  to 
the  break-up  of  the  formal  unity  of  the  type.  For  the  general 
causes  lying  behind  these  changes  the  student  will  again  turn  to 
the  social  and  political  environment,  in  order  to  note  the  rise  of 
commercialism  and  a  wealthy,  luxurious,  and  more  or  less  carnal 
upper  class,  and  to  contrast  the  resulting  artificiality  and  sophisti- 
cation of  culture  with  the  simpler  ideals  and  standards  of  comfort 
that  prevailed  in  ancient  Greece.  The  spirit  of  the  new  age, 
perhaps  rather  near  in  certain  essentials  to  the  spirit  of  the  later 
nineteenth  century,  is  clearly  reflected  in  the  growth  of  the  elegy. 
A  specific  topic  of  social  interest  is  found  in  the  relation  of  the 
new  elegy  to  the  feminization  of  life  under  Hellenistic  cosmopo- 
litism. Contrast  this  Hellenistic  feminization  with  the  more 
modest  place  of  woman  in  the  old  Greek  city-state.  Compare 
the  effect  of  a  similar  feminization  of  Roman  life  under  the 
Empire  upon  the  work  of  Ovid.  Several  of  the  more  important 
of  the  Alexandrian  elegists  may  be  mentioned  here  in  addition  to 
those  already  noted :  Philetas  of  Cos,  the  greatest,  but  no  remains ; 
Hermesianax  and  Phanocles;  Aratus,  Eratosthenes,  Philostephanus, 
Nicander,  Euphorion  of  Chalcis;  and  Parthenius  of  Nicaea,  the 
last  great  elegist  of  the  school,  who  in  72  B.C.  was  carried  captive 
to  Rome  and  became  the  teacher  of  Gallus,  the  first  to  make 
popular  in  Rome  a  Latinized  form  of  the  Alexandrian  elegy.  —  On 
Callimachus  see  above  (i,  (8)).  With  regard  to  the  pastoral  elegy 
it  should  be  noted  that  the  first  idyl  of  Theocritus  contains  a 
charming  lament  for  the  death  of  Daphnis  that  is  "in  many  re- 
spects the  archetype  of  pastoral  elegy  "(Hanford,  op. at.  supra,  §  5), 


380  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

and  that  Bion's  Lament  for  Adonis  and  Moschus'  Lament  for 
Bion  are  only  second  to  the  Daphnis  poem  in  their  influence 
upon  the  Arcadian  elegies  of  the  Renaissance  and  of  later  Euro- 
pean literature  (see  below,  6).  In  following  the  development  of 
the  pastoral  elegy  it  becomes  necessary,  of  course,  to  abstract 
from  the  types  most  characteristically  pastoral,  viz.,  the  idyl  and 
eclogue,  those  passages  which  are  plaintive  (erotic  or  threnodic) 
in  character. 

A  question  of  special  interest,  because  of  its  bearing  upon  the 
originality  of  the  Roman  elegy,  is  whether  or  not  the  erotic  elegy 
of  the  subjective  type  was  known  to  the  Alexandrian  poets.  This 
is  the  specific  type  of  the  Roman  elegy,  and  our  earliest  examples 
of  it  are  in  Latin.  Did  the  Romans  derive  this  form  from  the 
Alexandrians  ?  See  M.  Pohlenz,  Die  hellenistische  Poesie  und  die 
Philosophic  (in  Xaptres  Friedrich  Leo  zum  sechzigsten  Geburtstag 
dargebracht,  Berlin:  1911);  further  references  in  K.  F.  Smith, 
23  Note,  —  especially  that  to  Gollnisch,  Quaestiones  Elegiacae 
(Diss.  Breslau-  1905),  which  contains  bibliography  up  to  1905; 
R.  Reitzenstein ;  F.  Jacoby ;  A.  L.  Wheeler,  Class.  Phil.  5  :  440- 
450,  6:  56-77,  5:  28-40;  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  as  noted 
below,  under  4. 

Special  notice  may  here  be  made  of  Plessis'  conception  of  the 
relation  of  the  Alexandrian  elegy  to  earlier  and  later  forms.  This 
writer  maintains  that  among  the  ancients  as  among  the  moderns 
the  term  '  elegy '  connoted  lamentation.  Hence  he  disregards  both 
the  warlike  elegy  of  the  Ionian  and  Doric  schools  and  the  gnomic 
poetry  of  Solon,  Theognis,  and  the  Attic  school.  In  Mimnermus 
he  discovers  the  familiar  themes  of  the  elegy :  the  sovereign 
gentleness  of  love,  the  bitterness  without  consolation  of  old  age, 
the  ephemerality  of  pleasure,  and  the  horror  of  death.  But  to  the 
Alexandrians  the  type  owes  its  development;  among  them  the 
elegy  grew  nearer  to  the  conception  adopted  in  the  Roman  and 
modern  worlds.  And  yet  the  compositions  of  Callimachus  and 
Philetas,  because  of  their  impersonality  and  objectivity,  were 
perhaps  elegiac  poems  rather  than  elegies;  the  Alexandrian 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  381 

poem  of  amours  was  probably  still  very  much  of  an  epigram. 
By  the  Romans,  then,  was  developed  in  all  the  perfection  of  its 
traits  the  poem  of  personal  passion  which  has  ever  since  been 
known  as  the  elegy  proper. 

In  later  Greek  poetry  (A. D.  100-530)  elegy  is  lacking;  but 
erotic  themes  develop  in  the  prose  romance  and  in  the  epigram 
(see  W.  von  Christ,  Gr.  Lit,  5th  ed.  (W.  Schmid),  Th.  2,  Halfte  2. 
Miinchen:  1913).  The  student  who  wishes  to  pursue  the  Greek 
elegy  into  still  later,  Byzantine  ages  (530-1453)  should  consult 
K.  Krumbacher's  Gesch.  der  byzantinischen  Lit.  (2d.  ed., 
A.  Ehrhard  and  H.  Gelzer,  Miinchen:  1897). 

• 
4.   The  Roman  Elegy. 

See  Crusius,  Schanz,  Teuffel,  Sellar,  Plessis,  Cruttwell,  Duff,  K.  F. 
Smith,  O.  F.  Gruppe,  F.  Jacoby,  Gollnisch  (as  above),  Schulze,  Haupt, 
Zingerle;  P.  Troll,  De  Elegiac  Romanae  Origine  (Gdttingen :  1911); 
Wilamowitz,  in  Kult.  d.  Gegenw.,  T.  I,  Abt.  VIII  215  (3d  ed.,  1912), 
and,  in  the  same  work,  the  remarks  by  Leo,  p.  448  ff. ;  P.  Rasi,  De 
Carmine  Romanorum  Elegiaco  (Patavii :  1 890) ;  R.  Pichon,  De  Sermone 
Amatorio  apud  Latinos  Elegiarum  Scriptores  (Diss.  Paris:  1902);  A.  L. 
Wheeler,  Erotic  Teaching  in  Roman  Elegy  and  the  Greek  Sources  (in 
Clqss.  Philol.  5  :  447  ff.),  and  Catullus  as  an  Elegist  (in  American  Jr. 
ofPhilol.^6:  155.  1915);  J.  Davies,  Catullus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius 
(Philadelphia:  i876(?));  Sciacia,  L'Arte  in  Catullo  (Palermo:  1896). 
Further  references  in  Crusius  and  Schanz.  Critical  editions  of  Tibullus 
by  Postgate  (1905)  and  Hiller  (Tauchnitz,  1909);  annotated  by 
Lachmann-Dissenius  (1835),  H.  Belling,  with  extended  commentary 
(1897),  and  K.  F.  Smith  (N.Y. :  1913).  Editions  of  Propertius  by 
Rothstein  (1898)  and  Phillimore  (1901).  See  also  Postgate's  selections 
from  Tibullus,  and  from  Propertius ;  G.  G.  Ramsay's  selections  from 
the  same;  H.  E.  Butler's  edition  of  Propertius  complete (Lond. :  1905). 
The  Amores  of  Ovid  is  edited  by  Ne'methy ;  the  Heroides  by  Palmer 
(1898)  and  Sedlmayer  (1886);  the  Tristia  by  Owen  (1889);  the  Ex 
Ponto  by  Korn  (1868).  For  Catullus  see  the  editions  of  Haupt-Vahlen 
(7th  ed.,  1912)  and  Merrill  (1893).  For  later  elegists  see  J.  C.  Wernsdorf, 
Poetae  Latini  Minores,  and  E.  Bahrens,  Poetae  Latini  Minores.  For 
English  translations  see  Bohn's  Classical  Library,  Loeb  Classical  Library, 
Cranstoun's  metrical  version  of  Propertius  (Edinb. :  1875),  and  the 
metrical  versions  of  Catullus  by  Sir  Theodore  Martin  and  Robinson  Ellis. 


382  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Cornelius  Gallus  (69-26  B.C.),  the  pupil  of  the  Alexandrian 
elegist  Parthenius  of  Nicaea  (see  above,  3),  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  the  Roman  elegy.  To  be  sure  Ennius  (239- 
169  B.C.)  was  the  first  to  use  the  elegiac  metre  in  Rome  (for 
eulogy,  inscriptions,  and  epigrams);  and  Lucilius  (180-103  B.C.) 
had  employed  it  in  the  second  book  of  his  Satires  for  an  epitaph 
on  a  slave  and  to  express  the  joys  of  love  and  companionship. 
Earlier  also  than  the  elegies  of  Gallus  were  the  Hellenistic  epi- 
grams in  distichs  of  Catulus,  Valerius  Aedituus,  and  others 
(second  century  before  Christ),  and  the  genuine  elegies  of  Catullus 
and,  probably,  Calvus  and  Varro  Atacinus.  But  it  is  held  that 
Gallus  was  the  first  to  write  the  characteristically  Roman  form  of 
the  sub-type,  viz.,  the  subjective  erotic  elegy.  With  the  growth  of 
this  variety  after  Gallus  are  associated  the  names  of  Tibullus, 
Propertius,  and  Ovid.  The  study  of  the  Roman  elegy  is  primarily 
the  study  of  these  three  poets,  the  greatest  Roman  masters  of 
melodious  and  sensuous  verse.  But  whether  this  specifically 
Roman  elegy  was  derived  from  lost  Alexandrian  models,  perhaps 
by  way  of  the  lost  poems  of  Gallus,  or,  as  is  now  maintained 
(Jacoby,  Wilamowitz),  was  originally  developed  by  Gallus  out  of 
the  Alexandrian  erotic  epigrams,  with  additions  from  certain  other 
minor  poetic  types,  must  be  an  open  question.  Reference  to  this 
question  has  already  been  made  above,  under  the  Alexandrian 
elegy,  q.v.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  what  the  Romans  may  have 
added  to  their  models,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
Roman  social  life  that  furnished  the  environment  and  encourage- 
ment to  this  species  of  poetry  was.  very  similar  to  that  reflected  in 
the  Alexandrian  varieties.  Again,  the  possibility  of  relationship, 
especially  upon  the  part  of  Tibullus,  and  of  the  elegists  before 
Gallus,  to  the  Attic  school  must  be  considered  (see  Gollnisch, 
Jacoby,  K.  F.  Smith;  and-  R.  Burger,  Beitrage  zur  Elegantia 
Tibulls,  in  the  Xapires  F.  Leo  .  .  .,  already  mentioned).  Wila- 
mowitz, however,  contends  that  Propertius  and  Tibullus  created  a 
new  elegy  (as  cited  above ;  also  his  Sappho  und  Simonides, 
p.  303.  Berlin:  1913).  At  any  rate  the  student  may  note  in  the 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  383 

Roman  elegies  a  certain  superiority  in  spontaneous,  lyric  inspira- 
tion, which  does  not,  however,  interfere  with  the  extreme  polish 
of  thought  and  music.  Whether  or  not  the  Roman  elegy  shows 
a  greater  depth  and  sincerity  along  with  this  new  freshness  of 
spirit  (see  Propertius,  especially),  and  whether  it  displays  the 
signs  of  an  art  that  is  in  its  pristine,  creative  stage,  are  allied 
questions.  Most  important  for  the  history  of  the  type  is  the 
decay  of  the  glorious  motives  of  the  heroic  past  which  had 
played  so  great  a  part  in  the  old  Greek  elegy,  and  the  restriction 
in  the  main  to  motives  drawn  from  present-day  pleasures  and 
pains  of  the  erotic  sort.  •  May  a  decay  in  Roman  patriotism  and 
a  revulsion  from  the  preceding  period  of  bloodshed  be  assigned 
as  the  cause  for  this  restriction,  or  is  the  general  luxury  of 
Alexandrian  and  Roman  society  to  be  regarded  as  inevitably 
'  registering  its  morale  in  this  narrowing  of  the  elegy  ?  To  what 
extent  is  the  melancholy  note  of  the  elegy  —  the  vanity  of  human 
ambitions  —  present  in  the  Roman  elegy  ?  —  To  Ovid,  "  the  most 
brilliant  representative  of  Roman  Alexandrianism,"  particular  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  because  he  is  the  world's  greatest  master  of  the 
elegiac  couplet.  Most  of  his  poems  were  written  in  this  measure, 
and  thus  was  emphasized  once  again  the  great  variety  of  purpose 
for  which  the  elegiac  distich  may  be  employed.  By  putting  it  to 
threnodic  and  epistolary,  narrative  and  descriptive,  panegyric  and 
invective  uses  Ovid  became  influential  in  the  wide  adoption  of  the 
measure  throughout  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages  for  occasional 
verse  of  all  kinds  (see  below).  Indeed,  the  impetus  which  he 
gave  to  the  later  cultivation  of  the  distich  by  the  schools  and 
literati  of  Europe,  in  modern  as  well  as  medieval  times,  is  one 
of  the  outstanding  features  in  the  history  of  the  elegy  (references 
in  Teuffel,  Schanz,  etc.).  —  The  modification  of  the  metrical  form 
of  the  old  distich,  begun  by  the  Hellenistic  poets,  was  continued 
in  Tibullus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid,  by  the  introduction,  or  perhaps 
one  should  say  reduction,  of  variations  in  stress  and  in  line  com- 
position, and  by  an  arrangement  of  thought  within  the  distich. 
These  variations  should  be  studied  at  length  since  they  represent 


384  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

in  a  tangible  way  the  general  growth  of  the  elegy.  See  K.  F. 
Smith,  pp.  98-106.  —  For  other  Roman  elegists  see  Crusius.  We 
may  note  here  that  contemporary  with  Tibullus, .  Propertius,  and 
Ovid,  were  Valgius  Rufus,  who  was  consul  12  B.C.,  Codrus,  the 
friend  of  Virgil,  and  Domitius  Marsus.  For  Horace's  light  evalu- 
ation of  the  exiguos  elegos  see  lines  75-78  of  the  so-called  Ars 
Poetica  (Ad  Pisones) ;  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  Horace  was 
opposed  to  Alexandrianism.  He  associates  the  term  'elegy'  with 
the  expression  of  sorrow  and  with  the  inscription  of  votive  offer- 
ings. Of  the  erotic  poems  of  Proculus  and  Alfius  Flavus  (Teuffel- 
Schwabe,  §  254)  nothing  remains.  Later,  erotic  elegies  were 
composed  by  Arruntius  Stella,  the  friend  of  Statius,  and  by  Sul- 
picia.  In  the  fourth  century  Ausonius  wrote  idyls  in'distichs;  in 
the  sixth  Maximianus  lamented  the  loss  of  his  youth  and  amours, 
and  by  this  time  all  sorts  of  puerilities,  acrostics,  and  the  like 
were  written  in  distichs.  Thus  eventually  the  Roman  distich  lost 
the  sentimental  connotation  of  the  tristis  elege'ia.  Consider  this 
statement  by  Postgate :  "By  the  time  of  Quintilian  the  elegiac 
couplet  developing,  as  would  appear,  the  character  which  the 
witty  and  heartless  Ovid  had  impressed  upon  it,  had  broken  with 
sentiment  and  become  the  proper  vehicle  of  the  epigram."  Com- 
pare the  use  of  the  elegiac  couplet  in  the  Greek  Anthology  (see 
below,  xxxiv,  B,  The  Epigram).  For  Quintilian's  notice  of  the 
elegy,  see  the  Institutes  X,  93.  —  To  what  extent  are  threnodic 
poems  in  other  metres  to  be  found  in  later  Roman  literature  ? 
See,  e.g.,  Statius,  Silvae,  II,  iv;  V,  i. 

The  student  should  also  note  Virgil's  contributions  to  the 
pastoral  elegy.  The  love  lament  in  his  tenth  Eclogue  and  the 
lament  for  Daphnis  (probably  Julius  Caesar)  in  the  fifth  Eclogue 
reveal  the  conventionalized  pastoral  form  and  the  highly  refined 
artistic  finish  that  characterize  the  later  history  of  the  pastoral 
elegy  (see  Hanford,  cited  above,  §  5).  For  a  later  Roman 
pastoral  elegy  see  the  Epiphunus  Meliboei  attributed  to  Neme- 
sianus  (C.  H.  Keene,  The  Eclogues  of  Calpurnius  Siculus  and  M. 
Aurelius  Nemesianus,  Lond. :  1887  ;  M.  Haupt,  De  Carminibus 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  385 

Bucolicis  Calpurnii  et  Nemesiani,  1853  ;  L.  Cisorio,  Studio  sulle 
egloghe  di  N.,  1895  ;  by  the  same,  Dell' imitazione  nelle  egloghe 
di  N.,  1896). 

5.  Latin  Christian  Elegy  to  the  I2th  Century. 

For  literary  history,  see  Ebert  (vols.  II,  III)  and  Manitius  (see 
above,  §  5).  For  texts,  J.  P.  Migne,  Patrologia  Latina  (221  vols. 
Paris  :  1844-64) ;  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historical  (Hannover  and 
Berlin:  1826+),  especially  the  Poetae  Latini  Aevi  Carolini  (3  vols., 
ed.  E.  Diimmler,  vols.  I,  II,  and  L.  Traube,  vol.  III).  Also,  for  texts 
of  Latin  popular  poetry,  the  two  collections  of  Du  Mdril.  On  Theodulf, 
the  principal  poet  of  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  see  the  references  noted 
above,  v,  B.  The  articles  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  the  various 
writers  are  also  helpful  and  point  the  way  to  further  bibliography. 

(a)  To  the  Time  of  Charlemagne.  During  its  early  struggle 
for  existence  the  Christian  church  placed  Greek  and  Roman 
literature  under  the  ban  of  heathenism.  But  after  its  recog- 
nition by  Constantine  Christianity  began  to  assimilate  more  and 
more  of  the  literary  culture  of  Greece  and  Rome  (see  below, 
§  12,  iv,  B,  and  Ebert,  vol.  I,  Introductions  to  Books  II,  III). 
The  adoption  of  classical  models  and  forms  naturally  followed ; 
but  the  elegiac  distich  was  at  first  used  only  to  a  slight  extent. 
To  trace  its  rise  the  student  should  consult  the  histories  of 
Ebert  and  Manitius,  the  famous  Latin  collection  of  Migne, 
the  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica,  and  the  various  special 
editions  mentioned  by  Ebert  and  Manitius.  An  examination 
of  the  first  volume  of  Ebert  reveals  facts  worthy  of  consider- 
ation as  follows :  several  of  the  epigrams  of  Damasus,  who  was 
Pope  from  366  to  384,  are  in  distichs  (vol.  i,  p.  128);  Paulinus 
of  Nola  (353-431)  composes  an  epithalamium  in  distichs,  and 
an  elegy  on  the  death  of  a  certain  Celsus  (i  :  306-307);  the 
introduction  to  the  De  Providentia  Divina  (2d  decade,  5th  cent.) 
is  in  distichs  (i  :  317);  the  hexametrical  paraphrase,  Metrum  in 
Genesin,  is  prefaced  with  a  dedication  consisting  of  three  distichs 
(i  :  369)  ;  Sedulius  (first  half  of  the  5th  cent.),  an  imitator  of 
Virgil,  is  responsible  for  a  strange  elegy  in  praise  of  Christ,  each 


386  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

hexameter  stating  the  Old  Testament  antetype  or  prophecy  and 
the  succeeding  pentameter  the  New  Testament  analogue  or  fulfil- 
ment (i  :  379-380);  Dracontius  (latter  part  of  the  5th  cent.) 
addresses  an  elegy  to  the  Vandal  king  Gunthamund,  praying  for 
release  from  prison  and  reflecting  upon  the  mercy  and  the  wrath 
of  God  (i  :  385)  ;  the  Commonitorium  of  Orientius  is  a  didactic 
treatment  of  the  theme  of  immortality  (i  :  41  off.);  Merobaudes 
writes  panegyrical  elegies,  and  Sidonius  also  uses  the  distich 
(i  :  4i7ff.);  from  Ennodius  we  have  a  begging  letter  and  a 
descriptive  poem  in  distichs  (i  :  434);  Boethius  (c.  480-524) 
opens  his  De  Consolatione  Philosophiae  with  a  beautiful  elegy 
descriptive  of  his  misfortunes  (i  :  490) ;  in  the  eleven  books  of 
his  occasional  poetry  —  panegyrics,  epitaphs,  epigrams,  and  epistles 
—  Fortunatus  (530-609),  most  important  of  the  Christian  elegists 
before  Charlemagne,  employs  the  distich  as  a  maid  of  all  work ; 
but  in  three  longer  poems,  all  melancholy  in  character,  written 
under  the  inspiration  of  his  friend  Queen  Radegunda  of  Poitiers 
—  works  of  signal  merit  —  he  definitely  adapts  the  rhetorical  art 
of  which  the  Roman  elegy  is  capable  to  a  profound  and  sincere 
expression  of  the  Germanic  spirit  (i  :  520,  533);  the  distichs  of 
Eugenius  II,  toward  the  middle  of  the  following  century,  remind 
one  of  Fortunatus,  and  show  a  tendency  toward  a  metrical 
variation  already  noticeable  in  Fortunatus  (i  :  603-604). 

From  these  examples,  and  it  should  be  the  first  concern  of  the 
student  to  increase  their  number  so  far  as  possible  by  research  in 
the  sources  suggested  above,  it  may  perhaps  be  inferred  that  the 
Latin  Christian  elegy  up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne  is  gradually 
increasing  in  popularity  and  shows  a  constant  tendency  toward 
an  uncritical  application  of  the  distich  to  a  great  variety  of  occa- 
sional subjects,  a  far  more  slender  application  to  threnodic  sub- 
jects, a  slight  use  for  narrative  purposes,  an  avoidance  of  the 
erotic  —  the  favorite  subject  among  Roman  elegists  —  and  a 
neglect  of  the  pastoral ;  and,  toward  the  end,  a  tendency  to  break 
up  the  distich  with  capricious  prosodical  additions  and  substitutions. 
At  any  rate,  such  inferences  as  these  may  serve  as  suggestions 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  387 

for  special  investigation.  Certainly  the  examples  cited  seem  to 
show  that  the  use  of  the  distich  for  a  great  variety  of  subjects, 
which  had  already  begun  in  the  Hellenistic  Age,  and  was  charac- 
teristic of  later  Roman  poetry,  was  signally  extended  by  early 
Christian  writers,  largely  because  of  their  critical  ignorance.  It 
can  scarcely  be  said,  then,  that,  viewed  as  a  whole  the  early  Chris- 
tian elegy  supplies  a  more  vital  stage  of  the  type  —  reinvigorating 
the  .classical  form  with  a  new  and  more  profound  spirit ;  it  merely 
purifies  the  moral  atmosphere  of  the  type  by  avoiding  eroticism. 

(b")  In  the  Time  of  Charlemagne,  and  until  the  I2th  Century. 
The  rise  of  the  schools  of  Charlemagne  (see  above,  v,  B)  in- 
creased the  knowledge  and  practice  of  classical  metres  while 
Charlemagne  and  his  court  were  becoming  the  inspiration  of  a 
new  secular  poetry.  Thus  the  scope  of  Latin  Christian  poetry 
was  expanded  in  both  form  and  subject.  What  part  did  the  elegy 
take  in  this  Carolingian  renaissance  ?  Primarily  the  distich  re- 
mained what  it  had  become  in  the  hands  of  Fortunatus,  the  chief 
instrument  for  occasional  verse.  But  its  employment  was  extended 
to  new  courtly  and  military  subjects,  particularly  to  panegyrics  of 
kings  and  generals.  It  continued  to  be  a  popular  metre  for  such 
productions  as  epistles,  epitaphs,  prologues  and  epilogues,  epi- 
grams, and  didactic  themes.  Of  the  threnodic  distich  examples 
are  rare  (Agius'  elegy,  in  dialogue,  on  the  death  of  his  sister,  an 
abbess,  written  about  875  ;  see  Ebert  2  :  294).  One  of  the  two 
elegies  addressed  by  Ermoldus  Nigellus  to  King  Pippin  takes  on 
a  melancholy  tone  through  reference  to  the  banishment  of  the 
author  (Ebert  2  :  i76ff.).  A  good  example  of  the  sacred  elegy 
addressed  to  the  praise  of  God  is  that  of  Idericus,  which  also  is 
in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  (2  :  298).  Worth  noting,  too,  is  the 
introduction  of  a  pastoral  note,  perhaps  as  a  result  of  the  study 
of  Virgil,  in  one  of  Alcuin's  elegies  (2  :  30),  and  both  Alcuin  and 
a  certain  Alvarus  composed  elegies  on  the  nightingale  (2  :  31, 
310).  The  tenth  century  presents  us  with  a  new  departure  in  the 
form  of  the  distich,  the  addition  of  rhyme,  including  leonine 
rhyme,  as  in  the  occasional  and  threnodic  compositions  of 


388  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Salomo  III  and  of  the  school  of  St.  Gall  (3:  153-159).  This 
variation  should  be  related  to  the  development  of  popular  metres, 
including  the  hymn ;  and  here  the  use  of  the  distich  in  the  hymn 
(3  :  162)  is  noticeable.  Are  such  variations  signs  of  a  fresher 
spirit  blowing  from  the  popular,  vernacular  literatures  ?  For  like 
signs  of  a  freer  spirit  see  the  charming  elegiac  verses  on  a  swallow, 
and  a  panegyric  that  dares  to  make  an  ornamental  use  of  ancient 
myth,  both  by  Radbod  (d.  917;  3:  185).  The  student  should 
determine  what  Roman  and  Christian  authors  exert  definite  influ- 
ences upon  the  elegiac  verse  of  these  centuries.  The  ascendency 
of  Ovid  (see,  for  example,  Alcuin,  Theodulf  of  Orleans,  and 
Ermoldus  Nigellus,  all  in  vol.  II  of  Ebert)  and  of  Fortunatus  (cf. 
the  general  use  of  the  distich  for  occasional  verse,  and  see  the 
elegies  on  the  death  of  the  brother  of  Salomo  III,  Ebert  3  :  153- 
155)  is  easily  demonstrable.  Are  any  other  Roman  elegiacal 
influences  discernible  ?  —  The  following  additional  references  to 
Ebert,  vol.  II,  will  serve  to  introduce  the  student  of  this  period 
to  the  sources,  which  should  be  expanded  by  reference  to  Manitius 
and  the  texts  as  already  noted:  Paulus  Diaconus  48-56,  Angil- 
bert  63,  Naso  65,  Raban  143,  Sedulius  Scotus  193,  Erigena  265, 
Florus  270,  Audrad  276,  Milo  278,  Bertharius  298.  In  vol.  Ill 
see  pp.  153-159,  162,  185,  285  ff.,  343,  497.  —  For  an  excellent 
example  of  the  wide  range  of  classical  metres  employed  during 
this  period  see  the  verse  passages  in  the  De  Rectoribus  Christianis 
of  Sedulius  Scotus  (2  :  199  and  Note).  Ebert  points  out  the 
similarity  in  form  (prose  with  verse  insertions  of  various  metres) 
of  this  poem  and  the  Consolatio  of  Boethius,  and  remarks  that 
the  latter  must  have  been  one  of  the  sources  of  Christian  knowledge 
of  classical  metres. 

There  remains  one  development  during  this  period  of  particular 
importance  in  its  bearing  upon  the  elegy :  the  rise  of  the  popular 
anonymous  planctus,  or  song  of  lament,  which  has  the  quality  of 
the  threnodic  elegy,  but  is  composed  in  rhythmic  (not  quantitative) 
Latin  verse,  usually  iambic  trimeter.  The  subject  is  often  secular 
in  character,  —  the  fall  of  a  city  or  loss  of  a  general  (2  :  87-89), 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  389 

or,  later,  the  death  of  Charlemagne  (2  :  311).  One  such  laments 
the  death  of  Hugo,  abbot  of  St.  Quentin  (2  :  313).  A  still  later 
planctus  on  the  death  of  a  churchman  is  noticeable  for  its  use  of 
the  Ambrosian-hymn  metre,  rhymed  (3  :  174).  The  study  of  such 
poems  may  be  carried  down  to  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries 
by  the  help  of  Du  MeriP's  two  collections. 

Obviously  the  example  of  these  productions,  elegiac  in  subject 
but  not  in  metre,  would  militate  against  the  traditional  employment 
of  the  distich  for  threnodic  subjects.  Further  study,  however, 
must  determine  whether  they  actually  exerted  an  influence  in 
dissolving  the  classical  convention  and  establishing  the  variety 
of  form  that  characterizes  the  modern  threnodic  elegy.  Can  it 
be  maintained  that  in  this  anonymous,  popular  planctus  we  have 
the.  birth  of  a  distinctly  new  elegy,  evoked  by  bereavements 
(secular  in  the  first  place  ?)  commonly  felt,  and  continuing  side 
by  side  with  the  older  growth  ?  Does  the  planctus  preserve  a 
separate  development,  or  does  it  merge  later  with  the  older 
growth?  Is  it  the  representation  in  Latin  of  the  vernacular 
funeral  lament  (see  below,  6,  (a),  Provengal  Elegiac  Poetry)  ? 
The  influence  of  church  hymn  and  music  should  not  be  over- 
looked in  connection  with  the  rise  of  that  popular  rhythmic  verse 
in  Latin  of  which  the  planctus  appears  to  have  been  only  one 
example. 

6.  Modern  European  Elegiac  Poetry.  The  student  of  elegy  in 
modern  European  literatures  is  faced  at  the  outset  by  a  difficulty 
of  procedure  already  suggested  in  the  preceding  paragraphs :  Is 
the  modern  elegy  to  be  studied  only  so  far  as  we  can  discern  a 
direct  continuation  and  variation  of  the  Latin  elegy?  or  should 
there  be  taken  into  consideration  the  rise  of  a  vernacular  poetry 
independent  of  the  ancient  elegy  but  similar  to  it  in  general  con- 
tent and  purposes  ?  The  former  method  has  the  advantages  of 
limiting  the  field  and  defining  rather  strictly  the  subject  of  inquiry ; 
but  these  advantages  would  appear  to  be  superficial  and  illusory, 
since  they  are  obtained  at  the  cost  of  arbitrarily  circumscribing 
the  historical  data  and  pedantically  restricting  the  definition  of 


390  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

the  poetic  sub-type  to  its  ancieht  metrical  form.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  a  new  vernacular  elegy  in  new  metrical  forms  is  to  be 
reviewed,  where  may  limits  be  placed  to  the  variety  of  content 
of  which  it  is  capable  ?  How  much  of  the  new  vernacular  verse 
must  be  taken  into  account  ?  When  we  remember  that  the  ancient 
elegy  was  often  practically  synonymous  with  occasional  verse  it 
seems  only  right  that  all  occasional  verse  in  the  European  ver- 
naculars should  be  scrutinized.  And  in  a  way  it  must  be,  at  least 
for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  the  inscriptional,  epi- 
grammatic, hortatory,  erotic,  threnodic,  and  didactic-epistolary 
strains  of  ancient  elegy  are  in  any  way  paralleled,  and  what 
tendencies  of  metrical  form  the  new  poetry  displays.  The  in- 
clination, however,  of  the  ancient  elegy  to  develop  the  erotic 
and  threnodic  moods  into  definite  varieties  or  sub-types,  clearly 
enough  distinguishable  from  epigram,  epistle,  and  other  forms 
employing  the  distich,  perhaps  justifies  the  student  in  confining 
his  attention  to  the  development  of  these  two  moods  in  the 
modern  vernaculars  from  the  point  where  each  emerges  as  fairly 
distinct  from  epistolary,  epigrammatic,  and  reflective-didactic 
varieties. 

If  this  view  be  historically  sound  the  general  method  of  investi- 
gation may  be  indicated  as  follows :  (i)  To  study  the  earliest 
vernacular  verse  of  each  nation  in  order  to  determine  what 
separate  origin  or  development  there  may  be  of  erotic,  threnodic, 
epigrammatic,  and  didactic  moods  and  contents.  (2)  To  trace  the 
separate  development  of  erotic  and  threnodic  themes  up  to  the 
beginning  of  modern  classical  (Renaissance)  influence,  determining 
their  stages  and  characteristic  metrical  forms,  considering  inter- 
vernacular  influences,  and  also  whatever  influences  may  have 
related  the  vernacular  poetry  of  these  themes  to  both  learned 
and  popular  late  Latin  verse  (Dark  and  Middle  Ages)  of  like 
content.  (3)  To  determine  when  in  each  national  literature  the 
classical  term  '  elegy '  is  first  applied  to  poems  in  the  vernacular, 
and  whether  poems  thus  named  reveal  a  modern  classical  (Renais- 
sance) influence,  or  an  independent,  native  derivation,  or  both. 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  391 

(4)  To  determine  to  what  extent  after  the  classical  term  has 
become  acclimated  the  modern  erotic  or  threnodie  elegy  shows 
distinct  influences  from  the  ancient  classical  elegy.  This  division 
of  the  field  corresponds  to  the  first,  or  arbitrarily  narrowed, 
method  that  was  rejected  above.  This  study  should  also  include 
a  classification  according  to  subject  of  all  modern  verse  that, 
though  neither  erotic  nor  threnodie,  has  yet  employed  the  elegiac 
distich,  and  the  comparison  of  the  classes  so  determined  with  the 
full  variety  of  subject  matter  embraced  by  the  ancient  distich. 
The  study  should  be  carried  down  to  the  present  day.  (5)  To 
trace  the  development  since  the  Renaissance  of  the  threnodie 
and  erotic  poetry  that  has  appeared  in  forms  other  than  the 
classical  distich ;  to  determine  the  relation  of  such  poetry  to 
pre-renaissance  vernacular  poetry  of  similar  content;  to  mark  its 
characteristic  metrical  forms  (such  as  sonnet,  ode,  terza  rima, 
other  stanzaic  varieties,  alexandrine,  blank  verse,  etc.),  its  stages 
of  development,  its  inclination  to  romantic,  melancholy,  epicurean, 
religious,  classical,  political,  erotic-oriental  themes,  its  relations  to 
social  and  economic  environment  (including,  for  the  erotic  elegy, 
the  feminization  and  moral-religious  deterioration  of  society),  its 
relation,  especially  in  degree  of  subjectivity,  to  other  divisions  of 
the  lyric,  and,  as  regards  the  threnodie  elegy,  the  degree  of  its 
inclination  toward  the  reflective  and  didactic. 

The  study  of  pastoral  elegy,  in  distichs  or  other  metres,  carries 
one^  over  into  that  of  the  pastoral  idyl  and  eclogue,  as  noticed 
above  in  connection  with  Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus,  Virgil,  and 
Nemesianus.  The  modern  development  of  the  pastoral  elegy  may 
be  followed  from  the  Latin  and  vernacular  pastoral  poetry  of  the 
Renaissance  on,  through  such  writers  as  Boccaccio,  Petrarch, 
Giovanni  Battista  (Mantuan),  Alamanni,  Bembo,  Castiglione, 
Sannazaro,  Ronsard,  Marot,  Spenser,  Milton,  and  a  host  of 
others.  No  special  notice  of  this  development  will  be  taken  in 
the  notes  below ;  but  an  admirable  brief  introduction  to  the 
general  field  of  the  pastoral  elegy  from  Theocritus  to  Milton  is 
contained  in  the  article  by  J.  H.  Hanford  noted  above  (§  5) ; 


392  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

see  also  H.  E.  Cory's  The  Golden  Age  of  the  Pastoral.  For 
further  references  the  student  must  consult  the  general  works 
bearing  upon  pastoral  poetry  (see  §  7,  vn,  B;  10,  ix,  B). 

It  is  impossible  to  give  here  a  review  of  the  elegy  in  all  modern 
European  literatures.  Such  a  review  would  in  large  part  necessarily 
be  a  repetition  of  what  has  been  suggested  under  the  general  head 
of  lyric,  since  the  task  of  the  student  consists  first  of  all  in  search- 
ing the  lyric  literatures,  with  the  aid  of  the  paraphernalia  already 
summarized,  for  the  poems  that  fall  under  any  of  the  five  divi- 
sions of  study  just  outlined.  In  this  search  some,  unfortunately 
inadequate,  aid  may  be  derived  from  the  general  and  special  his- 
tories. Only  at  rare  intervals,  and  then  for  small  fields  only,  will 
the  student  have  the  help  of  monographs  devoted  to  the  elegy. 
There  is  a  dearth  of  books  upon  the  modern  elegy. 

The  very  brief  notes  submitted  below  are  intended  only  to  start 
the  student  in  his  research.  It  is  understood  that  the  process  of 
study  just  mentioned  should  be  applied  to  each  division  of  the 
materials  here  suggested. 

(a)  Provencal  Elegiac  Poetry  (1100-1230). 
For  general  apparatus,  see  above,  vn,  B. 

European  vernacular  verse  began  in  Provence,  and  Provence, 
therefore,  becomes  the  most  important  field  for  the  research  indi- 
cated in  the  first  of  our  five  divisions.  Of  particular  importance 
are  the  troubadours'  love-songs  to  their  mistresses  and  their  death- 
plaints  for  their  lords  and  ladies  (cf.  the  planctus,  above,  5,  (/>); 
among  the  forms  to  be  studied  are  the  plantes  or  plaintes,  aubades, 
saluts,  estampidas,  cansos,  etc.).  Primarily  a  poetry  of  chivalric 
love,  the  Provencal  lyric  affords  ample  opportunity  for  the  study 
of  a  distinctive  development  of  the  love  theme  and  a  comparison 
of  it  with  the  erotic  elegy  of  antiquity  on  the  one  hand,  and  with 
popular  love  poetry  (Greek,  Sicilian,  Modern  European,  etc.)  on 
the  other.  A  comparison  with  the  erotic  elegy  of  Rome  is  par- 
ticularly informing  because  of  the  significance  not  only  of  the 
similarities  but  of  the  differences  observable  between  the  ingrained 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  393 

eroticism  of  a  great  civilization  at  its  moment  of  richest  but  already 
decadent  splendor  and  the  amorous  diversion  of  a  courtly  society 
in  a  rising  civilization.  Compare  W.  Schrdttner,  Ovid  und  die 
Troubadours  (Halle  a.  S. :  1908);  E.  Faral,  Recherches  sur  les 
sources  latines  des  contes  et  romans  courtois  du  moyen  fige 
(Paris:  1913). 

(£)  Latin  Elegy  from  the  I2th  to  the  Close  of  the  i8th  Century. 

For  general  apparatus  see  above,  v-vi ;  A.  Schroeter  and  E.  Costa, 
as  noted  under  vi,  are  especially  helpful.  Quadrio  (cited  above,  §  2) 
gives  a  list  (35  authors)  of  Latin  elegies  from  the  I2th  century  to  1450, 
in  vol.  II,  pt.  i,  pp.  654-658 ;  Blankenburg-Sulzer  (cited  above,  §  2) 
give  a  further  list  (over  60  authors)  extending  from  the  second  half  of 
the  1 5th  to  the  close  of  the  i8th  century.  Symonds  devotes  a  chapter 
of  his  Revival  of  Learning  (Renaissance  in  Italy)  to  the  Latin  poetry  of 
the  Renaissance  in  Italy. 

In  connection  with  the  development  of  vernacular  elegiac  poetry 
the  further  history  of  the  Latin  elegy  should  be  studied.  Only  so 
can  the  student  acquire  an  adequate  knowledge  of  the  history  of 
the  elegy,  for  since  the  vernacular  elegy  was  written  side  by  side 
with  late  Latin  elegiacs  there  may  very  likely  have  been  an  inter- 
change of  influences.  In  particular  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
Latin  elegies  descend  in  an  unbroken  line  from  the  Dark  and 
earlier  Middle  Ages,  and  that  from  the  twelfth  to  the  end  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  roughly  speaking,  they  present  the  quality 
of  occasional  verse  and  the  diversification  of  subject  characteristic 
of  the  earlier  Latin  forms  (see  above,  v).  Now  it  was  practically 
in  the  sixteenth  century  that  vernacular  poems  with  the  title  of 
elegies  began  to  be  written  in  the  various  national  literatures  (see 
below,  under  Italian,  French,  English,  and  German  Elegiac  Poetry). 
Debouching,  then,  upon  this  century  we  have  not  only  the  ver- 
nacular poems  on  love  and  death,  descending  from  Provencal  and 
other  native  inventions,  but  also  this  .unbroken  line  of  the  Latin 
occasional  elegy.  It  remains  for  someone  to  study  the  fusion  of 
these  two  strains,  to  expound  the  influence  of  the  formal  revival 
of  the  ancient  classical  elegy,  and  to  determine  just  how  and  in 


394  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

what  proportion  these  three  influences  were  amalgamated  to  pro- 
duce modern  elegiac  poetry.  Since,  for  instance,  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal offices  of  the  late  Latin  elegy  continued  to  be  memorial,  may 
evidence  be  adduced  to  prove  that  the  funeral  plaints,  complaints, 
laments,  etc.  of  the  vernacular  literatures  (see  above  and  below) 
took  over  the  term  elegy  from  that  late  Latin  influence  ?  Since,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  classical  elegy  of  Ovid,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius 
was  primarily  erotic,  may  we  assume  that  the  erotic  elegy  of  the 
Renaissance  is  purely  classical  in  derivation  ?  Or  do  the  historical 
materials  indicate  a  combination  of  the  strain  of  native  love  poesy 
with  the  strain  of  classical  Roman  tradition  ?  Does  the  erotic  elegy 
of  the  Renaissance  derive  name  or  characteristic  from  the  late 
Latin  elegy  ?  Can  it  be  shown  that  from  approximately  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Latin  elegy  loses  something  of  its 
diversity  in  subject  and  gradually  narrows  toward  erotic  and  thre- 
nodic  themes  ?  If  this  movement  can  be  proved,  is  it  to  be  explained 
by  the  vitality  of  vernacular  poems  of  love  and  death  that  have 
adopted  the  name  of  elegy  ?  —  Whatever  may  have  been  the  exact 
provenience  of  modern  elegy,  and  perhaps  the  whole  process  was 
too  confused  and  varied  to  admit  of  answers  to  these  questions, 
from  the  sixteenth  century  on  the  tendency  toward  narrowing  the 
concept  to  erotic  and  obituary  themes  is  distinct,  and  eventually 
the  melancholy-reflective,  or  threnodic,  triumphs  over  the  erotic. 
The  latter,  however,  was  occasionally  revived  in  the  second  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century  in  England,  Italy,  and  Germany,  but  more 
particularly  in  France.  —  Should  the  Latin  Goliardic  verse  of  the 
twelfth  century  be  noticed  in  studying  the  rise  of  erotic  themes  ? 
See  above,  v,  E. 

(f)  Italian  Elegiac  Poetry. 

Little  aid  is  afforded  by  the  histories  of  Italian  literature,  though 
Crescimbeni  and  Symonds  indicate  materials  to  the  careful  researcher. 
>  More  help  may  be  derived  from  several  of  the  monographs  listed  above 
under  the  apparatus  for  the  Italian  lyric,  to  which  the  student  is  referred. 
Quadrio  has  a  brief  list  of  i6th,  I7th,  and  i8th  century  elegists  and  of 
Italian  translations  of  Jeremiah,  Catullus,  Ovid,  Tibullus,  Propertius,  and 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  395 

the  Latin  elegies  of  Sannazaro,  Pietro  Bargeo,  and  Francesco  Raimondi 
(cited  above,  §  5 ;  see  vol.  II,  pt.  i,  pp.  659-662).  Blankenburg-Sulzer, 
also,  give  a  short  list  of  elegists  of  the  same  three  centuries,  mention- 
ing in  addition  to  those  noticed  above  the  following :  Fabio  Galeotto, 
Agnolo  Firenzuola,  Lod.  Paterno,  Ant.  Minturno,  of  the  1 6th  century ; 
Carlo  della  Lengueglia,  Girol.  Fontanella,  P.  Casaburi,  Bened.  Menzini, 
of  the  1 7th  century ;  Gius.  Salio,  Vine.  Leonio,  Gius.  Bertola,  and 
Aurelio  de'  Giorgi  Bertola,  of  the  1 8th  century.  Carducci's  little  collec- 
tion, Poeti  erotici  del  secolo  XVIII  (Firenze:  1868),  with  its  critical 
preface,  is  very  helpful ;  the  poets  represented  are  Rolli,  Metastasio, 
Frugoni,  Crudeli,  Savioli,  Casti,  Bert&la,  De  Rossi,  Vittorelli.  On  the 
sepulchral  poetry  see  B.  Zumbini's  La  poesia  sepolcrale  straniera  e 
italiana  e  il  carme  del  Foscolo,  in  his  Studi  di  letteratura  italiana  (zd  ed. 
Firenze:  1906).  For  the  popular  elegies  of  love  and  death,  see  the 
chapters  in  Symonds,  vol.  I,  devoted  to  popular  poetry,  and  the  mono- 
graphs cited  above  (viu,  A,  j). 

For  the  first  development  of  erotic  themes  in  the  art  poetry  of 
the  vernacular,  Italian  literature  is  indebted  to  Proven£al  influence. 
In  the  popular  poetry  of  the  time  both  threnodic  and  erotic  subjects 
were  handled,  the  erotic  being  found  particularly  in  the  Stram- 
botti,  Rispetti,  and  Stornelli.  During  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries  the  love  theme  is  developed  with  greater  ideality  by 
the  Tuscan  school  (Dolce  Stil  Nuovd).  For  this  stage  Dante  and 
his  circle,  "  spiritualizing  the  earthly  passion  of  the  troubadours," 
furnish  the  data.  Nor  are  the  poems  of  this  school  love-plaints 
only  :  the  theme  of  death  also  recurs,  as  in  Dante's  canzone  on  the 
death  of  Beatrice  (Vita  Nuova)  and  in  Cino  da  Pistoia's  consolatory 
verses  addressed  to  Dante  «in  reference  to  the  same  event.  From 
this  time  on  terza  rima  is  the  favorite  vehicle  of  Italian  elegy.  The 
study  of  the  classics,  especially  of  Ovid,  during  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury is  of  great  importance  ;  and  the  advent  of  Petrarch,  with  which 
coincides  a  florescence  of  the  erotic  theme  (in  canzone,  sonnet,  and 
capitolo],  was  destined  to  be  the  supreme  influence  in  the  later 
history  of  Italian  poetry  of  love.  The  similarity  in  spirit  between 
Petrarch's  poems  and  the  Provencal  love  lyrics  must  be  considered, 
nor  should  his  relations  to  the  ancient  Roman  poets  be  overlooked. 
—  In  the  fifteenth  century  popular  Lamenti  were  written  in  terza 


396  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

rima,  as  noted  by  Symonds  (Rert.  in  Italy:  Ital.  Lit.  I,  172, 
2556°.  N.  Y. :  1882),  who  cites  as  examples  the  two  Lamenti  of 
Pre  Agostino  which  are  given  by  Mutinelli,  Annali  urbani  di 
Venezia,  pp.  352-356.  "  Both  Benivieni  and  Michelangelo  Buonar- 
roti," continues  Symonds,  "  composed  elegies  in  this  metre ;  and 
numerous  didactic  eclogues  of  the  pastoral  poets  might  be  cited  in 
which  it  served  for  analogue  to  Latin  elegiacs."  Benivieni's  elegy 
on  the  death  (1484)  of  Feo  Belcari  is  given  by  Symonds  both  in 
the  original  and  in  translation  (ibid.,  pp.  321,  561).  It  is  probably 
in  this  century,  indeed,  that  the  term  '  elegy '  was  first  availed  of 
for  vernacular  laments  for  the  dead.  Quadrio  (cited  above,  §  5) 
believed  that  the  earliest  use  of  the  term  was  by  Bernardo  Bellin- 
cioni  (1452—1492)  in  his  two  poems  on  the  death  of  Giuliano 
de'  Medici  and  the  Cardinal  of  Mantova.  Jacopo  Sannazaro,  who 
carries  us  over  into  the  next  century,  and  is  one  of  the  more 
original  followers  of  Petrarch,  wrote  elegies  on  the  Marchese  di 
Pescara,  Pietro-Leonio,  and  the  Saviour,  and  his  pastoral  romance, 
the  Arcadia  (1489—1504),  is  replete  with  the  love-plaints  of  dis- 
heartened shepherds.  —  The  Roman  elegists  were  imitated  by 
Pontano,  Poliziano,  Sannazaro,  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  who  showed 
their  enthusiasm  for  ancient  poetry  not  only  by  reproduction  of 
the  mythologizing,  descriptive,  idyllic  features  of  the  old  amatory 
poetry,  but  also  by  doing  most  of  their  work  in  Latin.  From 
popular  themes,  however,  they  also  appropriated  much.  For  Pon- 
tano's  address  to  the  personified  erotic  elegy,  see  Symonds  2  :  219. 
—  In  the  next  two  centuries  the  decadence  of  poetry  brought  with 
it,  as  so  often  is  the  case,  a  rise  of  the  elegy  in  popularity.  Three 
streams  must  be  followed:  the  revival  of  erotic  Petrarchism 
(Bembo,  Molza,  Giovanni  Guidiccioni,  Vittoria  Colonna,  Michel- 
angelo, Gaspara  Stampa,  Tansillo,  etc. ;  see  the  collection,  Lirici 
del  secolo  XVI,  Milano :  1879,  as  noted  above,  vm,  F);  the 
revival  of  the  ancient  elegy  in  tercet  form,  called  capitoli  (Ariosto, 
Alamanni,  Chiabrera,  Fulvio  Testi,  etc.);  and  the  Marinism  of 
Marino  and  his  followers.  In  the  sincerity  and  elevation  of  his 
threnodic  poetry,  Filicaia  anticipates  the  later  elegy  of  sorrow. 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  397 

—  In  the  eighteenth  century  the  erotic  pastoral  poetry  of  the 
Arcadian  Academy  must  be  surveyed  (see  the  poets  in  Carducci's 
collection,  mentioned  above) ;  then,  from  the  middle  of  .the  cen- 
tury, the  great  European  movements  that  broke  up  the  formality 
of  the  age  —  the  naturalistic,  sentimental,,  romantic,  and  revolu- 
tionary movements  —  must  be  studied  in  their  bearing  upon  the 
gradual  extinction  of  the  erotic  as  an  elegiac  theme  and  the 
growth  of  the  elegy  of  grief  or,  at  least,  of  melancholy  tenderness. 
Note  the  parallel  development  in  England,  France,  and  Germany, 
and  pay  particular  attention  to  the  influence  of  Thomson,  Young, 
Gray,  Hervey,  Blair,  the  Ossianic  literature,  and  Rousseau.  Con- 
sider, also,  the  elegiac  qualities  of  Foscolo's  Sepolcri  (1807),  the 
reply  to  it  by  Ippolito  Pindemonte,  and  the  sepulchral  lucubra- 
tions of  Bertbla  and  Alessandro  Verri.  Other  nineteenth-century 
examples  of  elegiac  verse  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Leo- 
pardi,  Manzoni,  Silvio  Pellico,  Carducci,  Giuseppe  Chiarini,  Arturo 
Graf,  etc.  But  for  the  Italian  elegy  of  this  century  the  student 
must  rely  upon  his  own  research. 

(d}  French  Elegiac  Poetry. 

Potez's  monograph,  the  chief  aid,  has  been  mentioned  under  §  5.  The 
articles  in  the  French  encyclopedias,  noted  at  the  head  of  this  division 
on  the  elegy,  are  helpful.  For  the  i6th  to  i8th  centuries  Quadrio  and 
Blankenburg-Sulzer  (cited  above,  §  5)  present  much  material.  Pierre 
Ladoue's  Millevoye  (Paris :  1 8 1 2)  is  suggestive.  For  the  rest,  see  the 
critical  apparatus  on  French  poetry  from  the  I4th  to  igth  centuries, 
above,  vn. 

Examining  first  the  erotic  and  threnodic  verse  of  the  troubadours 
and  trouveres  (see  above,  (a)),  and  the  continuation  of  these  native 
themes  through  the  poetic  decline  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  we  must  consider  successively  the  elegiac  lyrics  of 
adoration  and  lament  to  be  found  in  the  Miracles  and  Mysteres, 
and  the  twenty-six  elegies,  in  couplets,  and  the  various  funeral 
poems,  of  Clement  Marot  (1487-1544).  The  student  may 
question  whether  the  Marot  poems  are  the  product  of  Italian 
influence,  also  whether  they  may  be  properly  regarded  as  the  first 


398  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

French  poems  to  receive  the  name  of  elegy.  It  may  be  noted  that 
the  older  contemporaries  of  Marot,  Jean  Le  Maire  de  Beiges,  for 
instance,,  still  called  their  threnodic  verses  plaintes  (as  Jean  Le 
Maire's  Plainte  du  De'sire,  1503,  in  memory  of  Louis  de  Luxem- 
bourg). On  the  other  hand,  the  term  ' elegy'  had  been  used  by  Jean 
Le  Maire  in  his  Description  du  Temple  de  Venus  (1516),  and  as 
early  as  1500  in  the  Chronique  de  Louis  XII  by  Jean  d'Auton. 
Marot's  first  elegy  was  composed  in  1523.  In  1547  appeared 
Gilles  Dorigny's  Le  Tuteur  d' Amour.  In  1551  Berenger  de  la 
Tour  published  thirteen  elegies  and  a  Chant  filegiaque  in  his 
Siecle  d'Or.  Other  elegiac  poems  by  Charles  Fontaine,  Jean  de  la 
Pe'ruse,  Jean  Doublet  (who  in  his  FJe'gies,  1559,  tried  to  establish 
a  definite  substitute  for  the  classical  distich,  but  was  not  fol- 
lowed), Phil.  Bugnyon,  Cl.  Taillemont,  Louise  Labd,  Cl.  Turrin, 
Cl.  Pontoux,  are  mentioned  by  Blankenburg-Sulzer  as  published 
between  1555  and  1569.  The  development  of  both  threnodic  and 
erotic  themes  may  be  traced  in  these.  It  may  be  suggested,  also, 
that  here  the  erotic  qualities  of  the  madrigal,  especially  in  Italy 
and  France,  should  be  considered.  Next  the  classicizing  influence 
of  the  Ple'iade  must  be  scrutinized  for  evidence  of  the  employment 
of  ancient  elegies  as  models.  Blankenburg-Sulzer  give  a  list  of 
nineteen  writers  of  elegies  between  Ronsard  (CEuvres,  Paris : 
1567)  and  Scevola  de  St.-Marthe  (CEuvres,  Poitiers:  1600), 
including  Jean  de  Bai'f,  Phil.  Desportes  (perhaps  the  chief  of 
Ronsard's  elegiac  disciples),  Mellin  de  St.-Gelais,  Et.  Jodelle,  and 
Amadis  Jamyn.  Ronsard's  love-sonnets  betray  the  influence  of 
Petrarch,  —  another  witness  to  the  predominant  position  of  the 
Italian  lyrist  in  the  erotic  verse  of  modern  Europe.  In  his  Impre- 
cation aux  bucherons  de  la  foret  de  Gastine,  however,  the  French- 
man produced  a  composition  of  quite  another  sort,  which  reminds 
one  forcibly  of  the  ancient  Greek  hortatory  elegy.  Ronsard 
expressed  his  own  idea  of  the  elegy  in  the  following  lines :  "  Les 
vers  de  I'e'le'gie  au  premier  furent  faicts/Pour  y  chanter  des  morts 
les  gestes  et  les  faicts/Joints  au  son  du  cornet ;  maintenant  on 
compose/Divers  sujets  en  elle  et  re9oit  toute  chose. /Amour,  pour 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  399 

y  re'gner,  en  a  chasse  la  mort."  In  connection  with  Ronsard  and 
his  school,  may  be  considered  the  elegiac  character  of  a  host  of 
little  poems  on  the  short-lived  beauty  of  roses,  the  development 
of  which  can  be  traced  back  to  the  De  Rosis  Nascentibus  attributed 
to  Ausonius  (c.  A.  D.  310-395  ;  see  Teuffel  §  421,  2,  K,  7).  In  the 
early  seventeenth  century  Malherbe's  beautiful  Consolation  a 
Duperrier,  Racan's  Consolation  a  Mgr.  de  Bellegarde,  and  the 
more  vivid  poems  of  Theophile  de  Viau  may  be  noted.  After  Mal- 
herbe  the  elegy  assumes  a  note  of  impersonality.  In  the  last  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century  it  falls  with  other  forms  of  poetry  under 
the  sway  of  Boileau,  who  in  his  L'Art  Poetique  (11.  38-57.  1673) 
notices  both  the  threnodic  and  the  erotic  strains  of  the  elegy,  and 
inveighs  against  the  lack  of  sincerity  in  the  erotic  elegy  of  the 
French.  What  poems  had  Boileau  in  mind  ?  How  many  poems 
actually  bore  the  name  of  elegy  at  this  time  ?  Blankenburg-Sulzer 
refer  to  eleven  or  twelve  writers  of  elegies  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. Did  Boileau  derive  his  knowledge  of  the  elegy  from  classical 
sources  only  ?  See,  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned,  the 
elegies  of  Mme.  de  la  Souze  and  Jean  Renault,  and  La  Fontaine's 
elegy  to  Fouquet,  the  Nymphes  de  Vaux,  sometimes  referred  to  as 
the  one  genuine  elegy  from  Malherbe  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Proceeding  to  the  eighteenth  century  we  have  the  welcome 
aid  of  Potez's  monograph  (see  above,  §  5),  the  first  chapter  of 
which  treats  of  the  origin  of  French  elegiac  poetry  in  the  eighteenth 
century  (Chaulieu,  Voltaire,  Bernis,  Dorat,  Gentil-Bernard,  Le 
Tourneur,  Huber,  Colardeau,  Feutry,  Gilbert,  Saint-Lambert, 
Mancini-Nivernais  (cf.  above,  §  3,  iv,  D),  Baculard  d'Arnaud,  etc. 
This  should  be  supplemented  with  the  references  in  Blankenburg- 
Sulzer).  The  influence,  melancholy  in  character,  of  English  poets 
(Pope,  Young,  James  Hervey,  Blair,  Thomson)  and  of  the  Ossianic 
literature,  and  the  sentimental  effect  of  German  poets  (Gessner, 
Wieland,  Kleist,  Karsch,  Cronegk,  Dusch),  are  apparent  in  the 
second  part  of  the  century.  It  should  be  noted  that  Potez  asserts 
that  before  the  eighteenth  century  the  elegy  scarcely  existed  as 
a  type  in  French  literature,  that  before  the  Revolution  it  was 


400  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

prevailingly  gallant,  and  that  afterwards  it  was  mostly  threnodic. 
Important  references  bearing  upon  the  gradual  change  in  opinion 
by  which  the  elegy  was  narrowed  to  the  sentimental,  la  tendresse, 
and  then  to  the  threnodic,  are  given  by  Potez,  pp.  73-74.  In  this 
connection  the  decline  of  the  influence  of  Ovid  and  the  rise  of  that 
of  Tibullus  and  Propertius  are  worthy  of  attention  (cf.  Potez, 
84-85).  Discussing  the  elegy  of  the  close  of  this  century  and  of 
the  first  quarter  of  the  next,  Potez  considers  Parny,  Bertin,  Dequerle, 
Ginguend,  Lebrun-Pindare,  Chevalier  de  Bonnard,  Le'onard,  Andre 
Chenier  (especially  important ;  see  his  Jeune  Captive,  and  his 
Greek  elegies),  Duault,  Tissot,  Mollevaut,  Labouisse,  Fontanes, 
Legouve,  Charles  Nodier,  Marie-Joseph  Chenier,  Gorsse,  Joseph 
Treneuil,  Casimir  Delavigne,  Edmond  Geraud,  Soumet,  Charles 
Loyson,  Mmes.  Dufrenoy,  Babois,  Desroches,  de  Vannoz,  Desbordes- 
Valmore,  and  Millevoye  (cf.  above,  §  3,  iv,  E),  etc.  Typical  of  the 
elegies  written  by  most  of  these  is  the  amatory  poetry  of  Parny, 
Chenedolle,  and  Millevoye.  Compare  the  earlier  English  attempts 
at  the  same  thing  by  James  Hammond  (1716-1742).  Can  any 
relation  between  the  English  and  French  attempts  be  demonstrated  ? 
With  Lamartine  (1791-1869)  the  elegy  experiences  a  revival  and 
is  distinguished  by  tendresse  and  sentimental  melancholy.  His  Le 
Lac  is  as  famous  in  French  poetry  as  Gray's  elegy  in  English. 
Consider,  also,  the  elegiac  melancholy  of  the  Paysage  dans  le 
Golfe  de  Genes,  Le  Premier  Regret,  and  the  Meditations.  Indeed, 
from  this  poetry  of  romantic  sensibility  proceeds  what  may  be 
called  the  romantic  elegy  (elegie  intime),  of  which  some  of  Beranger's 
songs  or  meditations  furnish  charming  examples.  During  the  rest 
of  the  century,  this  and  other  notes  —  erotic,  epicurean,  religious, 
classicist,  contemporary  political  and  patriotic,  and  exotic-oriental 
—  in  manner  and  subject  call  for  consideration.  Victor  Hugo 
(Feuilles  d'Automne,  etc.),  Musset,  Vigny  (Elva),  The'ophile  Gautier, 
and  Hegesippe  Moreau  may  be  selected  for  special  study.  The 
elegiac  note  will,  however,  be  found  to  recur  in  very  many  nine- 
teenth-century poets.  The  sentimental  verse  of  Mme.  Desbordes- 
Valmore,  Sully  Prudhomme,  Francois  Coppee,  Eugene  Manuel,  and 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELKGY  401 

Paul  Verlaine  is  not  seldom  elegiac.  Baudelaire  has  been  called 
an  "  elegiaque  macabre,"  and  Leconte  de  Lisle  an  "  elegiaque 
nihiliste." 

(e)  English  Elegiac  Poetry. 

Since  the  national  genius  has  constantly  urged  almost  every  lyrist  to 
expatiate  upon  death,  and  since  most  of  those  who  have  evaded  this 
urgency  have  fallen  into  the  erotic  melancholy  either  seriously  or  play- 
fully, the  body  of  verse  to  be  examined  is  very  large.  Unfortunately 
there  are  no  trustworthy  compendious  aids.  Mary  Lloyd's  History  of 
the  Elegy  (Introd.  to  her  Elegies  :  Ancient  and  Modern),  comparatively 
full  in  its  treatment  of  the  English  elegy,  is  far  from  exhaustive ;  and 
the  arrangement  of  materials  is  somewhat  confusing.  The  most  available 
guide  by  reason  of  its  clear-cut  divisions  into  chapters  and  its  extensive 
bibliographies  is  the  Cambridge  History  of  English  Literature. 

The  melancholy  strain  has  always  been  so  notable  in  English 
poetry  that  there  is  little  wonder  that  in  English  usage  since  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  term  '  elegy '  has  come 
to  be  restricted  to  funeral  song  or  lament.  The  elegiacal  pre- 
disposition of  the  Anglo-Saxon  genius  is  one  of  the  truisms  of 
literary  history  (see,  e.g.,  ten  Brink  on  Deor's  Lament,  in  Hist. 
Eng.  Lit.,  trans.  Kennedy,  i  :  61.  1889).  Not  only  may  it  be 
traced  in  Old  English  epical  literature,  both  '  national '  and  Chris- 
tian, but  it  dominates  practically  all  the  remains  of  the  earlier 
'  national '  lyric  (Deor's  Lament,  Wanderer,  Seafarer,  Wife's  Com- 
plaint, Husband's  Message,  Ruin)  and  contributes  a  definite  tone 
to  the  later  Christian  lyric  and  lyrical  epic  (Death  Song,  Riming 
Poem,  Dream  of  the  Rood,  Address  of  the  Soul  to  the  Body,  etc.). 
The  erotic  note  also  appears,  as  in  the  Husband's  Message. 
What  further  examples  of  amatory  verse  may  have  existed  we  can 
only  conjecture.  But  it  is  probably  safe  to  conclude  that  the  Old 
English  lyric,  both  national  and  Christian,  was  characterized  by 
melancholy  contemplation  rather  than  by  light,  or  erotic,  sentiment. 
Have  we  in  such  probability  an  illustration  of  the  influence  of 
climate  and  of  physical  environment*?  Can  any  similar  preponder- 
ance be  detected  in  the  earliest  vernacular  poetry  of  other  northern 


402  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

peoples  (Germans,  Danes,  Russians,  Poles,  Swedes,  Norwegians, 
Icelanders,  Esquimaux)  ?  Compare  the  early  Celtic  elegies  (by 
Llywarch  Hen,  whose  "  Heroic  Elegies,  etc."  were  edited  by 
W.  Owen,  Lond. :  1792  ;  by  Gwalchmai,  Gruffydd  ab  yr  Yuad 
Coch,  and  many  others ;  see  the  notes  on  the  Celtic  lyric,  above). 

In  the  transition  period  (1150-1250)  one  may  note  the  elegiac 
strains  in  reflective  and  didactic  poetry,  beginning  with  the  Poema 
Morale ;  the  secular  love  strain  of  the  Owl  and  the  Nightingale ; 
the  erotic  mysticism  of  the  Luve  Ron  and  of  poems  addressed  to 
the  Virgin.  See  the  poems  described  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit., 
vol.  I,  Chap.  XI.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Pearl  adds  the 
note  of  personal  bereavement,  but  Chaucer  and  his  English  and 
Scottish  followers  in  this  and  the  next  century  develop  the  secular 
erotic  themes  associated  with  the  troubadour  and  court-of-love 
poetry  of  the  Continent.  The  threnodic  as  well  as  the  amatory 
is  also  found  in  the  popular  ballads  and  lyrics,  both  Scottish  and 
English,  of  the  time.  The  secular  lyric  of  love,  such  as  Alisoun  or 
the  Spring  Song,  and  the  religious  love  lyric,  such  as  Love-Longing, 
vary  from  spontaneous  gladness  to  real  or  affected  melancholy.  — 
Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  poems  that  are  grouped 
in  the  manuscripts  under  the  head  '  Complaints,'  of  which  the  Quia 
Amore  Langueo  and  the  Filius  Regis  Mortuus  Est  are  the  best 
examples.  —  See  the  lyrics  of  the  Harleian,  Vernon,  and  Hill 
.manuscripts;  vols.  15,  24,  26,  49,  124  of  the  Early  English  Text 
Society's  publications,  and  vol.  101  of  the  Extra  Series ;  and  Camb. 
Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  I,  Chap.  XVII.  Does  the  erotic  essentially  coun- 
tervail the  threnodic  in  the  art  poetry  of  the  Chaucerians  ?  Can  any 
connection,  in  form  or  spirit,  be  shown  between  the  development  of 
erotic  and  threnodic  lyric  themes  ? 

Scattered  through  the  miracle  plays  of  the  later  thirteenth,  the 
fourteenth,  and  the  early  fifteenth  century  will  be  found  religious 
passages  of  the  threnodic  type ;  some  also  of  adoration  of  the  Virgin. 

Skelton  (i46o?-i529)  furnishes  us  not  only  with  the  genuine 
lament  for  the  dead,  but  also  with  the  famous,  whimsical  elegy  for 
Philip  Sparrow,  the  pet  bird  of  one  Joan  Scrope.  The  latter  poem 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  403 

belongs  to  a  trivial  but  interesting  sub-type  of  the  elegy.  A  brief 
allusion  to  several  such  laments,  ancient  and  modern,  for  pet 
animals,  may  be  found  in  Mary  Lloyd's  Elegies :  Ancient  and 
Modern,  pp.  44-49. — With  Skelton  we  are  well  oh  the  way 
toward  Elizabethan  elegy;  and  now  the  task  of  selection  grows 
complex  and  increasingly  difficult.  On  the  one  hand  we  have 
amatory  poets  who  engage  in  "  such  furnace-like  sighing,  such 
piteous  pleading,  such  grievous  complaints  "  that  one  is  tempted  to 
find  therein  some  vital  connection  between  erotic  and  threnodic 
complaints,  some  justification  (if  only  superficial)  of  the  application 
of  the  one  term  '  elegy '  to  both  themes.  The  erotic  strain  finds 
expression  for  the  most  part  in  the  Elizabethan  sonnet  (Wyatt, 
Surrey,  Gascoigne,  Sidney,  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Daniel,  Con- 
stable, etc.,  etc.),  but  it  assumes  also  other  forms,  as  in  Sidney's 
exquisite  Dirge  for  Love  and  Spenser's  marriage  poems.  Such 
love  poetry  varies  in  its  spirit  from  the  sincere,  the  poignant,  and 
intensely  passionate  to  the  tender,  the  whimsical,  and  jesting.  On 
the  other  hand  we  have,  during  this  period,  the  writers  of  genuine 
threnodies,  —  'complaints,'  'laments,'  'elegies'  for  the  illustrious 
or  beloved  dead.  In  most  of  the  collected  works  of  the  poets  not 
only  of  the  Elizabethan  but  also  of  the  early  Stuart  "period  may  be 
found  dirges  or  elegies  sacred  to  the  memory  of  this  or  that  friend 
or  patron :  they  seem  to  have  been  written  on  any  kind  of  provo- 
cation, public  or  private.  The  student  should  note  :  (i)  the  various 
complaints  (such  as  Gascoigne's  Complaint  of  Philomen  1562-76, 
Spenser's  Ruins  of  Time  1591,  or  the  complaints  in  Shakespeare's 
Venus  and  Adonis  and  his  Lucrece),  some  addressed  to  the 
memory  of  the  dead,  some  to  the  necessity  that  rules  the  indi- 
vidual, others  evoked  by  general  fatalities,  such  as  the  fall  of  a 
city,  and  still  others  (to  quote  Spenser's  words)  merely  "  small 
poems  of  the  world's  vanity,"  sometimes  even 'narrative  or  allegor- 
ical in  manner  (cf.  Spenser's  Muiopotmos) ;  (2)  more  formal 
memorial  poems,  eventually  appropriating  the  name  of  elegy,  such 
as  Surrey's  on  Wyatt,  Spenser's  Daphnaida,  Jonson's  on  Shake- 
speare, several  by  Drummond  of  Hawthornden,  a  vast  number 


404  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

in  honor  of  Sidney  (cf.  the  later  collection  in  memory  of  Prince 
Henry,  son  of  James  I),  etc. ;  (3)  poems  called  epitaphs,  some  of 
them  short  and  epigrammatic  in  form,  others  so  long  and  reflective 
as  to  constitute  memorial  elegies  (e.g.,  the  epitaphs  composed  by 
Ben  Jonson)  ;  (4)  dirges,  such  as  Fletcher's  '  mourning '  of  Aspatia 
(Maid's  Tragedy,  II,  2);  and  (5)  melancholy-reflective  poems,  such 
as  the  verses  attributed  to  Beaumont,  On  the  Tombs  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  These  are  by  no  means  mutually  exclusive  classes  : 
the  Tombs  in  Westminster  would  perhaps  have  been  called  a 
complaint  by  Spenser,  and  the  memorial  poems  are  called  indiffer- 
ently complaints,-  epitaphs,  elegies,  and  even  eclogues.  But  this 
lack  of  agreement  in  matter  of  terms  necessitates  all  the  more 
careful  study  of  content  and  kind  in  their  bearing  upon  the 
growth  of  elegy  proper.  It  is  for  the  student  to  determine  when 
the  more  inclusive  denomination  was  first  employed,  and  in  what 
relation  it  eventually  stood  to  such  poems  as  have  just  been 
indicated. 

The  amatory  verse  of  the  seventeenth  century  develops,  in  gen- 
eral, the  less  charming  aspects  of  the  theme  (compare  the  eroti- 
cism of  Alexandria,  of  Rome  during  the  Empire,  and  of  similar 
stages  in  European  literature  as  already  noted).  The  character  of 
the  threnodic  poems  of  the  earlier  part  of  this  century  has  been 
sufficiently  indicated  in  the  last  paragraph.  In  the  late  seventeenth 
and  through  the  eighteenth  century  the  elegy  grows  more  formal 
and  develops  to  an  extreme  the  over-elaborate  pastoral  strain  that 
had  been  gaining  in  prominence  from  Elizabethan  times  on.  These 
strictures  do  not,  however,  apply  to  the  two  most  important  elegies 
of  the  period,  Lycidas  and  the  Elegy  in  a  Country  Churchyard. 
The  second  gave  rise  to  many  imitations  and  was  translated  into 
Greek,  Latin,  Italian,  French,  German,  etc.  The  study  of  its 
influence  is  a  topic  by  itself. 

For  the  growing,  and  ultimately  common,  adoption  of  the  term 
1  elegy,'  and  its  constant  restriction  to  the  poem  addressed  to  the 
dead,  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  the  works  of 
the  following  authors,  to  mention  only  a  few  of  the  better  known, 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  405 

should  be  scrutinized :  Donne,  Drayton,  Sir  John  Beaumont, 
Quarles,  Cowley  (on  the  death  of  Crashaw),  Henry  King  (Poems, 
Elegies,  Paradoxes  and  Sonnets,  Lond. :  1657  ;  his  Deep  Groan, 
etc.  —  published  in  1649;  Works,  ed.  J.  Hannah,  1843),  John 
Oldham,  Denham  (on  Cowley,  etc.),  Dryden,  William  Walsh, 
Nahum  Tate,  John  Gay,  Elizabeth  Rowe,  Tickell  (on  Addison), 
Pope  (on  the  Unfortunate  Lady),  Shenstone,  Robert  Blair  (The 
Grave),  William  Mason,  J.  Ogilvie,  James  Beattie,  W.  L.  Bowles, 
etc.  For  a  long  list  of  minor  eighteenth-century  elegists,  see 
Blankenburg-Sulzer  (Art.  Elegie,  i :  472-476.  1796).  The  elegiac 
character  o'f  Young's  Night-Thoughts  (see  especially  Book  III) 
should  be  appraised,  particularly  in  view  of  its  effect  upon  con- 
tinental poetry ;  see  also  J.  Hervey's  Meditations  and  Contempla- 
tions. For  an  eighteenth-century  attempt  to  revive  the  classical 
amatory  elegy,  see  the  Love  Elegies  of  James  Hammond  (1716— 
1742),  which  had  several  imitators,  —  some  of  them  mentioned 
in  Blankenburg.  The  only  successful  revival  of  the  Tibullian- 
Propertian  elegy,  however,  occurred,  as  already  noted,  in  France. 
Much  other  threnodic  (and  erotic)  lyric  material  is  to  be  found 
also  in  the  drama  of  the  periods  passed  in  review. 

In  the  nineteenth  century  elegiac  verse  is  threnodic,  serious,  and 
of  noble  poetic  inspiration.  Burns,  slightly  earlier,  but  of  the  spirit 
of  this  century,  Byron,  Shelley,  Tennyson,  Matthew  Arnold, 
Rossetti,  Swinburne,  Watson  —  to  mention  only  a  few  of  those 
who  have  attained  mastery  of  the  type  —  treat  their  subjects  with 
a  depth,  poignancy,  mystic  spirituality,  and  unaffected  sublimity 
that  indicate  the  high-water  mark  of  elegiac  lament  in  English 
literature,  —  a  literature  that  perhaps  more  than  any  other  has 
displayed  a  natural  bent  for  the  poetry  of  mourning.  Shelley's 
Adonais,  in  memory  of  Keats,  and  Swinburne's  Ave  atque  Vale, 
in  memory  of  Baudelaire,  must  always  stand  with  Milton's  Lycidas 
as  among  the  best  examples  of  the  imaginative  memorial  elegy, 
and  to  these  may  be  added  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam  both  as  an 
imaginative  unit  and  as  a  series  of  independently  interpretative 
elegiac  poems.  Only  second  to  these  in  English  literature  are 


406  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Matthew  Arnold's  Thyrsis,  commemorative  of  Clough,  and  his 
Rugby  Chapel,  in  memory  of  his  father,  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold. 
Swinburne  and  Arnold  are  particularly  rich  in  the  variety  as  well 
as  the  spirit  of  their  elegiac  poems.  For  brief  notices  of  other 
elegiac  writers  of  this  century  see  Miss  Lloyd's  book,  already  cited. 
The  elegiac  poetry  of  love  is  less  in  quantity  in  this  century,  but 
it  is  prevailingly  sincere  and  noble.  Vers  de  sodete  of  the  mock- 
melancholy  style,  of  course,  calls  for  some  attention,  but  it  is 
rarely  to  be  regarded  as  falling  under  elegy  proper. 

(/)  German  Elegiac  Poetry. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  xm.  A.  Kostlivy's  Die  Anfange  der  deut 
schen  antikisierenden  Elegie,  etc.  (Progr.  Eger :  1 898),  and  the  section 
on  elegy  in  Wackernagel's  Poetik,  Rhetorik  und  Stilistik  are  helpful-, 
but  the  student  will  find  that  he  must  himself  work  out  the  list  of  elegiac 
poets  and  poems  from  the  collections  of  perman  poetry.  On  the  imita- 
tion of  Ovid's  Heroides  see  G.  Ernst,  Die  Heroide  in  der  deutschen  Lit. 
(Heidelberg:  1901). 

What  may  have  been  the  laments  of  love  and  death  that  doubt- 
less were  sung  by  the  pagan  German  tribes  we  can  only  conjecture 
(see  above,  xm,  A).  The  remains  of  Old  High  German  poetry 
(A.D.  750-1050)  are  barren  of  elegiac  material  except  for  the 
Liebesgruss  in  the  Ruodlieb  (c.  1030  ;  see  above,  xm,  B)  and  some 
elegiac  notes  in  the  epical  literature  of  the  age  (see  below,  §  12). 
With  Middle' High  German  poetry  (1050-1350)  we  must  note,  in 
passing,  the  Annolied  (c.  1080),  reminiscent  of  the  late  Latin  eulo- 
gistic elegy  noted  above,  and  the  erotic  theme  in  lyrics  addressed 
to  the  Virgin.  But  here  the  important  fields  for  observation  are 
those  of  the  National  epic,  the  Court  epic,  and  the  Minnesang. 
The  threnodic  and  erotic  passages  in  the  first  two  (see  below,  §12) 
should  be  collected  and  compared  with  a  view  to  determining  the 
characteristic  differentiations  in  elegiac  strain,  and  the  relation,  if 
any,  between  the  National  and  Court  epic-elegiac  strain  and  that 
of  the  Old  High  German  Liebesgruss,  etc.,  and  of  other  early  epic 
and  ballad  poetry.  Of  particular  importance  in  the  National  epic  is 
the  Klage  of  the  Nibelungenlied  (c.  1200),  which  contains  the 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  407 

lament  for  the  heroes  slain  in  the  great  battle  of  the  Burgundians, 
Huns,  and  others ;  and  in  the  Court  epics  the  idealization  of  love 
(Minne),  which  brings  us  once  again  into  the  region  of  romantic, 
chivalric  woman-worship.  In  the  third  and  most  important  field, 
that  of  the  Minnesang,  this  romantic  cult  finds  its  lyric  expression, 
partly  indigenous,  partly  under  French  and  Provencal  influence 
(compare  above,  vn,  A-D).  In,  the  works  of  the  Minnesingers 
(references  above,  xm,  c)  songs  of  courtly  and  of  humble  love, 
patriotic  and  eulogistic  verse,  and  threnodic  poems  (see  especially 
Reinmar  von  Hagenau)  are  to  be  found  in  plenty.  All  these 
varieties  receive  their  fullest  expression  in  the  work  of  the  greatest 
of  these  lyrists,  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  (c.  1170-*:.  1230).  In 
the  thirteenth  century  the  song  of  lowly  love  (niedere  Minne) 
becomes  particularly  important  (Neidhart  von  Reuenthal  and 
others),  while  the  influence  of  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  con- 
tinues to  the  end  of  the  period  and  on  into  the  Meistergesang  of 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 

Proceeding  to  the  Early  New  High  German  period  (1350-1740) 
the  student  must  search  for  amatory  and  threnodic  themes  in  the 
complicated  and  artificial  verse  of  the  Meister singers,  in  the  great 
outburst  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  of  simple 
and  spontaneous  Volkslieder,  in  the  mystical  literature  of  the  same 
centuries,  and  in  the  religious  poetry  surrounding  the  Reformation. 
He  must  then  trace  the  development  of  these  themes  in  the  corre- 
sponding popular  and  religious  poetry  of  the  seventeenth  century 
up  to  the  Latin  Renaissance.  Then  arises  that  question  the  vital 
importance  of  which  we  have  already  noticed  in  earlier  periods  of 
other  European  literatures :  to  what  extent  do  the  native  themes 
pass  under  the  classical  (in  this  case,  French  and  pseudo-classical) 
influence  and  become  colored  thereby,  or  to  what  extent  is  the 
elegiac  poetry  of  the  new  age  a  revival  rather  of  the  ancient 
classical  form  ?  What  relation  to  these  questions  have  the  poems 
of  Weckherlin  (1584-1653)?  He  does  not  use  the  term  'elegy.' 
Opitz  (1597-1639),  however,  does,  both  in  his  poems  and  his 
poetics.  Whether  Opitz  was  the  first  German  poet  to  adopt  this 


408  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

term,  and  what  relation  his  elegiac  verse  bears  to  anterior  German 
elegiac  themes  on  the  one  hand  and  to  the  classical  elegy  on  the 
other,  are  questions  for  consideration.  The  inquiry  should  of  course 
take  account  of  such  of  his  poems  as  are  elegiac  in  theme  though 
not  in  name.  See  the  work  of  Kostlivy,  mentioned  above.  To 
what  extent  did  the  literary  societies  (see  above,  xm,  D)  affect  the 
elegy?  See  especially  the  work. of  Simon  Dach  (1605-1659); 
also  Paul  Fleming's  (1609-1640)  elegy  on  the  Fatherland,  Andre' 
Tscherning's  poem  on  the  coming  of  summer  (1655),  and  several 
sonnets  of  Gryphius  (1616-1664)  composed  in  sorrowful  strain. 
The  study  of  the  German  Renaissance  elegy  must  be  prosecuted 
through  the  debased  euphuistic,  or  Second  Silesian,  school  of 
Lohenstein  and  Hofmannswaldau,  and  through  the  '  court  poets ' 
who  opposed  the  euphuistic  group  (see  especially  the  fresh  and 
charming  amatory  poetry  of  Giinther,  1695—1723),  and  eventually 
under  the  leadership  of  Gottsched  (1700-1766),  the  German 
Boileau,  brought  the  Renaissance  to  its  close. 

Next  must  be  considered  the  elegiac  verse  of  the  Swiss  school 
•of  Bodmer  and  Breitinger,  of  the  quondam  disciples  of  Gottsched 
(see  Bremer  Beitrage),  of  Klopstock  and  his  followers,  and  of 
the  Gottinger  Bund,  which  prolonged  the  influence  of  Klopstock. 
Bodmer  himself  wrote  elegies,  as  did  also  Haller,  E.  von  Kleist, 
and  J.  A.  Cramer ;  also  A.  Kastner,  the  Gottschedian,  and  Gleim, 
the  Anacreontic.  Klopstock,  however,  was  the  dominating  figure 
of  the  new  poetry.  The  Germanic  melancholy  of  the  eighteenth 
century  colors  not  only  a  considerable  part  of  his  patriotic  and 
religious  verse  and  of  his  imitation  of  antiquity,  but  also  several  of 
the  poems  definitely  conceived  and  executed  as  elegies.  Various 
members  of  the  Gottinger  Bund  wrote  elegies,  —  F.  W.  Gotter, 
J.  H.  Voss,  and  J.  M.  Miller ;  but  most  notably  Holty,  who  con- 
tracted the  contagious  Klopstockian  melancholy  and  handed  it  on 
more  or  less  directly  to  Matthisson,  Salis,  Tiedge,  Kosegarten,  and 
Holderlin.  The  elegiac  effect  of  Ossian  (see,  e.g.,  Kretschmann's 
lament  of  Rhingulf  for  the  death  of  Arminius)  and  of  the  English 
melancholic  sepulchral  poets  (see  von  Creuz'  Die  Graber  and 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  409 

poems  by  F.  W,  Zachariae)  has  been  suggested  above  (xin,  E). 
With  the  classical  period  of  Goethe  and  Schiller  —  the  Romische 
Elegien  and  Euphrosyne  of  the  former,  and  the  Spaziergang  and 
Pompeii  of  the  latter  —  we  come  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  to  the  culmination  of  classical  elegy  in  Germany.  Wacker- 
nagel  believes  the  Spaziergang  is  the  greatest  masterpiece  of  all 
elegiac  poetry  (Poetik,  etc.,  176.  1906).  A  modest  claim!  For  a 
follower  of  Goethe  in  this  form,  see  Knebel.  —  Further  examples 
of  elegiac  writing  during  this  century  may  be  found  in  the  various 
poetical  journals  and  collections  of  the  period,  such  as  the  Gottin- 
ger,  the  Vossischer,  and  the  Leipziger  Musenalmanach,  the  Horen, 
Schiller's  Musenalmanach,  etc.  Blankenburg-Sulzer  (cited  above, 
§  5)  give  a  long  list  of  the  elegies  of  this  cehtury  under  the  article 
Elegie,  but  the  list  must  be  used  with  caution.  They  mention  also 
a  collection,  Elegieen  der  Deutschen  (Lemgo:  1776),  which  con- 
tains poems  by  Gleim,  Klopstock,  Wieland,  Kleist,  Ramler,  Haller, 
Karschinn,  Jacobi,  Miiller,  Uz,  Hahn,  Gotter,  Blum,  Holty,  Opitz, 
W.  Heinse,  and  Bodmer.  The  collection  was  made  by  K.  E.  K. 
Schmidt.  Satisfactory  materials  can,  however,  be  obtained  only 
by  first-hand  selection  from  the  lyrical  and  reflective  poems  with 
which  the  age  is  replete. 

Turning  to  the  nineteenth  century  the  student  will  note  the  con- 
tinued restriction  of  the  term  '  elegy '  to  sorrowful  subjects,  and 
the  widening  of  the  metrical  field  to  include  new  varieties  of  verse. 
Romanticism,  upon  the  affinity  of  which  for  the  elegy  we  have 
remarked,  must  be  followed  through  its  decline  in  this  century  and 
the  student  will  listen  for  the  melancholy  note.  The  contribution 
of  new  movements  of  the  spirit,  as  they  affect  the  elegy,  must  be 
taken  into  account.  'Young  Germany,'  the  pessimistic,  naturalistic, 
mystical,  and  symbolistic  movements  all  colored  the  course  of  the 
elegy.  Among  the  German  and  Austrian  poets  of  the  century  who 
wrote  elegies  or  whose  works  were  elegiac  in  tendency,  were  the 
following:  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Riickert,  Holderlin,  Immermann, 
Heine,  Lenau,  '  A.  Grim '  (Graf  von  Auersperg),  J.  C.  F.  von 
Zedlitz,  Geibel,  Herwegh,  Storm,  F.  von  Saar,  etc. 


410  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

(£•)  Elegiac  Poetry  of  Other  European  Nations.  The  rise  of 
amatory  and  threnodic  themes  in  other  literatures,  and  their 
relation  to  the  revival  of  the  classical  elegy,  may  be  traced  by 
means  of  the  apparatus  given  above  for  the  general  study  of 
the  lyric.  In  Portuguese  poetry,  always  distinguished  for  its  lyric 
tendency,  much  material  will  be  found.  The  treatment  of  love 
and  death  may  be  studied  first  in  the  Romanceiros ;  then,  in 
the  rich  field  of  the  Candoneiros,  which,  with  its  Proven£al  court 
poetry,  will  supply  the  usual  troubadour  material.  Italian  renais- 
sance influence  appears  with  Sa  de  Miranda  (1495—1558),  who,  in 
elegiac  composition,  was  followed  by  Antonio  Ferreira,  Andrade 
Caminha,  Diego  Bernardes,  Rodriguez  Lobo,  etc.  But  it  was 
Camoens  (c.  1524-1580)  who  most  of  all  contributed  to  the 
actual  culmination  of  the  sub-type  in  Portugal.  —  In  Spanish 
literature  the  rise  of  erotic  and  threnodic  poetry  may  be  traced 
much  as  in  the  other  European  literatures.  Beginning  with  an 
examination  of  the  early  heroic  poetry,  the  student  will  pass  to  the 
Romanceros,  and  then  to  the  lyric  proper  of  the  fifteenth  century 
(the  Canaoneros).  The  latter,  an  artificial  court  poetry  with  plaints 
of  love  and  death  after  the  manner  of  the  Proven§al  troubadours, 
whose  influence  had  passed  into  Castile  by  way  of  Portugal  and 
Catalonia,  deserves  especial  attention.  In  the  i6th  and  i7th  cen- 
turies the  lyric  note  is  predominantly  Petrarchian,  and  the  study  of 
the  Spanish  elegy  must,  therefore,  direct  itself  in  large  degree 
to  the  imitations  of  the  Italian  terzina,  e.g.,  the  elegies  of  Juan 
Boscan,  of  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  and  even  of  the  great  Lope,  of 
Diego  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  Hernando  de  Acuna,  Juan  de  la 
Cueva,  Fernando  de  Herrera,  Juan  de  Castellanos  (whose  endless 
so-called  elegies  on  the  famous  discoverers  and  conquerors  of 
America  are  more  epical  than  elegiac),  Vicente  Espinel,  Quevedo, 
and  of  numerous  Castilians,  some  of  whom  are  mentioned  by 
Blankenburg-Sulzer  (op.  at.}.  Passing  over  the  lyric  decadence  of 
the  1 8th  century,  the  student  will  next  be  concerned  with  the 
imitations  of  French  poets  of  the  i9th  century  and  with  the  origi- 
nal elegiacs  of  Vicente  Querol,  Federico  Balart,  and  many  others. 


XXXIV,  A]  THE  ELEGY  411 

(fi)  Oriental  Elegiac  Poetry. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  xxii-xxxn. 

In  oriental  poetry,  especially  of  the  Hebrews,  Hindoos,  Persians, 
and  Arabs,  the  student  will  find  uncounted  treasure  of  plaintive 
verse,  amatory  and  obituary.  A  treatise  on  the  whole  subject 
of  oriental  elegiac  verse  by  a  properly  equipped  scholar  is  much 
to  be  desired.  If  choice  of  theme,  however, —  love  or  death, — 
is  to  be  made,  the  preference  should  be  given  to  the  latter,  for  at 
least  in  scattered  essays  the  poetry  of  the  erotic  has  already  re- 
ceived various  and,  in  some  of  its  features,  fairly  adequate  treat- 
ment (compare  above,  xxii-xxxn).  The  prevalence  of  lamentation 
as  a  popular  custom  among  many  oriental  races  suggests  special 
inquiry  into  the  relation  of  the  non-literary  to  the  literary  in  com- 
positions of  this  kind.  The  subject  is  admirably  adapted  to  treat- 
ment in  a  monograph.  See  the  articles  Lamentation,  Mourning 
Customs,  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Biblica,  and  the  references  appended 
to  each.  The  field  of  inquiry  could  of  course  be  widely  extended 
by  reference  to  more  general  anthropological  and  ethnological  ma- 
terials. The  student  will,  however,  first,  and  more  naturally,  devote 
his  attention  to  the  aesthetic  qualities  of  oriental  elegy  —  its  poetic 
fervor  and  intensity,  and  the  fitness,  as  well  as  history,  of  its  rhyth- 
mical forms.  Where  indeed  can  more  dignified  and  yet  piercingly 
poignant  threnodies  be  found  than  in  the  Book  of  Lamentations, 
in  portions  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Isaiah,  and  in  some  of  the 
Psalms  ?  Of  particular  interest  in  Hebrew  poetry  of  this  type 
are  the  passages  cast  in  '  limping  verse,'  which  gradually  became 
identified  with  elegiac  lament.  See  the  section  on  Lamentations  in 
S.  R.  Driver's  Introd.  to  Lit.  of  the  Old  Testament ;  A.  S.  Cook, 
The  Art  of  Poetry  (Boston:  1892),  pp.  230-232;  K.  Budde, 
Das  hebraische  Klagelied,  in  Zeitschr.  f.  die  Alttest.  Wissenschaft 
2:  iff.,  3:  299  ff.,  ii  :  234  ff.,  12:  31  ff.,  261  ff.,  and  Preus- 
sische  Jahrbiicher  73:  46  iff.;  and  the  Encyclopaedia  Biblica  and 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica  articles  upon  the  Old  Testament  books 
mentioned  above,  where  further  bibliography  will  be  found,  and 


412  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

many  suggestions  of  subjects  for  research.  Budde's  series  of 
articles  just  cited  gives  references  to  the  various  Old  Testament 
passages  written  in  the  Hebrew  elegiac  measure,  and  the  article 
Lamentation  in  the  Encyc.  Biblica  furnishes  a  convenient  list  of 
elegiac  specimens  in  the  limping  verse  and  in  other  measures. 
For  the  broadening  of  aesthetic  judgment  and  of  comparative 
view,  the  remaining  literatures  of  the  Orient  furnish  materials 
of  incalculable  value.  What  simple  yet  elevated  sorrow  in  the 
dirge  of  Gilgamesh  over  the  dead  hero  Eabani,  in  the  twelfth 
tablet  of  the  Babylonian  epic  of  Gilgamesh  (see  above,  xxvin) ! 
What,  in  the  way  of  love  lament,  sweeter  or  more  pensive  than 
Kalidasa's  Cloud  Messenger  or  passages  in  the  Sakuntala !  What 
more  flowered  with  loveliness,  mystic  or  sensuous,  but  always 
graceful,  than  the  songs  of  Saadi,  Hafiz,  Jami,  and  a  host  of  others 
(see  Encyc.  Brit.,  Art.  Persia :  Language  and  Literature) !  These 
are  the  merest  fragments  of  suggestions  for  long  but  delightful 
study;  for  more  definite,  though  still  fragmentary,  notices  see 
Vischer,  Aesthetik,  §  894 ;  K.  Rosenkranz,  Die  Poesie  und  ihre 
Geschichte  (Konigsberg:  1855),  pp.  84-86,  387  ff. ;  Carriere,  Die 
Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Kulturentwickelung,  etc.,  vol.  I. 

B.   The  Epigram} 

i.  The  Greek  and  Roman  Epigram. 

The  most  satisfactory  account  of  the  ancient  epigram  is  R.  Reitzen- 
stein's  article  Epigramm  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Realencyclopadie  (1907). 
For  further  notices  of  the  Greek  epigram  see  Flach  (cited  above, 
§  5),  P.  Masqueray's  Bibliog.  pratique  de  la  litt.  grecque  (p.  244),  and 
the  histories  of  Greek  literature,  especially  those  by  Christ,  K.  O. 

1  The  following  notes  on  Epigram,  Ode,  Sonnet,  and  Song  have  been 
made  exceedingly  brief  because  of  lack  of  space.  But  the  national  and 
historical  divisions  and  the  references  in  the  present  section  under  i-xxxui 
and  under  xxxiv,  A,  The  Elegy,  apply  more  or  less  to  all  the  sub-types 
of  the  lyric  ;  and  the  discussions  under  Theory  and  Technique  of  the  Lyric, 
§  i,  iv,  A,  B,  c,  D,  H,  will  indicate  problems  that  call  for  historical  solution. 
The  historical  and  bibliographical  materials  here  supplied  may  enable  the 
student  to  find  his  way  through  the  literature  of  a  few  sub-types  other 
than  the  Elegy. 


XXXIV,  B]  THE  EPIGRAM  413 

Miiller,  Croiset,  Bergk,  Bernhardy,  Susemihl  (G.  Knaack  in  Susemihl's 
Gesch.  d.  gr.  Lit.  in  der  Alexandrinerzeit,  II,  Chap.  XXVI),  Couat; 
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff  (in  Hinneberg's  Kult.  d.  Gegenwart,  T.  I, 
Abt.  VIII,  29,  95,  213.  3d  ed.  1912);  also  Reitzenstein's  Epigramm 
und  Skolion  (1893),  for  the  Alexandrian  period;  Symonds'  Studies  of 
the  Greek  Poets ;  Mackail's  Select  Epigrams  from  the  Greek  Anthology 
(Introduction);  J.  Davies'  essay  on  Epigrams  in  Quart.  Rev.,  117; 
F.  A.  Gragg's  Study  of  the  Greek  Epigram  before  300  B.C.  (in  Pro- 
ceedings, American  A  cad.  of  Arts  and  Sciences  46:  3.  1912);  and 
Garnett's  article  Anthology  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.  Editions,  translations, 
and  imitations  of  the  Anthology  are  cited  by  Garnett,  and  above, 
I,  The  Greek  Lyric;  see  also  Blankenburg-Sulzer,  Art.  Sinngedicht. 
For  further  notices  of  the  Roman  epigram  see  S.  Piazza  (noted  above, 
§  5) ;  the  histories,  especially  those  of  Schanz  and  Teuffel ;  and  the 
references  cited  by  Blankenburg-Sulzer ;  also  Hillscher  in  Jahrb.  f. 
Phil.,  Suppl.  1 8  :  353.  The  collections  of  Latin  epigrams,  by  Burmann 
and  by  Riese-Biicheler,  are  noted  in  Garnett's  article.  Sellar's  Martial 
in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  will  orient  the  student  in  the  study  of  Martial.  See 
further  F.  B.  R.  Hellems,  The  Epigram  and  its  Greatest  Master,  Mar- 
tial (Univ.  of  Colorado,  Studies  4:  5-16.  1906);  H.  Poeschel,  Typen 
aus  der  Anthologia  Palatina  und  der  Epigrammen  Martials  (Diss., 
Miinchen:  1905),  showing  Martial's  imitation  of  satiric  types  in  the 
anthology,  and  contending  that  Martial  is  not  personal  —  perhaps  not 
even  realistic  —  in  his  satire;  P.  G.  von  Spiegel,  Zur  Charakteristik 
des  Epigrammatiker  M.  V.  Martialis  (Progr.,  Innsbruck:  1891),  inter- 
preting the  epigrams  of  Martial  as  an  expression  of  the  poet's  person- 
ality and  times.  —  For  the  Latin  Christian  epigram  see  Ebert  (cited 
above,  §  5),  I,  127,  129,  434,  435,  526,  603;  II,  28,  83,  161  ;  III,  343, 
358  ;  et  passim  ;  the  histories  of  Manitius  cited  above,  §  5  ;  T.  Wright, 
Anglo- Latin  Satirical  Poets  and  Epigrammatists  of  the  i2th  Century 
(Rolls  Series.  2  vols.  Lond. :  1872);  L.  B.  Hessler,  The  Latin  Epi- 
grams of  the  Middle  English  Period  (Menasha,  Wisconsin:  1916). 

The  epigram  may  be  traced  through  all  literatures,  ancient  and 
modern,  occidental  and  oriental.  It  is  one  of  the  most  various 
and  most  prolific  of  types  (see  above,  §  i,  iv,  H,  Epigram),  if 
true  type  it  is.  Its  history  has  not  as  yet  been  traced  with 
systematic  thoroughness,  and  therefore  generalizations  as  to  its 
character  and  development  are  premature.  Of  the  Greek  epigram 
we  have  a  most  unusual  and  immensely  rich  collection  —  the 


414  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Greek  Anthology  —  extending  from  the  sixth  century  before 
Christ  to  the  fourteenth  after.  And  the  amazing  history  here 
revealed  is  of  entrancing  interest,  especially  if  one  adopt  the 
theory  of  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff :  that  in  germinating  power, 
fullness,  and  literary  capability,  the  epigram  as  cultivated  by  the 
Greeks  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  what  we  call  Lyric  Poetry, 
capable  of  recording  any  personal  experience,  whether  of  grief 
—  as  in  the  monumental  inscription  —  or  of  intensely  individual 
love,  or  reflective  emotion,  or  of  scorn  —  as  in  the  pungency  of 
satire.  From  the  epigram,  of  which  he  styles  Callimachus  "  the 
most  perfect  master,"  W.-M.  derives  the  sonnet  of  Shakespeare 
and  much  that  is  most  vivid  and  artistic  in  Goethe.  From  the  epi- 
gram he  derives  the  elegiac  love  poetry  of  the  Alexandrians,  the 
hendecasyllabics  of  Catullus,  the  love  poetry  of  Propertius  and 
Ovid  (see  Die  griech.  Lit.  d.  Altertums,  in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  d. 
Gegenwart  as  above,  C,  Hellenistische  Periode,  III  Poesie).  In 
the  Greek  Anthology  one  finds,  and  may  subject  to  comparative 
review,  the  simple,  dignified,  marble-pure  inscriptions  of  the  Hel- 
lenic period  (700-480  B.C.),  and  of  the  Attic  (480-320)  with 
Simonides  of  Ceos  as  its  glory;  here,  too,  the  varied,  fanciful, 
and  highly  ingenious  epigram  —  votive,  elegiac,  anecdotic,  satirical, 
erotic,  etc.  —  of  the  Hellenistic  or  Alexandrian  period  (320-140), 
whose  best  writers  were  Leonidas  of  Tarentum  and  Callimachus ; 
the  epigram  of  the  Greco-Roman  period  (140  B.C.-A.D.  529),  rich 
with  the  erotic,  oriental  fervor  of  Meleager  of  Gadara  and  his 
followers,  or  the  satirical  vein  of  Nero's  Lucillius,  and  later  of 
Lucian  and  Palladas ;  then,  the  imitative,  ingenious,  and  ornate 
remains  of  the  great  outburst  of  Byzantine  epigram  in  the  age 
of  Justinian  ;  and  the  debased  copyings  of  later  ages. 

Turning  to  literature  in  the  Latin  language,  we  find  remains 
infinitely  less  rich.  To  the  period  before  the  Golden  Age  belong 
the  simple  epitaphs  of  Naevius  and  Pacuvius,  three  similar  epi- 
grams by  Ennius,  and  the  slightly  more  polished  fragments  of 
Lutatius  Catulus,  Licinus,  and  Aedituus.  Later,  in  place  of  the 
charming  grace  and  crystal  purity  of  much  in  the  Greek  Anthology, 


XXXIV,  B]  THE  EPIGRAM  415 

we  find  the  obscene,  scurrilous,  satirical,  servile,  or  frigid,  and 
only  here  and  there  a  truly  beautiful  production.  In  the  Golden 
Age  (63-14  B.C.)  Catullus  writes  epigrams  of  merit  but  without 
the  beauty  of  his  other  work.  Of  the  Roman  epigrammatists 
Martial,  of  the  Flavian  Age  (A.D.  69-96),  was  head  and  front, 
and  his  influence  upon  the  subsequent  development  of  the  epi- 
gram is  paramount.  After  his  time  only  Ausonius,  of  the  fourth 
century,  produced  epigrams  that  are  really  worth  studying.  The 
contribution  of  the  Romans  to  the  sub-type  is  essentially  in  the 
satirical  vein,  and  from  them  has  been  derived  the  modern  view 
that  associates  the  epigrammatic  with  the  satirical. 

2.  The  Modern  Epigram. 

Tracing  the  history  of  this  poetic  form  in  modern  national  litera- 
tures the  student  should  turn  first  to  the  immensely  helpful  lists  of 
epigrammatists  in  Blankenburg-Sulzer,  which  run  from  the  middle  of 
the  1 6th  century  to  nearly  the  end  of  the  i8th.  Next,  the  general 
histories  must  be  brought  under  contribution :  see  the  Appendix  for 
these.  On  the  English  epigram 'see  Professor  Schelling's  Eng.  Lit.  in 
the  Lifetime  of  Shakespeare,  pp.  326-331;  G.  Waterhouse,  The  Lit. 
Relations  of  England  and  Germany  in  the  i  7th  Century  (Cambridge : 
1914),  Chap.  V ;  E.  Urban,  Owenus  (i.e.  John  Owen)  und  die  deutschen 
Epigrammatiker  des  18.  Jahrh.  (see  above,  §  5);  B.  Patzak,  F.  Hebbels 
Epigramme  (in  Forsch.  z.  neueren  Littgesch.,  No.  19.  1902);  W.  D. 
Adams,  Introd.  to  his  English  Epigrams  (Lond. :  1878),  —  popular; 
H.  P.  Dodd,  Introd.  to  his  The  Epigrammatists  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1875), 
—  also  popular.  —  R.  Levy's  Martial  und  die  deutsche  Epigrammatik 
des  17.  Jahrh.  (Diss.  Heidelberg.  Stuttgart:  1903)  is  a  clear  and 
interesting  comparative  study,  with  a  helpful  bibliographical  introduc- 
tion. On  Wernicke  see  R.  Pechel  as  noted  above,  §  2.  For  a  study  of 
oriental  examples  see  B.  H.  Chamberlain,  Basho  and  the  Japanese 
Poetical  Epigram  (Trans.  Asiatic  Soc.  of  Japan,  vol.  30.  1902);  cf. 
Moulton,  Mod.  Study  of  Lit.,  pp.  213-215. 

The  Latinists  of  the  Renaissance  were  prolific  of  epigrams,  and 
the  work  of  such  men  as  Balbus,  Conr.  Celtes,  Pontanus,  Bembo, 
Scaliger,  Stroza,  Sannazaro,  Melanchthon,  Euricius  Cordus  (biogra- 
phy, edition  of  text,  etc.  by  K.  Krause),  the  two  Bellays,  Buchanan, 
More,  and  John  Owen  may  be  traced  in  the  respective  histories  of 


416  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

national  literatures.  A  long  list  of  them  is  given  by  Blankenburg- 
Sulzer  (3:  177-180).  After  examining  these  the  student  should 
inquire  to  what  extent  vernacular  poems  of  an  epigrammatic  char- 
acter preceded  Renaissance  vernacular  poems  actually  labeled  as 
epigrams.  For  this  purpose  he  must  consider  the  terse  Provencal 
poems  in  quatrains,  sixains,  etc.,  the  political  Spriiche  of  the  Min- 
negesang  and  Meistergesang,  etc.  The  study  of  the  relation  of  them 
to  the  epigram  as  such  is  parallel  to  the  study  of  the  relation  of 
the  Proven£al  songs  of  love  and  death  to  the  Renaissance  elegy, 
as  noted  above  (see  A,  6,  (#)).  In  connection  with  this  inquiry  it 
becomes  necessary,  of  course,  to  decide  when  in  each  vernacular 
the  term  epigram  was  introduced  and  when  it  was  first  used  as 
the  designation  of  a  poem.  —  After  scrutinizing  the  interrelation 
of  these  three  strands  —  the  Renaissance  Latin  epigram,  the  early 
vernacular  poem  that  is  epigrammatic  in  character  but  not  in 
name,  and  the  duly  labeled  vernacular  epigram  —  the  student 
may  proceed  to  determine  by  further  research  successive  varia- 
tions of  the  type  in  respect  both  of  form  and  content.  Of  the 
modern  European  nations  the  French  have  displayed  the  greatest 
cleverness  in  the  epigram,  and  the  Italians,  perhaps,  the  least. 
Marot  and  Mellin  de  St.-Gelais  were  the  pioneers  of  the  French 
epigram  as  such.  Other  French  writers  of  epigrams  are  de  Cailly, 
Pons  de  Verdun,  Boileau,  J.-B.  Rousseau,  P.  D.  E\  Lebrun,  Voltaire, 
Marmontel,  Piron,  Rulhiere,  and  M.-J.  Chenier.  —  The  English 
epigram  of  the  Elizabethan  Age,  Professor  S.  M.  Tucker  has  said, 
"  was  the  resultant  of  two  distinct  influences :  the  English  epigrams 
of  John  Heywood,  which  were  general,  didactic,  and  impersonal, 
and  the  Latin  epigrams  of  Martial,  which  were  particular,  personal, 
sometimes  satirical,  sometimes  eulogistic,  but  almost  always  occa- 
sional. These  two  influences  appear  chiefly  in  the  epigrams  of 
Sir  John  Harington,  but  they  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  work 
of  Davies,  Bastard,  Weever,  and  a  score  of  other  epigrammatists 
[including  the  Latin  epigrams  of  John  Owen  ?]  of  the  Elizabethan 
and  the  Jacobean  Age."  No  one,  unless  it  be  Pope,  and  in  these 
later  days  William  Watson,  has  actually  distinguished  himself 


XXXIV,  C]  THE  ODE  417 

among  the  English  as  a  writer  of  epigrams,  but  the  student  may 
find  epigrammatic  poems  among  the  works  of  the  following,  to 
mention  only  a  few:  Robert  Crowley,  Henry  Parrot,  Spenser, 
Ben  Jonson  (Underwoods),  Herrick,  Cowley,  Waller,  Dryden, 
Prior,  Parnell,  Swift,  Addison,  Johnson,  Goldsmith,  and  Young 
(list  from  Encyc.  Brit.).  —  The  Germans  have  shown  a  great  love 
for  the  epigram,  especially  for  the  didactic  variety  (Sinngedicht*). 
Friedrich  von  Logau  (1604-1655),  with  his  three  thousand  epi- 
grams, is  typical  of  this  interest,  and  is  himself  "  an  epigrammatist 
of  first  rank."  No  other  modern  literature  possesses  a  Logau. 
Among  other  German  writers  of  epigrams  are  Conrad  Celtes  (in 
Latin),  Weckherlin,  Opitz,  Tscherning,  Gryphius,  Wernicke,  Kleist, 
Gleim,  Hagedorn,  Klopstock,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Lessing,  Herder, 
Goethe,  Schiller,  Kastner,  Haug,  Hebbel.  Also  should  be  con- 
sidered the  epigrammatic  character  of  the  Priamel — a  brief,  sen- 
tentious form  much  in  favor  from  the  i2th  to  the  i5th  century 
—  of  which  Rosenpliit  (i5th  cent.)  was  master  (see  K.  Euling, 
Das  Priamel  bis  Hans  Rosenpliit,  Studien  zur  Volkspoesie,  in 
German.  Abhand.,  No.  25.  1905).  See,  further,  Encyc.  Brit. 

C.  The  Ode. 

Consult  the  general  histories  and  the  monographs  on  national  lyric 
literatures  as  already  noted.  Blankenburg-Sulzer  and  Quadrio  give  long 
lists  of  writers  of  odes,  ancient  and  modern,  coming  down,  in  Blanken- 
burg,  to  the  close  of  the  i8th  century.  See  also  the  references  given 
above,  §  i ,  iv,  c,  The  Ode,  and  §  3  passim  (especially  iv,  B,  c,  D). 

In  following  the  history  of  the  ode  the  student  should  cover 
the  historical  divisions  indicated  above  in  the  outline  of  the  history 
of  the  elegy.  He  will  be  concerned  largely  in  tracing  the  develop- 
ment of  the  more  impersonal  choral  ode  (Doric-Pindaric)  and  of 
the  more  personal,  subjective  (Lesbian-Aeolic-Sapphic)  in  Greece, 
the  Lesbian-Horatian  in  Rome,  and  the  influence  of  Pindar  on  the 
one  hand  and  of  Horace  on  the  other  upon  the  modern  ode. 

Of  particular  forms  or  stages  of  the  ode  the  following  are  the 
most  important,  (i)  The  Dorian  choral  ode  (Alcman,  Stesichorus, 


418  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Ibycus,  Simonides  of  Ceos,  Pindar,  Bacchylides),  which  was  occa- 
sional in  character,  as,  for  instance,  that  of  Pindar  celebrating 
victories  in  the  Panhellenic  Games.  From  such  supreme  festivals, 
indeed,  with  their  communal  excitement  'and  significance,  was 
derived  much  of  the  elevated  measure,  sublime  thought,  and 
highly  imaginative  interpretation  of  fact  that  have  been  the  inheri- 
tance of  the  sub-type.  Without,  .however,  the  soaring  genius  of 
Pindar,  perfectly  adapted  to  such  themes,  and  the  unity  in  variety 
of  his  strophe,  antistrophe,  and  epode,  the  inheritance  would  have 
been  far  less  rich.  The  emphasis  placed  upon  the  objective  and 
social  occasion"  in  these  poems  renders  them  somewhat  epical  in 
subject,  though  they  are  lyric  in  their  enthusiastic  treatment  of 
the  theme.  Hence  some  critics  have  regarded  the  Dorian  occa- 
sional ode  as  a  transitional  type  falling  between  the  epic  and  pure 
lyric  (Wackernagel).  The  Homeric  Hymns  are  even  more  epical 
in  character.  It  has  also  been  suggested  that  the  elegy  is  an 
homologous  transitional  type  developed  by  the  lonians  (Carriere, 
Wackerhagel).  —  (2)  Choral  odes  of  the  Greek  drama.  These 
are  more  flexible  and  less  varied  in  character,  less  sublime  and 
often  more  pathetic.  Modern  translations  by  Paley,  Plumptre, 
Gilbert  Murray,  etc.;  and  modern  imitations  by  Milton  (Samson 
Agonistes),  Browning  (Agamemnon),  Arnold  (Empedocles  on 
Etna),  Swinburne  (Atalanta  in  Calydon,  Erechtheus),  Bridges 
(Prometheus  the  Firegiverand  other  dramas).  —  (3)  The  ancient 
Greek  and  Roman  personal  ode  (Alcaeus,  Anacreon,  Sappho, 
Horace,  Catullus,  etc.),  identically  stanzaic  in  form,  graceful,  pas- 
sionate or  witty,  subjective  and  personal :  practically  the  only  kind 
cultivated  by  the  Romans  at  all  extensively.  —  (4)  Medieval  forms, 
analogous  to  (i)  or  (3),  viz.,  canzones,  sirventh,  Leiche, — or  the  lyrics 
of  the  Crusades,  such  as  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide's  Kreuzlied 
of  1228  (see  Wackernagel,  and'Gosse's  Art.  Ode,  Encyc.  Brit). 
Did  the  Crusades  afford  a  communal  interest  and  occasion  com- 
parable to  the  Panhellenic  Games  ?  —  (5)  Renaissance  Latin  odes, 
as  those  of  Pontanus,  Conr.  Celtes,  Joh.  Secundus,  Sadolet,  M.  A. 
Flaminio,  J.  S.  Macrinus,  G.  Fabricius,  Jean  Du  Bellay,  G.  Buchanan, 


XXXIV,  C]  THE  ODE  419 

and  a  host  of  others.  —  (6)  Renaissance  and  other  early  vernacular 
attempts  to  emulate  the  ancient  ode,  both  Pindaric  and  Horatian : 
see  the  odes  of  Ronsard  (who  took  Pindar  for  model,  and 'then 
Anacreon  and  Horace)  and  the  Pleiade,  and,  later,  of  J.-B. 
Rousseau,  Saint-Amant,  and  Malherbe ;  the  odes  of  Ben  Jonson, 
Drayton,  Randolph,  Marvell,  Rochester,  after  the  Horatian  manner, 
identically  stanzaic;  the  odes  of  Milton  (Christ's  Nativity,  On 
Time,  At  a  Solemn  Music),  of  Pindaric  exaltation  —  and  of  stately 
form,  but  not  Pindaric  or  Horatian ;  the  odes  of  Alamanni,  Ber- 
nardo Tasso,  Chiabrera,  Guido  Cassoni  (Odi,  Ven. :  1601),  Men- 
zini,  Crescimbeni,  etc.;  the  odes  of  Weckherlin  (see  Wackernagel, 
Poetik,  3d  ed.,  192),  Opitz,  Tscherning,  Gryphius,  von  Canitz, 
etc.  —  (7)  The  Cowleyan,  frankly  irregular  '  Pindarics  '  (1656  +), 
already  described  (see  above,  §  i ,  iv,  c,  The  Ode ;  cf .  Saintsbury, 
Hist.  Eng.  Prosody,  2:  338,  381,  402,  etc.).  See  the  irregular 
Pindaric  odes  of  Sprat,  Dryden,  Otway,  Swift,  Yalden,  Pope 
(for  further  lists  see  Schipper,  Eng.  Metrik,  2  :  806  ff.,  Bonn : 
1889 ;  Kaluza-Dunstan,  A  Short  Hist,  of  Eng.  Versification, 
p.  371,  Lond. :  1911).  —  (8)  The  modern  regular  ode.  Ben  Jon- 
son  had  already  written  a  carefully  constructed  Pindaric  ode  on 
the  death  of  Sir  H.  Morison,  but  it  had  no  immediate  successors. 
In  the  reaction  against  and  correction  of  the  '  irregular '  Pindarics 
Congreve's  Discourse  on  the  Pindarique  'Ode  (1705)  leads  the 
way.  Congreve  was  followed  in  his  experiments  with  the  regular 
form  by  Ambrose  Philips,  but  soon  the  irregular  returned  to  favor. 
Later  Gray,  who  had  studied  Pindar,  reintroduced  the  regular 
Pindaric  with  his  Progress  of  Poesy  (1754)  and  his  Bard  (1756). 
Collins  meanwhile  wrote  odes,  sometimes  of  the  Lesbian-Roman 
type,  sometimes  more  nearly  approaching  the  Pindaric.  Mason 
and  Akenside,  also,  wrote  exceedingly  formal  odes.  Cf.  Schipper, 
op.  tit.,  2:  818  ff. ;  also  .above,  (2).  —  (9)  The  modern  romantic 
ode.  During  the  nineteenth  century  there  was  little  exact  imita- 
tion of  either  the  Pindaric  or  the  Horatian  ode.  The  romantic  ode 
may  resemble  distantly  the  Pindaric,  but  it  is  of  fluid  organism ; 
it  may  resemble  the  Horatian,  but  it  is  of  more  intricate  stanzaic 


420  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

form.  Among  the  best  writers  of  the  romantic  ode  are  Words- 
worth, Coleridge,  Shelley,  Keats,  Tennyson,  Patmore,  Swinburne, 
Wm.  Morris,  Robert  Bridges,  Bayard  Taylor,  Lowell,  Wm.  Vaughan 
Moody,  Woodberry.  —  In  addition  to  these  forms  by  historic  stages 
may  be  mentioned  one  which  has  been  cultivated  in  various  periods. 
(10)  "  Homostrophic  type"  (Alden,  342),  i.e.  the  ode  "based  on 
a  single  type  of  elaborate  strophe,  which  may  vary  slightly  in  the 
course  of  the  poem,  but  not  sufficiently  to  result  in  contrasted 
types."  Examples  given  by  Alden  are  Spenser's  two  marriage 
odes,  Collins'  Superstitions  of  the  Highlands,  Coleridge's  Ode  to 
France ;  to  which  may  be  added  some  of  the  elaborate  lyrics  of 
Keats  and  Swinburne. 

For  somewhat  similar  modern  developments  in  continental  Europe 
see  divisions  above  on  the  lyric  in  France,  Italy,  Germany,  etc. 

D.  The  Sonnet.  On  the  general  character  (theory  and  technique) 
of  the  sonnet,  see  above,  §  i,  iv,  D,  Sonnet,  and  the  references 
there  listed;  also  many  of  the  works  annotated  in  §  2,  especially 
those  by  Alden,  Beeching,  Brunetiere,  Erskine,  Gayley,  Gottschall, 
Guest,  Gummere,  Hepple,  Hunt  and  Lee,  Kaluza,  Lewis,  Moulton, 
Noble,  Pattison,  Quiller-Couch,  Reed,  Rhys,  Saintsbury,  F.  E. 
Schelling,  Schipper  (Neuengl.  Metr.,  pp.  835-886 :  an  exhaus- 
tive treatment,  critical  and  historical),  Tomlinson,  Viehoff,  Wacker- 
nagel,  Watts-Dunton,  and  Werner.  See  also  E.  W.  Olmstead, 
above,  §  5  ;  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  504-505. 

On  the  origin  and  development  of  the  sonnet,  see  the  references 
just  indicated  ;  the  various  literary  histories  noted  in  the  Appendix ; 
also  above,  vm,  The  Italian  Lyric,  c,  The  i3th  Century,  includ- 
ing References  to  Symonds,  Waddington,  Biadene,  Bunge,  and 
Vollmoller's  Jahresbericht ;  see  also  F.  J.  Snell,  The  Fourteenth 
Century  (1899),  pp.  104-106;  also  above,  vn,  The  French 
Lyric,  G,  The  i6th  Century,  including  References  to  Vaganay 
(who  adds  to  his  indispensable  work  a  most  valuable  bibliography), 
Veyrieres,  Morf,  Asselineau,  Morel-Fatio,  Pflanzel,  M.  Jasinski, 
Hist,  du  Sonnet  en  France  (1903),  and  Vianey;  also  above, 
ix,  The  Spanish  Lyric,  B,  The  Golden  Age  of  Castilian  Lit., 


XXXIV,  E]  THE  SONG  421 

including  under  References  the  Investigates  etc.  of  Michaelis 
de  Vasconcellos ;  also  above,  xi,  The  English  Lyric,  c,  The 
1 6th  Century,  including  References  to  Alscher,  Quart.  Rev., 
Beeching,  Borghesi,  Carpenter,  Child,  Courthope,  Crow,  Dowden, 
De  Marchi,  Einstein,  Fehse,  Foxwell,  Guggenheim,  Hertzberg, 
Kastner,  Koeppel,  Lee,  Lentzner,  Noble,  Owen,  Padelford, 
Schelling,  Segrd, .  Simonds,  Upham,  Zocco.  For  the  German 
sonnet  see  the  work  of  Welti  cited  in  §  5,  and  M.  Freiherr  von 
Waldberg's  Deutsche  Renaissancelyrik  (Berlin:  1888).  Many  of 
these  works,  and  others  containing  material  on  the  sonnet,  are 
annotated  in  §  5. 

E.  The  Song.  On  the  general  nature  of  the  song,  see  above, 
§  i,  iv,  A,  Song,  and  the  references  there  noted.  The  history  of 
this  sub-type  resolves  itself  into  a  composite  of  the  development 
of  hundreds  of  its  varieties.  Every  people  possesses  many  sorts, 
and  by  studying  comparatively  distinctive  kinds  from  each  of 
several  representative  nations  or  races  the  student  may  endeavor 
to  arrive  inductively  at  the  general  laws  governing  the  appearance 
and  growth  of  song,  both  popular  (Volkslied)  and  '  artistic '  (Kunst- 
lied}.  Many  of  the  varieties  of  song  and  the  references  necessary 
to  further  research  have  been  mentioned  above,  in  the  various 
divisions  of  this  section. 

For  a  systematic  study  of  the  development  of  song  it  would 
be  well  to  begin  with  a  study  of  the  varieties  discoverable  among 
the  lower  races  (see  above,  xxxni).  The  prevailingly  occasional 
character  of  primitive  songs,  the  obviousness  of  their  relations  to 
social  conditions  and  needs,  and  the  simpleness  of  their  content, 
form,  and  technique  will  enable  the  student  to  lay  a  relatively  sure 
foundation  for  further  study.  He  may  proceed  then  to  note  in 
what  ways,  and  by  what  causes,  each  variety  of  primitive  song  is 
modified  in  the  lyrism  of  the  more  cultivated  races.  For  instance, 
after  studying  the  method  of  origin  and  the  character  of  erotic 
song,  as  found,  say,  among  Australians,  Papuans,  Esquimaux,  or 
other  lower  races,  he  may,  if  he  be  accorded  grace  of  infinite 
industry,  pass  in  review  the  corresponding  output  of  ancient 


422  HISTORY  OF  THE  LYRIC  [§  6 

Greece,  of  Provence,  of  Italy,  of  the  Teutons  and  Slavs,  of 
Persians  and  Arabs,  and  noting  in  each  case  the  characteristic 
differences  from  the  primitive  bases,  may  providentially  arrive 
at  some  generalization  regarding  the  higher  stages  of  erotic  song 
and  the  typical  social  environment  of  each  stage.  For  suggestions 
as  to  the  more  important  steps  in  variation  of  form,  content,  and 
accompaniment,  see  above,  §  i ,  iv,  A.  Similar  results  for  working 
songs,  war  songs,  convivial  songs,  seasonal  songs,  satirical  songs, 
etc.,  might  then  be  obtained.  Finally,  if  ever  such  sequences  of 
development  are  arranged  side  by  side,  certain  natural  horizontal 
cleavages,  or  cross-sections,  may  be  seen  to  extend  over  several  of 
the  series,  indicative  in  each  case  of  some  common  action  of  a  set 
of  social  or  other  causes  upon  several  varieties  of  song. 


PART  II.  THE  EPIC  AND  MINOR  FORMS 
OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY 

CHAPTER  III 

THEORY  AND  TECHNIQUE 

SECTION  7.    STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS  ;  ANALYSIS 

The  term  epic  is  regarded  in  the  following  pages  not  as  equiva- 
lent to  all  narrative  poetry  of  an  objective  sort  —  ua  poetical 
recitation  of  great  adventures"  (Blair)  —  but  as  denominating 
only  the  more  elevated  styles  of  poetic  narrative,  including  both 
folk  epic  and  art  epic.  In  this  and  the  two  following  sections 
the  treatment  is  of  the  theory  of  epic,  ballad,  pastoral,  idyl,  with 
only  suggestions  of  the  historical  bases  and  the  historical  method 
of  attack.  In  §§io,  IT,  12  will  be  found  an  exposition  of  the 
historical  view  and  apparatus ;  and  in  §12  a  few  references  to 
the  development  of  metrical  romance  as  connected  with  the  history 
of  the  epic  are  included. 

I.  Definitions  of  the  Epic.  For  discussions  of  ancient  and 
modern  definitions  of  the  epic  see  the  works  of  W.  M.  Dixon 
(Chap.  I),  Irene  Myers,  and  R.  M.  Alden,  as  indicated  below, 
§  8.  It  is  interesting  and  significant  to  note  the  conclusions  of 
Miss  Myers  and  Professor  Dixon.  The  former,  after  examining 
typical  definitions  from  the  chief  periods  of  literary  criticism, 
observes  that  critics  are  agreed  upon  only  one  feature  of  the 
epic  —  its  narrative  form  —  which,  of  course,  as  a  differentia  is 
not  exclusive.  In  the  rest  of  her  work  Miss  Myers  proceeds  to 
differentiate  the  epic  from  other  narrative  poetry  by  peculiarities 
of  development.  Professor  Dixon  first  notes  the  confusion  and 

423 


424  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

contradiction  of  the  formal  definitions  of  the  epic,  and  their  lack 
of  universality  as  tested  by  application  to  the  great  variety  of 
epic  literature.  He  then  turns  away  from  all  critical  rules  and 
principles  that  have  been  put  forth  as  exclusively  characteristic 
of  the  epic  and  seeks  "principles  of  inclusion,  i.e.,  such  aspects 
or  qualities  as  are  possessed  in  common  by  those  narrative  poems 
which  by  the  world's  consent  have  attained  some  measure  of 
success."  Thus  he  hopes  to  "  reach,  by  easier  paths,  the  idea 
or  controlling  conception  of  epic  poetry"  (p.  21).  Among  these 
inclusive  principles  the  following  are  enumerated  :  the  epic  depicts 
a  victorious  hero,  who  represents  a  country  or  a  cause  which 
triumphs  with  his  triumph ;  it  presents  a  great  or  important 
action,  and  the  characters  are  great  or  important;  a  certain  ele- 
vation of  tone  pervades  the  whole  poem  ;  the  action,  in  comparison 
with  the  drama,  is  slow  and  episodical,  and  achieves  no  more  than 
a  diffuse  unity;  the  larger  the  scope  of  human  interest  and  ex- 
perience, the  greater  the  success  of  the  poem ;  epic  carries  the 
imagination  into  the  past,  into  the  land  of  dreams  and  ideals,  — 
to  it  lies  open  "  a  region  forbidden  to  tragedy,  the  shining  region 
to  which  imagination  guides,  the  underworld  of  Virgil,  the  Hell, 
or  Heaven,  or  Paradise  of  Dante  or  of  Milton  "  (21-24).  In  sum> 
the  epic  is  described  as  "  a  narrative  poem,  organic  in  structure, 
dealing  with  great  actions  and  great  characters,  in  a  style  com- 
mensurate with  the  lordliness  of  its  theme,  which  tends  to  realize 
these  characters  and  actions,  and  to  sustain  and  embellish  its 
subject  by  means  of  episode  and  amplification"  (24).  With  this 
description  may  be  compared  the  following : 

The  epic  in  general,  ancient  and  modern,  may  be  described  as  a 
dispassionate  recital  in  dignified  rhythmic  narrative  of  a  momentous 
theme  or  action  fulfilled  by  heroic  characters  and  supernatural  agencies 
under  the  control  of  a  sovereign  destiny.  The  theme  involves  the 
political  or  religious  interests  of  a  people  or  of  mankind ;  it  commands 
the  respect  due  to  popular  tradition  or  to  traditional  ideals.  .The  poem 
awakens  the  sense  of  the  mysterious,  the  awful,  and  the  sublime; 
through  perilous  crises  it  uplifts  and  calms  the  strife  of  frail  humanity 
(C.  M.  Gayley,  Principles  of  Poetry,  pp.  xciv-xcv). 


I,  A]  DEFINITIONS  OF  THE  EPIC  425 

Fully  to  understand  these  descriptions,  as  well  as  the  spirit  of 
Miss  Myers'  indictment  and  of  her  recourse  to  differentiae  of 
development,  the  student  should  review  ancient  and  modern  defi- 
nitions of  the  epic  in  historical  order,  for  thus  only  will  he  note 
the  progressive  widening  of  the  conception  of  the  type.  In  this 
progress  four  fairly  well-marked  stages  are  discernible. 

A.  The  Formalism  of  Classical  Antiquity.     The  Aristotelian 
conception  (references  below,  §  8)  is  almost  purely  formal.    Epic 
is  distinguished  from  drama  by  its  narrative  form,  its  employment 
of  a  single  metre,  the  complex  and  expansive  scale  of  its  construc- 
tion, and  the  degree  to  which  it  admits  the  wonderful ;  its  unity 
of  action  is  defined  and  contrasted  with  the  scope  of  historical 
composition ;    the  objective  attitude  of  the  poet  is  regarded  as 
desirable;   and  the  relative  aesthetic  value  of  epic  and  tragedy 
is  debated.    Horace  glances  at  the  epic  as  a  narrative,  in  hex- 
ameters, of  great  deeds,  —  the  "  deeds  of  captains  and'  of  kings, 
and  tearful  wars"  (Ars  Poetica,  73-74). 

B.  Renaissance  and  Neo-classical  Formalism.    Renaissance  con- 
ceptions of  the  epic  were  based  upon  Horace,  or  Aristotle,  or 
both.    As  a  whole  this  period  of  criticism  is  characterized  by  such 
worship  of  Homer  and  Virgil  that  the  epic  poem  comes  in  reality 
to  be  regarded  as  an  imitation -of  the  Iliad  or  the  Aeneid;  by 
a  differentiation  of  epic  and  romance  so  that  with  the  former 
are  associated  strictness  of  plot  and  restraint  in  the  use  of  the 
marvellous,  but  with  the  latter   looseness   of   plot   and   lawless 
exaggeration ;  and  by  a  multiplication  of  detailed  '  rules '  for  com- 
posing epics,  supposed  to  be  drawn  from  inalienable  principles 
of  the  perfect  type,  so  that  the  whole  conception  of  the  poem  is 
narrowed,  formalized,  and  rendered  both  unhistorical  and  unpro- 
gressive.    It  was  thought  that  a  poet  of  fair  genius  and  industry 
conscientiously   following   the    rules    might    hope   to   produce   a 
successful  epic  poem.     No  difference  between  the  natural  and 
the  artificial  (imitative)  epic  was' recognized,  but  something  was 
said  about  different  degrees  of  success  in  poetic  expressiveness, 
rhetorical   coloring,    and   formal    epic   '  technique.5     Under   such 


426  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

inspiration  critics  in  general,  especially  in  France  and  England, 
displayed  a  tendency  to  be  satisfied  with  the  vague  Horatian  defini- 
tion,—  the  epic  is,  practically,  a  long  narrative  poem  about  great 
leaders,  a  vaste  recit  cfune  longue  action  (Boileau,  Art  Poetique, 
3:  161).  As  Webbe  puts  it,  the  epic  is  "that  princely  part  of 
poetry,  wherein  are  displayed  the  noble  acts  and  valiant  exploits 
of  puissant  captains,  expert  soldiers,  wise  men,  with  the  famous 
reports  of  ancient  times"  (see  Haslewood's  Ancient  Crit.  Essays, 
vol.  II,  p.  45).  The  moral,  educational  intent  of  the  epic  became 
a  critical  sine  qua  non  (deriving  chiefly  from  Horace's  passage  on 
poetry  as  a  civilizer,  Ars  Poetica,  391-407),  and  not  a  few  pro- 
found heads  regarded  Homer's  myths  as  allegorical  presentations 
of  moral  truths,  —  an  interpretative  method  of  hoar  antiquity 
(cf.  below,  §9,1).  The  Italians,  followed  by  the  critics  of  other 
nations,  developed  intricate  debates  upon  the  propriety  of  apply- 
ing Aristotelian  rules  to  the  romantic  epics  of  Boiardo  and  Ariosto 
(see  Cintio  and  Pigna),  upon  the  necessity  of  the  action  being 
historical,  and  remote  in-  time,  upon  the  desirability  of  perfect  char- 
acters or  those  with  a  tragic  flaw,  upon  the  propriety  of  employing 
Christian  marvels  ('  machinery '),  upon  the  nature  of  epic  unity  of 
action,  the  use  of  episodes,  the  desirability  of  a  didactic  purpose 
or  allegorical  method,  etc.,  etc.  For  examples  of  Renaissance  con- 
ceptions (Italian,  French,  English)  of  the  epic,  see  Spingarn  (op. 
cit.  infra,  §8,  isted.,  pp.  107-124  for  Vida,  Danielle,  Trissino, 
Minturno,  -Scaliger,  Castelvetro,  Giraldi  Cintio,  G.  Pigna,  Speroni, 
and  Torquato  Tasso ;  pp.  210-213  f°r  Ronsard,  Vauquelin  de  la 
Fresnaye,  and  Boileau;  pp.  293-295  for  Webbe,  Puttenham, , 
Sidney,  and  Harington);  see  also  below,  §  9.  For  other  neo- 
classical definitions  see  Le  Bossu,  Mambrun,  Rapin,  Dacier, 
Voltaire,  Dryden,  Addison,  Pope,  Swift,  all  of  whom  are  men- 
tioned below  in  §  8  or  §  9,  and  may  be  traced  by  means  of  the 
index.  With  Le  Bossu  we  reach  the  reductio  ad  absurdum  of 
formalism,  didacticism,  and  recipe-making:  he  viewed  the  epic 
as  "  a  discourse  invented  by  art,  to  form  the  manners  by  such 
instructions  as  are  disguised  under  the  allegories  of  some  one 


I,  C]  DEFINITIONS  OF  THE  EPIC  427 

important  action,  which  is  related  in  verse,  after  a  probable, 
diverting,  and  surprising  manner"  (cf.  Mme.  Dacier,  and  Swift's 
satirical  recipe  for  making  an  epic  poem). 

C.  Philosophical  Criticism  of  the  i8th  and  igth  Centuries. 
From  Hegel,  Schopenhauer,  Schelling,  Goethe,  Schiller,  Vischer, 
Carriere,  and  others  has  descended  that  school  of  thought  which 
regards  the  epic  as  primarily  an  expression  of  the  national  spirit, 
differentiates  it  from  other  genres  upon  philosophical  grounds 
of  objectivity  and  the  subjection  of  individual  action  to  universal 
necessity,  and  distinguishes  between  the  original,  national  epics 
and  the  secondary,  imitative  epic  poem.  Hegel,  for  instance,  con- 
tends that  the  proper  subject  of  the  epic  is  "  some  past  action, 
some  event  which,  in  the  vast  reach  of  its  circumstances,  and  the 
multitude  and  interests  of  its  relations,  embraces  an  entire  world, 
the  life  of  a  nation,  or  the  entire  history  of  an  epoch." 

The  totality  of  the  beliefs  of  a  people,  religious  and  other,  ifs  spirit 
developed  in  the  form  of  a  real  event,  which  is  its  living  picture,  this 
is  the  idea  and  form  of  the  Epos.  ...  It  thus  becomes  the  Bible  for 
a  people,  though  not  all  Bibles  are  Epics.  .  .  .  The  Epic  poem  belongs 
to  a  period  between  the  slumber  of  barbarism  and  the  more  civilized 
order.  .  .  .  The  age  in  which  the  Epos  is  written  must  not  be  so  far 
from  the  one  furnishing  the  subject  that  no  sympathy  exists  between 
them.  If  so,  the  performance  seems  artificial.  .  .  .  For  the  Epos  the 
complex  relations  of  the  fixed  social  life  are  not  suited.  .  .  .  So,  too, 
the  connection  of  man  with  external  nature  must  not  be  artificial,  but 
preserve  its  primitive  and  immediate  character.  .  .  .  Man  has  not  yet 
broken  his  close  connection  with  nature,  and  imposed  a  complex  ma- 
chinery between  it  and  himself.  .  .  .  The  Epic  treatment  differs  from 
the  Dramatic.  In  the  latter,  the  character  creates  his  destiny  for  himself. 
In  the  former,  this  destiny  is  the  result  of  exterior  forces.  Man  submits 
to  the  fatal  and  necessary  order,  which  may  or  may  not  be  in  harmony 
with  him.  But  this  seeming  fatality  is  but  a  higher  kind  of  justice 
(Kedney,  pp.  278-280,  op.  cit.  §  8). 

By  such  a  conception  of  the  national,  or  at  least  broad  social, 
significance  of  the  epic  —  a  conception  that  was  perhaps  latent  in 
the  minds  of  Aristotle  and  Horace,  and  even  of  some  of  their 
Renaissance  followers  —  the  idea  of  the  nature  and  function  of 


428  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

the  epic  was  vastly  widened  and  deepened.  No  longer  could  critics 
or  poets  speak  lightly  of  the  epic,  in  formal  terms  of  rule  and 
recipe ;  now  it  was  seen  and  reverenced  as  a  social  colossus,  a 
product  of  a  unique  age  and  genius,  a  monument  of  that  past 
that  dies  whenever  a  modern  society,  complex  and  individualistic, 
divorced  from  nature  and  seething  with  a  mass  of  self-conscious, 
progressive  citizens,  is  born.  The  hope  of  reproducing  such  epics 
in  a  modern  society  vanished ;  the  distinction  between  the  folk 
epic  and  the  art  epic  was  realized.  However  the  philosophical 
critics  may  have  differed  in  their  utterances  upon  the  epic,  what- 
ever may  be  the  contradictions  of  the  major  premises  from  which 
they  have  deduced  th$  nature  and  function  of  the  type,  they  are 
all  in  substantial  agreement  upon  the  social  character  of  the  great 
primary  epic. 

D.  Modern  Historical  Criticism.  The  conception  of  the  natural 
epic  as  a  majestic  national  poem  paved  the  way  for  a  new  idea 
about  its  authorship  and  method  of  development.  These,  too,  in 
the  opinion  of  many,  were  national  or  social,  rather  than  individual, 
in  character.  The  materials  of  the  epos  are  not  the  creation  of 
some  one  poet,  but  the  evolutionary  product  of  generations  of 
anonymous,  forgotten  bards  who  told  and  retold  to  audiences 
captivated  by  the  glamor  of  a  glorious  past  the  legends  of  the 
nation's  heroes  intertwined  with  the  myths  of  national  gods. 
From  bard  to  bard,  generation  to  generation,  the  golden  stories 
passed  in  the  form  of  lays,  sagas,  or  ballads.  Gathere'd  into  col- 
lections or  gests  that  were  at  first  oral,  and  later  written,  and  that 
involved  the  gradual  development  of  legend-cycles  about  this  or 
that  hero,  critical  event,  or  belief,  these  tales,  freighted  with  the 
imaginative  and  patriotic  genius  of  a  communal  people,  might 
either  continue  their  round  of  oral  or  written  repetition  age  by 
age,  until  a  new  spirit  and  a  new  order  of  society  should  render 
them  obsolete,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  they  might  at  last  be  retold 
by  a  master  poet  of  such  flaming  genius  that  in  the  consummate 
form  impressed  upon  them  by  him  they  would  become  great  folk 
of  national  epics. 


I,D]  DEFINITIONS  OF  THE  EPIC  429 

In  later  individualistic  stages  of  civilization,  when  the  conditions 
of  authorship  are  no  longer  naive  and  anonymous,  but  primarily 
self-conscious  and  '  artistic,'  certain  art-poets  endeavor  to  imitate 
the  manner  and  grandeur  of  the  folk  epic.  If  with  this  purpose 
they  choose  some  great  historical,  legendary,  or  sacred  theme,  long 
since  rehearsed  in  literary  forms  that  fell  short  of  the  epic,  there 
may  result  a  Paradise  Lost  or  an  Idylls  of  the  King.  If,  instead, 
novel  or  didactic  subjects  or  historical  subjects  of  lesser  magnitude 
be  chosen,  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  folk  epic  is  lost,  and  the 
resulting  poem  (such  as  Lucretius'  De  Renim  Natura,  Pollok's 
Course  of  Time,  or  Addison's  Campaign)  may  depart  so  far  from 
the  nature  of  the  model,  something  of  whose  style  alone  may  have 
been  copied,  that  another  poetic  variety  has  been  formed.  But  even 
when  the  subject  chosen  by  the  art-poet  is  at  once  legendary,  sub- 
lime, and  popular,  his  poem  lacks  the  majesty,  the  simple,  inevitable 
grandeur  of  the  folk  epic.  Too  far  removed  from  the  age  of  which 
he  writes  to  be  in  untutored  sympathy  with  it,  the  imaginative 
genius  of  the  poet  is  perforce  literary  rather  than  popular,  and 
appeals  to  the  cultivated  taste  of  the  few  rather  than  to  the  com- 
munal heart.  "  The  folk-epic  charms  by  the  interest  of  its  whole 
story  and  by  its  appeal  to  the  whole  crowd.  The  individual  epic 
deals  with  a  theme  momentous,  to  be  sure,  but  not  of  the  heart 
warm,  nor  leaping  from  the  lips  of  the  people,  —  rather  sought 
out  by  the  poet  wherewith  to  lift  his  readers  (hearers  no  longer) 
to  a  nobler  view  of  life  "  (as  in  the  Aeneid,  Divine  Comedy,  or 
Paradise  Lost).  "  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  folk-epic  deals 
with  traditions  which  command  the  credence  of  the  people  by  and 
for  whom  it  is  composed,  and  that  the  individual  epic  chooses  its 
subject  with  a  view  to  inculcating  an  ideal,  historical  or  spiritual. 
The  Beowulf  is  an  epic  of  tradition:  the  component  parts  com- 
manded credence  because  they  narrated  events  supposed  to  have 
happened  not  too  long  ago,  and  the  organized  whole  commanded 
the  respect  due  to  tradition.  The  Paradise  Lost  is  an  epic  of  the 
spirit^  it  tries  to  magnify  into  a  universal  ideal  a  definite  creed  of 
Christian  theology  "  (C.  M.  Gayley,  Principles  of  Poetry,  p.  xciv) 


430  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

Compare  Nettleship,  as  noted  in  §  8.  on  the  characteristics  of  the 
literary  epic ;  for  a  criticism  of  the  distinction  between  the  folk 
epic  and  art  epic,  see  C.  B.  Bradley,  also  cited  in  §  8. 

\  Below,  in  the  sections  on  the  development  of  Homeric  criticism  (§  9, 
vin,  B,  c ;  §  1 2),  will  be  found  an  account  of  the  rise  of  the  historical 
criticism  of  the  epic,  with  references  to  Wolf,  Lachmann,  and  the 
followers  of  these  two  masters.  The  idea,  advanced  by  the  originators 
of  that  school,  that  the  great  national  epic  is  the  product  of  unconscious 
accretions  of  tales,  without  the  agency  of  the  final,  forming  hand  of  the 
master  poet,  is  now  practically  obsolete.  An  admirable  brief  definition 
of  the  national  epic  from  the  other  historical  point  of  view  is  given  by 
Julien  Duchesne  in  a  work  noted  below,  §  1 1  :  "  L'epope'e  est  une  pro- 
duction nationale,  spontane"ment  congue  a  la  suite  d'e've'nements  extra- 
ordinaires,  elabore"e  longtemps  par  le  travail  d'un  peuple  et  fixte  sous 
sa  forme  definitive  par  le  genie  d'un  seul  homme." 

The  student  who  has  reviewed  the  inadequacies  and  contradic- 
tions of  formal  epic  criticism  and  the  vagueness  of  philosophical 
criticism,  often  retires  impatiently  from  such  discussions  and  turns 
with  renewed  hope  to  the  historical  method,  as  did  Miss  Myers 
in  the  dissertation  noted  above.  But,  all  too  soon,  he  is  haunted 
with  the  objections  to  the  historical  differentiation  that  have  been 
voiced  by  Professor  C.  B.  Bradley  and  others ;  and  he  winds  up 
with  the  belief  that  true  characterization  is  to  be  achieved  by  a 
combination  of  elements  from  all  the  four  stages  of  criticism  that 
we  have  noticed.  Accordingly,  typical  definitions  of  the  epic  now 
endeavor,  like  those  of  Dixon  and  Gayley  cited  at  length  above, 
to  select  from  the  riches  of  formal,  philosophical,  and  historical 
criticism  those  features  which  seem  most  fully  and  yet  exactly  to 
describe  the  origin,  quality,  and  function  of  the  epic,  ancient  or 
modern,  with  due  allowance  for  differences  between  the  natural 
(folk,  national,  primary,  original)  epopee  and  the  artificial  (art, 
individual,  secondary,  .  imitative)  epic.  The  student  who  has 
traversed  the  fields  of  criticism  here  indicated  will  be  able  to 
turn  again  to  these  typical  definitions  and  see  in  them  phrase 
by  phrase  the  heritage  of  past  criticism. 


II,  A]  THE  NATURE  OF  THE  EPIC  431 

After  a  preliminary  survey  of  the  definitions  of  the  epic  (see  fur- 
ther, §  8,  below),  the  student  may  turn  to  the  following  problems 
in  the  study  of  epic  theory  as  a  whole. 

II.  The  Nature  of  the  Epic. 

A.  The  Relation  of  the  Poet  to  his  Work,    (i)  To  what  extent 
does  the  epic  poet  reveal  his  personality  ?    For  the  objective  atti- 
tude of  the  epic  poet,  see  Aristotle,  Hegel,  Schelling,  Symonds, 
Lotze,  W.  von  Humboldt,   Carriere,   Alden,   Gummere,   Gayley, 
Clark,  Marsh.    (2)  What  are  the  relative  degrees  of  subjectivity 
displayed   in  the   epic,  lyric,  and  drama?    For  the  element  of 
the    subjective,    see    Schopenhauer,    Watts-Dunton,    Schiller   (cf. 
Harnack).     (3)   Examine  the  invocations  of  various  epics,   and 
note  the  opinions  of  Le  Bossu,  Dryden,  Wasson,  and  others  upon 
the  subject.    (4)  Does  the  natural,  or  only  the  artificial,  epic  poet 
realize  the  historical  import  of  the  characters  and  events  with 
which  he  deals  ?    See  Ker,  Chap.  I,  §  2.    (5)  Can  the  nature  and 
laws  of  the  epic  be  deduced  from  the  nature  of  the  epical  bard? 
See  Goethe,  Harnack.    (6)  Is  the  epic  poet  always  concerned  with 
typical,  rather  than  particular,  effects  of  character  and  action  ? 
Can  epic  repetitions  (formulae,  epithets,  etc.)  and  the  incongruities 
of  epic  similes  be  explained  as  results  of  this  tendency  toward 
the  typical  ?    See  Panzer. 

B.  The  Subject  of  the  Epic.   The  following  questions  are  worthy 
of  consideration : 

i .  What  is  its  historical  or  material  basis  ?  (a)  In  what  degree 
is  it  founded  on  the  traditions  of  a  people  ?  G.  Paris  and  P.  Meyer, 
Hegel,  Ker.  (l>)  In  what  sense  is  it  "  the  child  'of  circumstance, 
locality  and  epoch  "  ?  (r)  Is  it  primarily  the  poetry  of  nature,  — 
"  revealing  the  mind  from  the  aspect  of  the  physical "  (cf. 
Harnack)  ?  (</)  Should  the  poet  choose  a  great  catastrophe,  or 
"  an  indispensable  fragment  from  some  heroic  history  involving 
the  action  of  men  and  gods  "  ?  See  Herder,  Lotze,  Ulrici,  Miiller, 
Miller,  Bruchmann,  Ker  (pp.  20-22),  Paris  and  Meyer,  Alden, 
Gummere,  Gayley,  Marsh,  etc.  (e)  Is  the  central  interest  of  the 
epic  a  great  national  event  (Green),  or  rather  the  typical  sufferings 


432  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

of  an  individual  fate  seen  against  the  background  of  a  great 
event  in  which  many  heroes  take  part,  —  an  event  which  is 
motivirt  by  an  ethical  problem?  Butcher,  Steinthal  (p.  32).  (/)  Is 
the  poet  justified  in  presenting  an  entirely  imaginary  world? 
Aristotle,  Le  Bossu.  (£•)  Is  the  epic  a  fit  vehicle  for  the  narration 
of  commonplace  events,  or  of  social  complications  —  even  though 
they  be  idealized  ?  (ft)  Need  it,  on  the  other  hand,  deal  with 
miraculous  events?  Bodmer,  Schelling,  Bruchmann,  Gladstone, 

X 

Saint-Evremond,  Zimmermann  (p.  5  and  Note),  Ker  (pp.  34-38). 

2.  What  is  the  spiritual  basis  —  the  indwelling  and  animating 
idea  —  of  the  epic ;    and  what  its  consequent  scope  ?    (a)  Is  it 
founded  upon  universal  intuition  of  the  essential  harmony  of  finite 
and  infinite?  Schelling,  Carriere.    Or  (b)  does  it  regard  man  as 
limited,  not  only  materially  but  spiritually,  and  the  determining 
power  as  super-human  force  ?   (t)  Is  it  fundamentally  the  expres- 
sion of  an  intuition  of  a  divine,  religious,  or  moral  idea  manifested 
in  a  sequence  of  deeds  causally  connected  ?  Wackernagel  (as  cited 
in  §  n).    ((f)  Need  its  subject  embrace  "  the  totality  of  the  beliefs 
of  a  people,  religious  and  other  "  ?  Hegel ;  and  cf.  Herder,  Ker, 
Paris  and  Meyer,    (e)  What  epics  may  be  cited  as  dealing  with 
the  religious  conditions  of  the  world  ?  Ulrici,  Gladstone,  Hegel, 
Herder,  Green,  Carriere,  Wasson.    (/)  What  is  the  attitude  of 
the  epic  poet  to  recognized  mythology  ?    Is  myth  necessary,  or 
admissible,  to  his  greatest  dramatic  scenes  ?    Does  he  reject  or 
refine  its  grosser  parts  ?    Does  he  refine  by  turning  grossness  into 
comedy,  and  by  discovering  new  meanings  in  the  old  stories? 
See  Tasso,  Schelling,  Ker  (pp.  40-57),  Paris  and  Meyer,    (g)  Is 
the  heroic  ideal  one  that  is  clearly  defined  in  set  terms;  or  is 
it  the  possession  of  those  only  who  are  endowed  with  original 
imagination  ?    Is  it  analytically  determined  or  creatively  ?  formed, 
or  in  process  of  formation  ?    See  Ker  (p.  233). 

3.  What  is  the  prevailing  tone  or  temper  of  the  epic  in  respect 
of  free-will  or  necessity,  providence,  or  fate  ?    (a)  If  a  higher 
power  rules  the  events  of  the  epic  world,  should  it  be  denominated 
Fate,  Destiny,  or  the  Sympathetic  Divine  ?    (£)  Does  the  epic 


Ill,  A]  THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  THE  EPIC  433 

satisfy  in  us  a  desire  to  look  beyond  our  "  everyday  Toms  and 
Peters  "  to  beings  ruled  by  a  higher  kind  of  justice  ?  (<:)  Is,  then, 
the  poet  justified  in  substituting  the  religious  conceptions  of  his 
own  day  for  those  of  the  time  of  which  he  writes  ?  What  is  the 
practice  of  Arnold  (Light  of  Asia),  Milton,  Voltaire,  Virgil,  Lewis 
Morris  (Epic  of  Hades),  Wilkinson  (Epic  of  Saul)  ?  (d)  Is  the 
Christian  religion  adaptable  to  epic  treatment  ?  See  Tasso,  Dav- 
enant,  Dryden  (Discourse  on  Epic  Poetry),  Saint-Evremond, 
Hallam,  Watts-Dunton,  Bodmer,  Duchesne  (below,  §n);  and 
below,  §  9,  under  Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye,  Godeau,  Cowley,  etc. 
What  of  the  mixing'  of  Christian  and  pagan  stories  ?  See  Cintio, 
Tasso,  H.  Coleridge,  Saint-Evremond.  (e)  Compare  epic  with 
dramatic  characters  in  their  relation  to  destiny ;  and  (/)  from 
the  same  point  of  vie.w  discuss  the  tone  of  epic,  lyric,  and  drama. 
(g)  How  does  the  evolution  of  man's  conception  of  fate  tell  upon 
the  evolution  of  his  epics  ?  See  Herder,  Hegel,  Dryden,  Mill, 
Schopenhauer,  Lotze,  Watts-Dunton,  Sellar,  Baumgart.  (Ji)  For 
the  optimistic  character  of  the  epic,  see  Woodberry  (Appreciation 
of  Literature). 

III.  The  Technique  of  the  Epic. 

A.  The  Elements.  The  student  will  naturally  consider  the  action 
and  its  environment,  the  characters,  and  the  plot. 

i.  The  Action,  (a)  Should  it  be  preferably  of  time  past? 
(£)  Cannot  we  have  epics  of  the  present  or  future?  Consider 
the  Divine  Comedy,  and  Bickersteth's  Yesterday,  To-day  and 
Forever,  (c)  What  part  does  memory  play  in  the  composition 
of  folk  epics?  and  how  does  it  difference  the  environment  or 
setting  from  that  of  the  art  epic?  (*/)  In  what  respect  are 
"  dimness "  and  "  distance "  favorable  to  the  picture  that  the 
poet  would  paint  ?  —  to  the  effect  that  he  would  produce  ?  (e)  The 
contemplative  tone  of  the  folk  epic,  —  does  it  spring  from  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  antiquity  of  the  events  narrated  ?  (/)  In  this 
respect  does  the  Divine  Comedy,  regarded  as  an  art  epic,  lack 
proportion  and  perspective  ?  On  these  questions  consult  Ulrici, 
Hegel,  Mure,  Le  Bossu,  Dryden,  Miiller,  Vida,  Batteux.  (g)  Does 


434  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

the  lyric,  in  contradistinction  to  the  epic,  deal  with  the  present  ? 
the  drama  with  the  past  in  the  present  ?  See  von  Hartmann, 
Hegel,  Schopenhauer,  Gummere.  (^)  On  the  unity  of  action, 
internal  and  external,  see  Aristotle,  Le  Bossu,  Hallam,  Lotze, 
Hegel.  (*')  On  the  greatness  and  dignity,  the  compass  and  sim- 
plicity of  the  action,  see  Aristotle,  Schopenhauer,  etc.  (/)  Should 
the  epic  treat  of  one  small  and  limited  action,  or  of  many  ?  See 
Aristotle,  Boileau  (L'Art  Poetique,  and  the  Preface,  Au  Lecteur,  of 
Le  Lutrin),  and  neo-classical  critics  in  general  as  cited  in  §  9,  below. 
2.  The  Characters,  (a)  Does  the  success  of  the  epic  depend 
upon  the  "  author's  power  of  imagining  and  representing  char- 
acters "  ?  (£)  Without  dramatic  representation  of  characters  is 
the  epic  mere  history  or  romance?  See  Ker  (p.  19).  (f)  Are 
the  characters  rather  of  the  typical,  general,  and  ideal,  than 
of  the  individual  ?  Hamilton ;  and  what  is  the  usual  personnel : 
Paris  and  Meyer,  (d)  Compare  epic  personages  with  similar 
characters  in  tragedy,  comedy,  and  the  modern  novel.  See 
Hamilton.  Does  the  epic  subordinate  the  destiny  of  the  hero 
to  that  of  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  part,  whereas  tragedy  is 
concerned  only  with  action  that  springs  out  of  individual  char- 
acter? See  Aristotle,  Hegel,  and  Butcher;  also  Gartelmann. 
(e)  What  effect  does  the  element  of  remoteness  have  upon  the 
outlines  of  the  characters  ?  (/)  What  effect  the  purely  narrative 
as  opposed  to  the  histrionic  presentation?  (^)  What  effect  the 
relation  of  the  poet  to  his  creations,  epic  or  dramatic  ?  (/*)  To 
what  extent  must  the  characters  be  significant,  heroic,  primitive, 
simple  ?  (/')  Should  they  be  elaborated  by  psychological  analyses 
or  revealed  through  significant  situations  ?  Schopenhauer,  Ulrici, 
Watts,  Lotze,  Hegel,  Carriere.  (/)  Does  the  hero  sum  up  the 
inspiration  of  the  epic  (Paris  and  Meyer)  ?  and  need  his  manners 
be  virtuous  ?  Le  Bossu  (Si  un  hdros  poe'tique  doit  £tre  honnete- 
homme  ?),  and  Mme.  Dacier.  Or  are  the  heroes  of  the  epic 
"  ungodly  man-killers,  whom  we  poets,  when  we  flatter  them, 
call  heroes  "  ?  Need  the  hero  stir  the  "  irascible  appetite,"  pro- 
voke murder  and  the  u  destruction  of  God's  images  "  ?  Dryden 


Ill,  A]  THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  THE  EPIC  435 

(IV,  287).  (/£)  Is  the  element  of  the  ridiculous  allowable?  Aris- 
totle, Dryden,  etc.  (/)  In  a  successful  epic  are  traditional  and 
newly-invented  characters  found  side  by  side  ?  (/«)  What  kind 
of  characters  may  the  poet  create  and  add  to  the  number  of 
those  traditionally  received  ? .  («)  Can  we  justify  such  poetic 
interpolation  ?  and  what  is  the  place  of  non-traditional  personae  ? 
(V)  Are  abstractions  available  as  characters  in  the  epic  ?  Examine 
Paradise  Lost,  Divina  Commedia,  Gerusalemme  Liberata,  Klop- 
stock's  Messias,  Wilkinson's  Saul,  Arnold's  Light  of  the  World, 
—  and  compare  the  older  epics.  See,  also,  Spectator  (No.  357). 
(/)  Is  it  safe  for  the  poet  to  alter  traditional  traits  of  character  ? 

3.  The  Plot,  (a)  Discuss  Aristotle  on  the  compass—  "begin- 
ning, middle,  and  end " ;  on  unity  of  purpose,  Watts-Dunton's 
distinction  between  Eastern  and  Western  epics  (Art.  Poetry,  Encyc. 
Brit.).  (&)  Discuss  Dryden  on  the  epic  as  the  "  draft  of  human 
life  in  extenso."  (c)  The  significance  of  the  situations  as  revealing 
character  ?  Consult  Schopenhauer.  ((/)  The  quality  of  situations 
as  determined  by  the  aesthetic  emotions  appropriate  to  epic 
poetry  ?  Aristotle,  Hegel,  Hirn.  (e)  The  knot  and  the  solution, 
revolutions  and  discoveries,  catastrophe  ?  See  Aristotle,  Herder, 
Dryden,  Addison,  Le  Bossu.  (_/)  The  canon :  In  medias  res 
rapitl  Horace,  Herder,  Dryden.  (^)  Cf.  in  medias  res  rapit  with 
Schopenhauer's  dictum :  "  The  characters  should  be  introduced 
in  a  state  of  peace,"  and  Lotze's,  von  Humboldt's,  and  Hegel's 
view  that  the  subject  should  be  developed  in  a  calm,  leisurely 
manner.  (Ji)  To  what  degree  and  with  what  treatment  are  sen- 
sational situations  admissible  ?  (/')  What  is  the  justification  and 
what  the  function  of  episodes  ?  (_/')  Does  the  interest  of  the  epic 
center  especially  in  its  plot,  its  episodes,  its  characters,  its'  de- 
scriptions, its  spiritual  tone,  or  its  impersonal  style  ?  Compare 
the  drama.  Ker,  Gartelmann.  (<£)  Are  not  episodes  in  a  modern 
epic  likely  to  lower  the  tone  of  the  poem  to  that  of  a  romance  or 
novel?  and  (/)  when  feigned  of  a  traditional  hero  do  they  not 
offend  the  reader's  credulity  ?  Examples  ?  (ni)  Should  the  epic 
end  happily,  —  with  "  a  natural  and  soothing  solution  "  ?  («)  The 


436  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

technique  of  plot  ?  See  Aristotle,  Le  Bossu,  Dryden,  von  Humboldt, 
etc.  (0)  Note  Aristotle's  dictum  (Poet,  xxiv,  10)  concerning  the 
advantage  of  probable  impossibilities  over  improbable  possibilities ; 
also  concerning  unreasonable  circumstances.  Cf.  von  Humboldt. 
B.,  The  Form.  With  regard  to  Form,  the  subjects  demanding 
especial  attention  are:  (i)  the  relative  prominence  of  narrative 
and  dialogue ;  (2)  the  comparative  excellence  of  epic  continuity 
and  lyric  intensity;  (3)  the  relative  advantages  of  narration  and 
dramatic  presentation,  and  the  admissibility  of  lyric  and  dramatic 
elements  in  the  epic;  (4)  the  nature  of  the  simile  and  of  other 
figurative  language  in  the  epic ;  (5)  the  qualities  of  rhetoric  and 
of  metre  most  appropriate  to  the  epic ;  (6)  the  necessity  to  the 
epic  of  verse  form  (consider  Malory's  Morte  d'Arthur,  Fenelon's 
Telemaque,  and  prose  translations  of  the  great  epics ;  cf.  Fielding 
and  Carriere  as  cited  below) ;  (7)  reasons  for  supposing  that  the 
romance  has  superseded  the  epic  as  a  narrative  type,  —  Spielhagen ; 

(8)  styles  of  representation  open  to  the  romance  as  compared  with 
the  epic:  e.g.,  prose  or  verse;  comic,  tragic,  or  pathetic  concep- 
tion of  life ;  narration  in  the  third  person,  or  in  the  first,  or  by 
rotation  of  narrators,  or  by  conversation,  or  by  diary,  or  letters, 
or  by  'a  combination  of  these  and  other  forms,  —  see  Spingarn 
(p.  112  ff.    ist  ed.),  Elze  (Grund.  d.  engl.  Philol.,  pp.  356-357); 

(9)  the   relative   sublimity  of   style  in  epic  and  tragedy,  —  see 
Dryden  (Discourse  on   Epic  Poetry).    In  general,  see  Fischer. 

IV.  The  Varieties  of  the  Epic.  The  examination  will  naturally 
fall  under  two  heads  :  Kinds  of  epic,  as  determined  by  subject  and 
treatment ;  and  Stages,  as  determined  by  historic  development. 

A.  The  Kinds.  Aristotle,  Hegel,  Baumgart,  Hallam  (Introd. 
Lit.'  of  Europe,  vol.  IV,  p.  417),  Gladstone,  W.  von  Humboldt, 
Kleinpaul,  Nettleship,  Wackernagel,  Fischer,  Gottschafl,  and  others 
(Alden,  Gummere,  Gayley,  etc.)  supply  criteria,  an  examination  of 
which  should  aid  the  student  in  making  the  former  classification. 
By  some  the  epic  is  classified  as  naive,  artificial,  artistic ;  by  others  as 
national  and  literary;  by  others  as  heroic,  lyrical,  and  dramatic;  etc. 
Fischer  (p.  ix)  divides  the  epic  in  respect  of  content  or  character 


V,  A]  THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  EPIC  437 

into  the  heroic  and  the  erotic ;  in  respect  of  origin,  into  the  popular 
and  the  artificial ;  in  respect  of  tendenz,  into  the  fabulous  and  the  psy- 
chological. But  here  we  approach  the  classification  by  B,  The  Stages 
of  Development,  and  for  that  the  student  is  referred  to  §§  10-12. 
V.  The  Function  of  the  Epic.  In  what  manner  does  the  epic 
affect,  the  emotions  ?  to  what  degree  does  it  conserve  the  religious 
idea,  or  the  political,  or  influence  personal  ideals  of  conduct  ? 
Does  it  fulfil  any  of  the  functions  of  history? 

A.  Aesthetic,    (i)  What  is  the  prevailing  tone  of  the  epic?  and 
does  this  change  as  civilization  advances  ?    (2)  If  the  aim  be  con- 
sistently to  awaken  feelings  of  wonder,  admiration,  surprise,  is 
not  the  emotional  climax  to  be  found  in  the  sublime  ?    Hegel, 
Carriere,  Gayley.    (3)  Is  there  not  an  aesthetic  element  of  con- 
templative sadness  occasioned  by  the  epic  atmosphere  of  predesti- 
nation ?    (4)  Is  there  not  also  a  consciousness  of  social  solidarity, 
and  consequently  an  awakening  of  religious  or  national  enthu- 
siasm,—  a  result  of  the  insignificance  of  the  individual  as  an 
unrelated  unit  and  of  reverential  awe  before  the  mystery  that 
envelops  existence  ?    (5)  Compare  the  emotions  aroused  by  the 
lyric  and  the  drama.    See  von  Humboldt,  Hegel,  Lotze,  Green, 
Miller,  Dryden,  Herder,   Gladstone,   E.  Wolff.    (6)  What  differ- 
ences in  the  aesthetic  functions  of  epic  and  tragedy  are  due  to 
their  different  modes  of  representation  ?    See   Horace,   Dryden, 
etc.    (7)  Is  the  aesthetic  effect  more  or  less  violent,  more  or  less 
enduring,  than  that  of  tragedy?    (8)  Is  the  epic  better  suited  to 
the  treatment  of  long-standing  emotional  conceptions  of  national, 
or  general,  spiritual  interest,  tragedy  to  the  treatment  of  sudden 
and  individual  passions  ?    (9)  In  short,  of  what  kind  and  degree 
is  the  catharsis  effected  by  the  epic  ?    See  E.  Wolff.    Compare 
Dryden 's  dictum  :  "  No  heroick  poem  can  be  writ  on  the  Epicurean 
principles  "  (Disc,  on  Ep.  Poetry). 

B.  Ethical  and  Religious,    (i)  See  Dryden  and  Le  Bossu  on 
the  virtue  of  heroic  example.    (2)  The  moral  of  the  story.    See 
Paris  and  Meyer,  Mme.  Dacier,  Freybe,  Gummere.    (3)  Discuss 
Aristotle's  "  ethical  and  pathetic  "  as  applied  to  the  Odyssey  and 


438  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

the  Iliad.  See  Poetics,  xxiv,  2.  (4)  Has  the  modern  epic  a  func- 
tion in  our  modern  development?  (5)  Does  the  moral  function 
of  the  epic  lie  in  its  revelation  of  the  social  will  organized  in  the 
life  of  nations,  and  in  a  collision  that  is  social  rather  than  indi- 
vidual? See  W.oodberry  (App.  of  Lit.).  (6)  Epics  as  the  Bibles 
of  the  world.  (7)  To  what  degree  may  the  spiritual  basis,  the 
tone  or  temper  mentioned  above  (n,  B,  2  and  3),  the  religious- 
aesthetic  emotions  (v,  A,  (3),  (4))  be  regarded  as  having  practical 
effect  upon  the  life  of  the  individual  and  society  ?  Green,  Paris 
and  Meyer,  Carriere,  Gladstone,  Hegel,  Herder,  Monge,  Sellar, 
Shairp,  Shelley,  Stedman. 

C.  Historical,  (i)  To  what  extent  has  the  epic  been  a  conserver 
of  religious  beliefs,  of  social  and  moral  convention,  of  national 
ideals?  Hegel,  Green,  Paris  and  Meyer,  Sellar.  (2)  What,  in 
these  respects,  is  its  relation  to  tradition  ?  (3)  Has  the  folk  epic 
fulfilled  the  function  of  a  history  as  yet  undifferentiated  from 
poetry,  romance,  and  religion  ?  See  Herder,  Hegel,  Posnett,  Ker, 
Gummere.  (4)  Was  not  its  primal  value  largely  euhemeristic  and 
aetiological :  preserving  by  the  former  device,  in  myths  of  the 
gods,  exaggerated  adventures  of  historical  individuals ;  and  by 
the  latter,  crude  attempts  to  assign  causes  for  tribal  customs, 
ceremonials,  etc.,  the  origin  of  which  had  been  forgotten  ?  See 
Schelling,  Ker,  Lang's  Myth,  Ritual  and  Religion,  Frazer's  Golden 
Bough,  Gayley's  Classic  Myths  (new  ed.,  Chap.  XXX).  (5)  Note 
the  following: 

In  Virgil's  poetry  a  sense  of.  the  greatness  of  Rome  and  Italy  is  the 
leading  motive  of  a  passionate  rhetoric,  partly  veiled  by  the  "  chosen 
delicacy  "  of  his  language.  Dante  and  Milton  are  still  more  faithful 
exponents  of  the  religion  and  politics  of  their  time.  Even  the  French 
epics  are  pervaded  by  the  sentiment  of  fear  and  hatred  of  the  Saracens. 
But  in  Homer  the  interest  is  purely  dramatic.  There  is  no  strong 
antipathy  of  race  or  religion ;  the  war  turns  on  no  political  event ; 
the  capture  of  Troy  lies  outside  the  range  of  the  Iliad.  Even  the 
heroes  are  not  the  chief  national  heroes  of  Greece.  The  interest  lies 
wholly  (so  far  as  we  can  see)  in  the  picture  of  human  action  and  feeling 
(Monro  in  Art.  Homer,  Encyc.  Brit.). 


VII]  MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE  VERSE  439 

VI.  Other  Special  Characteristics  of  the  epic  may  be  discovered 
by  systematic  comparison  with  the  lyric,  the  drama,  the  ballad, 
the  metrical  romance,  the  idyl,  and  the  novel.     See  Aristotle's 
parallel  between  epic  and  tragedy;  also  M tiller,  Dryden,  Watts- 
Dunton,   Herder,   Schopenhauer,   Hegel,  Mure,   Spielhagen.    On 
the  comparative  excellence  of  epic,  lyric,  drama,  and  novel  as  types 
of  literary  expression,  see  Aristotle,  Herder,   Muller,  Hamilton, 
Watts-Dunton,  J.  S.  Mill,  von  Hartmann,  Schiller,  Sainte-Beuve 
(fitude  sur  Virgile,  pp.  151-155),  Fischer  (Introduction).    What 
of  Goethe's  suggestion  that  the  novel  is  the  subjective  epic  of 
modern  life  (Maximen  und  Reflexionen,  2te'Abt,  1821-26)  ?  Note 
the  characteristics  of  the  mock-heroic  (Fournel),  the  burlesque 
romance,  the  metrical  satire,  the  didactic  poem  —  as  per  contra 
suggestive  of  the  positive  qualities  of  the  true  epic.   A  comparison 
of  Paradise  Lost  with  the  lesser  English  epics  will  indicate  emphati- 
cally the  requirements  of  the  type.    Among  the  minor  epics,  if 
they  may  all  be  called  epics,  are :  Daniel's  Civil  Wars,  Drayton's 
Barons'  Wars,  Davenant's  Gondibert,  Chamberlayne's  Pharonnida, 
Benlowes'    Theophila,    Dryden's    Annus    Mirabilis,    Sir    Richard 
Blackmore's  Prince  Arthur  (1695),  King  Arthur  (1697),  Alfred 
(1723),  Cowley's  Davideis,  Richard  Glover's  Leonidas,  William 
Wilkie's  Epigoniad,  Pye's  Alfred,  Southey's  Madoc,  and  Roderick, 
Landor's  Gebir,  Atherstone's  Fall  of  Nineveh  and  Israel  in  Egypt. 
Further  notices  in  Dixon.    For  several  of  the  forgotten  epics  of 
English  literature,  see  Saintsbury's  Minor  Poets  of  the  Caroline 
Period  (2  vols.    Oxford:    1905-06). 

VII.  Minor  Forms  of  Narrative  Verse.    The  student  may  wish 
to  study  the  general  theory  and  technique  of  the  sub-species  of 
narrative  verse.    These,  as  already  said,  we  do  not  attempt  fully 
to  cover.    The  minor  forms  may  be  enumerated  with  reference  to 
their  relation  to  the  epic  as  follows  :  (i)  Predecessors  of  the  epic  : 
hero-saga,  gest,  chanson ;  (2)  Cognate  forms  :  ballad,  mock-heroic, 
heroic  poem ;  (3)  Allied  forms :  metrical  tale,  metrical  romance 
(modern),    allegory,    parable    and    fable,    idyl,    pastoral,    metrical 
satire,  burlesque  romance  (Hudibras). 


440  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

For  brief,  introductory  notices  of  these  forms,  see  Alden,  Gayley 
(Principles  of  Poetry),  Gummere  (Poetics),  Hudson,  Wackernagel, 
Carriere  (Poesie),  Gottschall.  Further  study  should  be  directed 
along  the  lines  marked  out  below,  §  9.  The  following  notes  on 
the  theory  and  technique  of  Ballad,  Pastoral,  and  Idyl  may  be 
of  aid  to  the  beginner;  for  historical  consideration,  see  below, 
§  10,  ix. 

A.  Bolted. 

1 .  Manner.    From  the  three  possible  methods  of  expression  — 
singing,  saying,  doing  —  are  derived  the  three  primary  kinds  of 
poetry,  —  song,  recital,'  and  drama.    Certain  secondary  types,  how- 
ever, combine  the  qualities  of  two  or  more  of  the  primary  kinds. 
The  idyl,  for  instance,  may  combine  lyric  and  dramatic  qualities 
with  a  narrative,  descriptive,  or  reflective  recital.    The  pastoral  is 
a  poem  on  a  particular  subject,  —  the  shepherd  ;  it  may  be  lyrical, 
epical,  dramatic,  with  qualities  also  descriptive,  novelistic,  idyllic. 
The  ballad  combines  song  and  recital.    In  its  earlier  stages  it  is 
both  a  recital,  or  saying,  and  a  song;  in  later  stages  it  loses 
something  of  its  lyrical  tune  while  its  narrative  content  comes  to 
the  front.    It  also  assumes  dramatic  quality  to  the  degree  in  which 
the  singer  or  reciter  of  the  poem  impersonates  the  speaking  char- 
acters.   See  Gayley,  Princ.  and  Prog,  of  English  Poetry,  xci-xciv ; 
on  dramatic  quality,  G.  M.  Miller,  as  noted  below,  §  1 1 . 

2.  The  verse  of  the  ballad  is  characteristically  a  simple  measure, 
the  lyrical  effect  of  which  is  often  heightened  by  a  chorus,  burden, 
or  refrain.    "  The  chorus  was  a  stanza  sung  by  the  throng  after 
each  stanza  of  the  ballad ;  the  burden  was  a  stanza  sung  with  each 
stanza  of  the  ballad  as  a  kind  of  accompaniment ;  the  refrain  was 
the  line  (or  lines)  sung  by  the  throng  after  certain  lines  in  each 
stanza  of  the  ballad  "  (Armes,  Old  English  Ballads,  xxxiii-xxxiv). 

3.  The  subject-matter  of  the  ballad  is  deeds,   which  may  be 
historical,  romantic,  or  mythical.    The  war-ballad  —  historical  and 
legendary,  or  mythical  —  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  and  important 
varieties  of  the  ballad.    Adventures  of  love  and  outlawry  and 
experiences  of  the  supernatural  are  also  common  subjects.    But 


VII,  A]  TE  BALLAD  44! 

with  the  feelings,  moods,  and  thoughts  of  the  singer  —  as  distinct 
from  deeds  —  the  ballad  is  not  concerned  ;  herein  is  it  distinguished 
from  the  purely  lyrical  poem.  '  Waly,  waly,  gin  love  be  bony '  is, 
therefore,  not  a  ballad  even  though  it  involves  narrative.  See 
Kittredge,  p.  xi. 

4.  Kinds  of  Ballad :  their  Technique.  The  most  convenient 
division  is  that  according  to  origin,  for  which  see  below,  under 
the  history  of  the  ballad,  §  i  o,  ix,  A. 

The  traditional  or  folk  ballad  is  an  anonymous  popular  creation 
of  an  individual  composer,  or,  according  to  another  theory,  of  a 
singing,  dancing,  improvising  crowd ;  it  is  handed  down  by  word 
of  mouth  from  generation  to  generation ;  its  technique  corre- 
sponds to  its  popular  origin  and  oral  quality :  especially  noticeable 
are  its  "  nai've  accumulation  of  particulars,  repetition  of  state- 
ment, colloquial  conversation,  question  and  answer,  set  phrases 
and  refrain."  "  It  appeals  by  pictorial  images  rather  than  by 
the  poetic  figure  (or  image  consciously  constructed) ;  not  by  emo- 
tional analysis  or  refined  suggestion,  but  by  wave  after  wave  of 
detail.  It  is  the  production  of  a  civilization  near  the  soil,  domi- 
nated by  common  social,  emotional,  and  artistic  sympathies ;  and 
it  is  founded  upon  some  interest  that  is  permanent  and  universal 
in  the  heart  of  the  community  "  (Gayley,  loc.  at.~). 

Further  consideration  of  these  characteristics  may  be  indicated 
briefly,  (i)  The  story  is  told  simply,  briefly,  and  abruptly;  the 
action  proceeds  by  leaps  and  bounds,  without  careful  transitions, 
often  without  notice  of  a  change  of  speakers,  and  occasionally  it 
even  breaks  off  without  specific  indication  of  the  denouement.  Much 
is  left  to  the  art  of  the  reciter,  much  to  the  imagination  and  infer- 
ence of  the  listener.  (2)  The  narrative  is  impersonal,  objective,  and 
concrete.  (3)  '  Character  drawing '  is  absent ;  typical  rather  than 
individual  characters  are  presented  by  dramatic  suggestion.  (4)  The 
setting  of  the  story  is  briefly  indicated  or  not  at  all.  Settings  are 
typical.  Individualizing  description  of  places  or  persons  is  rare, 
though  conventional  phrases  of  description  are  common.  (5)  Repe- 
titions of  many  sorts  are  a  distinguishing  feature.  "  A  reading  of 


442  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

the  three  hundred  and  five  extant  English  ballads  will  show  that 
their  makers'  lacked  invention ;  the  same  plots,  situations,  and 
groups  of  characters  appear  again  and  again,  and  the  words  used 
to  narrate  the  events  and  describe  the  actors  are  the  same  in  ballad 
after  ballad  "  (W.  D.  Armes,  Old  English  Ballads,  p.  xxviii).  The 
5  ballad  formulas '  —  such  as  '  lith  and  listen,'  '  under  the  green- 
wood tree,'  '  the  first  step  she  stepped  .  .  . ,  the  next  step  she 
stepped'  —  well  illustrate  the  repetition  of  phrases.  What  is  the 
psychology  of  such  repetitions  ?  When  the  story  is  told  in  a 
succession  of  similar,  cumulative  stages,  whole  stanzas  and  parts 
of  stanzas  may  be  repeated.  Often  a  whole  stanza  is  repeated 
save  for  one  change  which  expresses  an  advance  in  action  or  idea 
('incremental  repetition').  The  employment  of  chorus,  burden, 
and  refrain  also  involves  repetition.  (6)  The  naive  reference  to 
silk,  gold,  silver,  precious  gems,  and  other  gorgeous,  array  is 
characteristic  of  the  simpleness  of  the  popular  mind;  so  also, 
perhaps,  is  the  use  of  typical  numbers,  such  as  three  and  seven. 
(7)  Speaking  animals  and  the  supernatural  often  play  a  part  in 
the  story. 

These  characteristics  are  well  summed  up  in  the  following 
definition :  A  ballad  is  "  a  short  narrative  poem,  adapted  for 
singing,  simple  in  plot  and  metrical  structure,  divided  into  stanzas, 
and  characterized  by  complete  impersonality  so  far  as  the  author 
or  singer  is  concerned  "  (Kittredge,  p.  xi). 

For  exposition  and  illustration  of  these  and  other  characteristics  of 
the  popular  ballad  see  Child,  Gummere,  Lang,  Kittredge,  Steenstrup, 
Hart,  Armes,  Henderson,  Miller,  Sidgwick,  Wirth,  as  noted  below  in 
§8  or  §  n.  For  an  admirable  brief  conspectus  see  Armes  or  Hart 
(English  Popular  Ballads) ;  for  detailed  analysis,  Hart  (Ballad  and  Epic) ; 
for  extensive  discussion  and  illustration,  Gummere  (Old  Eng.  Ballads, 
Beginnings  of  Poetry,  The  Popular  Ballad,  Prim.  Poetry  and  the 
Ballad,  etc.). 

The  art  ballad,  or  artistic  ballad,  is  the  creation  of  a  self- 
conscious  poet  who  strives  to  imitate  the  form  of  the  popular 
ballad.  Ballads  of  this  sort  are  not  anonymous ;  they  are  not 


VII,  B]  THE  PASTORAL  443 

preserved  by  word  of  mouth,  but  by  writing  and  printing.  More- 
over, the  native  flavor,  the  popular  tang,  the  naive  simpleness,  the 
characteristic  fascination  of  the  popular  ballad  are  but  seldom 
attained  by  the  art-poet.  Such  qualities  belong  to  a  particular 
condition  of  society,  the  key  to  the  understanding  of  which  is  the 
very  anonymity  and  impersonality  of  poetic  utterance  which  belong 
to  the  traditional  ballad.  Only  by  the  happiest  of  chances  can 
these  qualities  be  achieved  by  a  poet  who  in  an  entirely  different 
society,  and  subject  to  the  learned  criteria  of  a  self-conscious  art- 
istry, writes  under  his  own  signature.  Sophistication  of  conception 
and  phrase,  refinement  and  uncommonness  of  effort  and  effect, 
idiosyncrasy  of  style,  —  these  are  so  inherent  in  the  art-poet's  way 
of  thinking,  feeling,  and  speaking  that  they  almost  inevitably 
appear  in  his  imitations  of  the  popular  ballad.  Scott's  ballads 
show  how  close  the  art-ballad  may  approach  the  popular  form. 
La  Belle  Dame  sans  Merci  and  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mar- 
iner are  such  splendid  transformations,  of  the  ballad  as  may  be 
attained  by  poets  of  highest  imaginative  vigor.  For  other  exam- 
ples see  the  ballads  of  Rossetti,  Dobson,  Macaulay,  etc.  (compare 
Gummere,  Pop.  Ballad,  319—321  ;  R.  S.  Forsythe,  Modern  Imita- 
tions of  the  Popular  Ballad,  in  .A.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil.,  13  :  88. 
1914,  —  a  classified  list;  V.  Beyer,  Die  Begriindung  der  ernsten 
Ballade  durch  G.  A.  Burger  (in  Quellen  und  Forsch.,  No.  97. 
1905);  K.  Bode,  Die  Bearbeitung  der  Vorlagen  in  Des  Knaben 
Wunderhorn,  in  Palaestra,  No.  76.  1909  ;  W.  Schulze,  Gustav 
Schwab  als  Balladendichter,  in  Palaestra,  No.  126.  1914). 

B.  Pastoral.  An  admirable  introduction  to  the  general  charac- 
teristics, essential  quality,  and  chief  significance  of  the  pastoral  is 
contained  in  the  first  chapter  of  W.  W.  Greg's  indispensable 
Pastoral  Poetry  and  Pastoral  Drama  (Lond. :  1906).  We  here 
follow  his  account.  Pastoral  poetry  presents  in  epic  (idyllic), 
lyric,  dramatic,  or  novelistic  form  the  life  of  shepherds.  But 
the  essential  quality  of  pastoral  lies  not  in  a  "  realistic  or  at  least 
recognizably  natural  presentation  of  actual  shepherd  life."  To 
be  sure  the  best  pastoral  poetry  —  say  that  of  Theocritus  and 


444  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

the  Elizabethan  lyrists  —  does  approach  to  the  natural,  but  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  pastoral  literature  is  distinguishably  artificial  in 
its  way  of  conceiving  and  treating  the  life  of  the  shepherd.  The 
reason  for  this  lies  in  the  conditions  under  which  the  art-pastoral 
has  originated,  viz.,  the  complex,  artificial  manners  of  court  and 
city  society.  Though  sophisticated  society  finds  a  new  interest 
in  affably  discerning  the  engaging  simpleness  of  pastoral  life,  it 
cannot  but  see  and  copy  that  life  in  a  spirit  that  breathes  less 
of  the  fold  and  the  upland  than  of  the  court  and  drawing-room.  It 
celebrates  its  make-believe  escape  from  its  own  tiresome  complexity 
by  pastoral  bal-masque,  with  Corydon  in  breeches  and  lace  and 
Daphnis  in  silk  and  satin,  or  by  the  ideal  play  under  the  wattled 
cotes  and  turfed  roofs  of  a  Trianon :  Sidney's  Arcadia  and 
Montemayor's  Diana  are  representative  of  the  greater  bulk  of 
pastoral  literature.  At  Alexandria  and  Rome,  Florence,  Ferrara, 
and  Versailles,  the  pastoral  has  flowered  in  the  over-heated  atmos- 
phere of  the  court.  Indeed,  as  Professor  Marsh  says,  "  pastoral 
poetry  affects  the  manner  or  matter  of  rustic  life,  not  for  accurate 
description,  but  as  a  purely  artistic  device  for  conveying  the  inter- 
ests and  emotions  of  the  poet  himself,  or  of  the  society  not  rural 
in  which  he  lives."  "  Between  the  simply  sensuous  and  the  deep 
moral  feeling  for  nature  lies,"  according  to  Professor  Mackail, 
"  the  broad  field  of  the  pastoral.  ...  It  looks  on  nature,  as  it 
looks  on  human  life,  through  a  medium  of  art  and  sentiment; 
and  its  treatment  of  nature  depends  less  on  the  actual  world 
around  it  than  on  the  prevalent  art  of  the  time  "  (Select  Epigrams 
from  the  Greek  Anthology,  1890,  p.  57).  Thus,  too,  Mr.  Greg 
writes  :  "  What  does  appear  to  be  a  constant  element  in  the  pastoral 
as  known  to  literature  is  a  recognition  of  a  contrast,  implicit  or 
expressed,  between  pastoral  life  and  some  more  complex  type 
of  civilization."  Ruskin,  then,  was  in  error  when  he  asserted  that 
"  all  good  poetry  descriptive  of  rural  life  is  essentially  pastoral " ; 
and  Dr.  Johnson,  too,  when  he  maintained  that  the  pastoral  is  "  a 
poem  in  which  any  action  or  passion  is  represented  by  its  effects 
upon  a  country  life." 


VII,  C]  THE  IDYL  445 

Mr.  Greg  continues : 

Pastoral  literature  must  not  be  confounded  with  that  which  has  for 
its  subjects  the  lives,  the  ideas,  and  the  emotions  of  simple  and  unsophis- 
ticated mankind,  far  from  the  centers  of  our  complex  civilization.  The 
two  may  be  in  their  origin  related,  and  they  occasionally,  as  it  were, 
stretch  out  feelers  towards  one  another,  but  the  pastoral  of  tradition  lies 
in  its  essence  as  far  from  the  human  document  of  humble  life  as  from 
a  scientific  treatise  on  agriculture  or  a  volume  of  pastoral  theology.  .  .  . 
Thus  the  shepherds  of  pastoral  are  primarily  and  distinctively  shepherds ; 
they  are  not  mere  rustics  engaged  in  sheepcraft  as  one  out  of  many  of 
the  employments  of  mankind.  As  soon  as  the  natural  shepherd-life  had 
found  an  objective  setting  in  conscious  artistic  literature,  it  was  felt  that 
there  was  after  all  a  difference  between  hoeing  turnips  and  pasturing 
sheep ;  that  the  one  was  capable  of  a  particular  literary  treatment  whjch 
the  other  was  not. 

The  significance,  then,  of  the  pastoral  "  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
fact  that  the  form  is  the  expression  of  instincts  and  impulses  deep- 
rooted  in  the  nature  of  humanity,  which,  while  affecting  the  whole 
course  of  literature,  at  times  evince  themselves  most  clearly  and 
articulately  here  ;  that  it  plays  a  distinct  and  distinctive  part  in  the 
history  of  human  thought  and  the  history  of  artistic  expression." 

For  a  brief  list  of  works  on  pastoral  poetry  see  below,  §  10,  ix, 
B,  Pastoral. 

C.  Idyl. 

i.  Nature  of  the  Idyl.  Alexandrian  grammarians  applied  the 
term  '  idyl '  (eiSvAAtov,  a  little  type,  shape,  or,  possibly,  picture) 
to  almost  any  sort  of  short  poem.  Edmund  Gosse  observes  that 
"  eiSvXXiov  was  not  used  consciously  as  the  name  of  a  form  of 
verse,  but  as  a  diminutive  of  etSos,  and  merely  signified  '  a  little 
piece  in  the  style  of '  whatever  adjective  might  follow.  Thus  the 
idyls  of  the  pastoral  poets  were  etSvAAia  aiTroAiKa,  little  pieces  in 
the  goatherd  style.  We  possess  ten  of  the  so-called  '  idyls '  of 
Theocritus,  and  these  are  the  type  from  which  the  popular  idea 
of  this  kind  of  poem  is  taken.  But  it  is  observable  that  there 
is  nothing  in  the  technical  character  of  these  ten  very  diverse 
pieces  which  leads  us  to  suppose  that  the  poet  intended  them  to  be 


446  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

regarded  as  typical.  In  fact,  if  he  had  been  asked  whether  the 
poem  was  or  was  not  an  idyl  he  would  doubtless  have  been  unable 
to  comprehend  the  question.  As  ^matter  of  fact,  the  firstxof  his 
poems,  the  celebrated  '  Dirge  for  Daphnis,'  has  become/the  proto- 
type, not  of  the  modern  idyl,  out  of  the  modern  elegy;  and  the 
not  less  famous  '  Festival  of  Adonis '  is  a  realistic  minre.  It  was 
the  six  little  epical  romances,  if  they  may  be  so  called,  which 
started  the  conception  of  the  idyl  of  Theocritus.  It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  there  is  nothing  in  ancient  literature 
which  justifies  the  notion  of  a  form  of  verse  recognized  as  an 
'idyl'"  (Art.  Idyl,  Encyc.  Brit.,  nthed.).  Very  soon,  however, 
the.  terms  '  pastoral '  and  '  idyl '  came  to  be  used  synonymously. 
Possibly  because  Theocritus  was  preeminently  a  pastoral  poet  and 
because,  in  an  Alexandrian  collection  of  his  short-pieces,  or  eiSvAAia, 
pastoral  poems  predominated,  the  term  '  idyl '  came  to  have  a  pas- 
toral association.  The  pastorals,  or  bucolics,  of  Virgil,  imitative 
of  Theocritean  poems  but  obscuring  rustic  naivete'  by  a  political 
tendenz,  were  known  not  as  idyls  but  as  eclogues  (literally,  '  selec- 
tions ').  Renaissance  writers  applied  the  term  '  idyl '  to  imitations 
of  Theocritus  and  Virgil  (see  the  Renaissance  poetics  mentioned  in 
§§  2,  8).  Modern  critics  have  generally  assumed  that  the  pastoral 
idyl  is  truly  representative  of  the  idyllic  sub-species,  but,  with  due 
regard  to  the  extension  of  its  characteristic  atmosphere  to  allied 
subjects,  have  defined  the  idyl  as  a  poem  descriptive  of  the  simple 
ways,  deeds,  and  environment  of  a  rustic  or  at  least  burgher 
people,  — "  ein  ungezauntes  Gartenleben  unter  einem  blauen 
Himmel,"  as  Richter  says.  From  this  usage  our  adjective  'idyllic' 
derives  its  meaning. 

On  the  meaning  of  etSuAAta  and  its  derivatives  see  Stephanus; 
Croiset,  Hist.  litt.  grecque,  2ded.,  5  :  183  ;  G.  Knaack,  Art.  Bukolik,  in 
Pauly-Wissowa,  Real-Encyc.  (1899);  Christ,  in  Verhand.  der  26.  Philo- 
logenversam.  in  Wiirzburg  (1868),  49;  C.  Kattein,  Histoire  du  mot 
'idylle,'  in  Melanges  de  phil.  offerts  a  F.  Brunot  (Paris:  1904),  cf.  Ro- 
mania, 34:  309.  1905  ;  E.  Gosse,  as  noted  above;  E.  Legrand,  Etude 
sur  Thdocrite  (Paris,  1898);  A.  C.  Clark,  Art.  Theocritus,  Encyc.  Brit., 


VII,  C]  THE  IDYL  447 

nthed. ;  M.  H.  Shackford,  Def.  of  the  Pastoral  Idyl  (in  Pubs.  M. 
L,  A.  19  (N.  S.  12):  583-592);  R.  T.  Kerlin,  Theocritus  in  English 
Literature  (Lynchburg,  Virginia :  1910;  Yale  Thesis),  1 8 1 .  —  On  English 
usage :  Moulton,  Cholmeley,  Symonds,  Hardie,  Chambers,  Courthope 
(Hist.  Eng.  Poetry),  Greg,  as  noted  below,  §  8 ;  Mackail,  op.  cit. 

Some  critics,  however,  noting  a  great  variety  of  both  manner 
and  subject-matter  in  poems  that  may  be  denominated  idyls,  return 
in  part,  at  least,  to  the  original  meaning  of  the  term  and  apply  it 
to  brief  poems  of  any  one  of  the  major  types. 

The  idyl  may  be  a  diamond  edition  of  any  of  the  three  poetic  kinds, 
—  lyric,  epic,  or  dramatic,  —  or  a  mosaic  in  miniature  of  the  different 
varieties  in  each.  .  .  .  The  idyl  is  sometimes  distinguished  from  other 
poems  by  the  fact  that  it  presents  a  picture ;  it  is  always  distinguished 
from  the  major  types  of  poetry  by  the  fact  that  it  presents  the  qualities 
of  one  or  another  of  them,  in  a  reduced  and  exquisitely  delicate 
replica.  .  .  .  Such  pastorals  as  the  Book  of  Ruth,  Spenser's  Shepherd's 
Calendar,  and  all  the  rural  idyls  of  Theocritus  are  little  paintings,  like 
the  genre  pictures  of  the  Dutch  School.  They  present  a  fragment  of 
life,  but  they  present  it  in  every  detail.  The  idyl  may -deal  also  with 
domestic,  or  social,  even  heroic,  themes.  The  first  kind  is  well  repre- 
sented by  the  Hebrew  Book  of  Tobit  or  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday 
Night.  The  social  idyl  may  be  of  city  or  of  court;  it  has  been  cul- 
tivated with  great  success  by  the  Greeks  and  the  French.  The  heroic 
kind  is  represented  by  the  Book  of  Esther  and  by  Tennyson's  Idylls 
of  the  King.  The  application  of  the  term  to  the  latter  may  be  justified 
by  both  interpretations  of  the  type  [the  miniature  variety,  the  picture]. 
The  Idylls  of  the  King  are  an  epic  in  a  rose-window ;  each  episode  — 
atmosphere,  scenes,  images,  and  words — is  stained  with  translucent  color 
(C.  M.  Gayley,  Principles  and  Progress  of  English  Poetry,  ci-cii). 

If  the  exposition  ended  there,  it  would  seem  to  allow  the  idyl 
no  constant  specific  character  other  than  brevity  and  pictorial 
quality ;  and  it  would  justify  Gosse's  conclusion  that  "  on  the 
whole,  it  is  impossible  to  admit  that  the  idyl  has  a  place  among 
definite  literary  forms."  If,  on  the  one  hand,  the  term  refers  only 
to  scale  of  treatment  and  connotes  no  peculiarity  of  matter  or  man- 
ner, what  can  be  called  an  idyllic  lyric  ?  Any  brief  lyric  ?  And  if 
all  lyrics  are  by  nature  brief,  —  the  so-called  long  lyric,  like 


448  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

In  Memoriam  or  Spenser's  Epithalamium,  being  merely  a  series 
of  lyric  units,  —  are  all  particularly  brief  lyrics  idyls  ?  Are  all  epi- 
grams, for  instance,  idyls  ?  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  descriptive  or 
picturesque  manner  be  insisted  upon  as  also  an  essential,  does  the 
difficulty  disappear?  Are  all  picturesque  lyrics  (all  of  which,  cor- 
rectly estimated,  are  brief)  idyls?  And,  extending  the  idea,  may 
we  apply  the  term  'idyl'  to  all  brief  heroic  poems  and  dramas 
which  are  conceived  and  executed  in  picturesque  fashion?  And, 
lastly,  are  these  traits  of  brevity  and  the  picturesque  so  essentially 
characteristic  of  the  majority  of  poems  that  have  been  called  idyls 
that  we  can  afford  to  refuse  the  title  '  idyl '  to  those,  if  there  be 
such,  which  lack  the  picturesque  ? 

Upon  the  descriptive  or  picturesque  character  of  the  idyls  most 
authorities  have  commented.  "  I  have  said,"  continues  Professor 
Gayley,  "  that  the  idyl  does  not  always  present  a  picture ;  the 
manner,  however,  is  generally  pictorial.  It  is  as  if  the  poet  were 
illuminating  literature  with  a  brush.  The  analogy  holds  true,  more 
particularly,  of  the  idyl  dealing  with  rural  or  pastoral  scenes.  In 
the  twinkling  of  an  eye  the  painter-poet  has  caught 'the  color  as 
well  as  the  human  interest  of  the  scene.  The  process  is  so  swift 
that  man  and  nature  are  reproduced  as  one.  It  is  not  so  much  that 
nature  seems  to  speak  with  a  human  voice,  as  that  she  wears  the 
human  air ;  she  is  enveloped  in  a  human  atmosphere.  She  invites 
communion,  because  man  has  communicated  himself  to  her" 
(loc. «'/.).  — Again,  Wackernagel  has  attempted  to  deduce  the  peculiar 
nature  of  the  idyl  from  its  paradoxical  combination  of  the  narrative 
and  descriptive  manners  (Poetik,  133-137).  See  Symonds,  Cham- 
bers, Stedman  (Victorian  Poets,  269),  Bruchmann,  Baumgart, 
von  Schelling. 

But  from  what  has  so  far  been  said  we  begin  to  perceive  that 
the  matter  of  the  idyl  is  not  nature  or  a  fragment  of  life  in  its 
spontaneity,  nor  the  manner  merely  lyric,  epic,  or  dramatic  in 
minute  pictorial  detail,  but  that  the  poet  has  communicated  his 
consciously  artistic  conception  to  the  matter  and  made  literature 
out  of  the  matter  thus  transformed.  He  invests  nature  or  the 


VII,  C]  THE  IDYL  449 

fragment  of  life  with  a  mood  and  he  artistically  illuminates  that 
mood.    In  other  words : 

The  idyl  is  the  product  of  a  consciously  artistic  stage  of  civilization. 
Even  the  simplest  pastorals  —  much  more  the  subtle  elaborations  of 
social  and  heroic  themes  —  imply  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  poet 
to  return  to  nature,  and  by  means  of  highly  developed  processes  of  art 
to  emphasize  such  of  her  features  as  seem  to  him  beautiful.  The  choral 
song  and  the  primitive  ballad  are  at  one  extreme  of  poetic  art.  They 
exist  for  natural  expression  and  not  adornment.  At  the  other  extreme  is 
the  idyl,  which  exists  for  adornment  and  minute  detail  and  for  personal 
expression  of  the  mood  with  which  the  poet  has  invested  nature  (Gayley, 
op.  cit.,  cii). 

Hegel  would  arbitrarily  limit  the  type  to  the  portrayal  of  man  in 
his  most  natural  or  primitive  conditions.  "  Human  nature  is  repre- 
sented as  rising  out  of  its  animal  rudeness,  and  full  of  the  gaiety 
which  is  nothing  else  than  the  spiritual  element  gradually  refining 
itself"  (Kedney,  281).  The  limitation  is  hardly  true:  the  nature 
need  not  be  emerging  from  the  primitive ;  it  may  be  something 
other  than  gay;  and  the  spiritual  element  is  more  generally 
refined  by  the  poet  than  by  itself.  The  more  generally  accepted 
view  is  that  already  stated  :  the  idyl  is  a  consciously  artistic  expres- 
sion of  a  sophisticated  return  to  nature  on  the  part  of  a  highly 
artificial,  fin  de  siede  society,  such  as  Alexandrian  society  of  the  time 
of  Theocritus,  Roman  society  of  the  time  of  Virgil,  and  the  courtly 
society  of  Florence,  Paris,  Versailles,  or  London  in  the  days  of 
Poliziano,  Sannazaro,  Guarini,  Tasso,  Spenser,  Jonson,  Fletcher, 
Milton,  Pope,  and  others. 

The  description  and  appreciation  of  nature  found  particularly  in 
the  pastoral  idyl  have  led  critics  to  philosophize  upon  the  affinities 
of  the  idyl  in  general  with  other  poetic  forms.  This  has  been  done 
systematically  by.  Schiller  in  his  essay  On  Simple  and  Sentimental 
Poetry.  "  When  the  poet  opposes  nature  to  art,  and  the  ideal  to 
the  real,  so  that  nature  and  the  ideal  form  the  principal  object 
of  his  pictures,  and  that  the  pleasure  we  take  in  them  is  the 
dominant  impression,  I  call  him  an  elegiac  poet."  Two  classes  are 
distinguished.  "  Either  nature  and  the  ideal  are  objects  of  sadness, 


450  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

when  one  is  represented  as  lost  to  man  and  the  other  as  tmattained  ; 
or  both  are  objects  of  joy,  being  represented  to  us  as  reality.  In 
the  first  case  it  is  elegy  in  the  narrower  sense  of  the  term  \  in  the 
second  case  it  is  the  idyl  in  its  most  extended  acceptation." 
Schiller  also  distinguishes  two  sophisticated  attitudes  toward  nature, 
the  one  springing  from  the  indolence  of  the  highly  civilized  man 
who  sees  in  the  simplicity  of  nature  an  opportunity  for  repose,  and 
the  other  springing  from  the  wounded  moral  sense  of  the  individual 
who  sees  in  the  simplicity  of  nature  a  harmony  in  striking  contrast 
to  the  disorder  of  his  own  complex  civilization.  For  further  philo- 
sophical disquisition  —  for  the  most  part  applicable,  like  this, 
primarily  to  the  pastoral  idyl  —  see  the  works  of  Vischer,  Carriere, 
von  Hartmann,  and  other  German  aestheticians.  That  the  idyl  in 
general  presents,  only  the  joyous  aspect  of  nature  or  human  life 
is  more  than  doubtful.  If  so,  what  shall  we  do  with  Tennyson's 
Lancelot  and  Elaine,  and  Guinevere  ? 

Further  discussion  under  the  history  of  the  idyl  (see  below,  §  10,  ix,  c). 

The  function  of  the  idyl  has  generally  been  found  in  that  healing 
effect  of  a  return  to  nature  or,  at  least,  to  the  simple  and  natural, 
which  the  idyl  offers  to  sophisticated  urbanism :  "  The  reaction 
against  the  world  that  is  too  much  with  us,  is,  after  all, ...  the  note 
that  is  struck  with  idyllic  sweetness  in  Theocritus,  and,  rising  to  its 
fullest  pitch  of  lyrical  intensity,  lends  a  poignant  charm  to  the  work 
of  Tasso  and  Guarini "  (Greg,  pp.  6-7).  But  we  need  not  dwell 
upon  this  obvious  fact  except  to  suggest  that  some  comparison 
may  be  drawn  between^the  sophisticated  demand  for  brevity  which 
produced  the  idyl  and  the  similar  appetency  which  has  been-  satis- 
fied by  the  modern  short-story.  A  significant  but  debatable  con- 
ception of  the  idyl,  which  though  related  to  its  characteristic  brevity 
yet  goes  deeper  and  would  distinguish  its  function  from  that  of  the 
short-story,  is  suggested  by  Krause,  who  holds  that  in  the  idyl 
beauty  is  present  as  a  harmony  of  life  transpiring  without  negation, 
limitation,  or  destruction  (see  E.  von  Hartmann,  3  :  439). 

2.  The  technique  of  the  idyl  may  be  studied  as  follows : 


VII,  C]  THE  IDYL 

(a)  In  General,  (i)  Has  the  idyl  a  technique  of  its  own,  and 
may  it  be  deduced  from  that  combination  of  brevity  and  the 
picturesque  which  perhaps  is  the  essential  formal  trait  of  the  type, 
and  from  the  peculiar  mood  and  function  of  the  idyl  ?  or  from  its 
combination  of  narrative  and  descriptive  methods  (Wackernagel)  ? 
(2)  Does  its  technique  derive  from  epic,  lyric,  and  drama,  singly 
and  in  combination  (Gayley)  ?  or  from  epic  and  drama  rather  than 
lyric  (Symonds,  Greek  Poets,  The  Idyllists)  ?  (3)  Does  the  idyl 
generally  affect  any  peculiar  employment  or  combination  of  narra- 
tive, description,  dialogue,  monologue,  debat,  and  songs?  (See 
Chambers,  Cholmeley,  Courthope.)  (4)  Can  common  character- 
istics be  detected  in  the  prosodical  forms  which  have  been 
chiefly  employed  in  idyllic  composition  ?  (5)  To  what  extent 
has  country  dialect  been  employed  to  heighten  the  idyllic  effect? 
(See  Chambers.) 

(£)  Plot,  (i)  Is  plot  necessary  to  the  idyl,  or  is  the  poet  content 
with  the  artistic  effect  of  the  brief,  harmonious  presentation  of  the 
picturesque  ?  (2)  What  variety  of  plot  development  may  be  noted  ? 
from  simple  pictures  almost  devoid  of  plot,  to  complicated  stories 
that  even  embody  sub-plots  ?  (3)  Is  the  plot  managed  in  direct, 
explicit  fashion,  or  indirectly  with  a  certain  impressionism  or 
picturesque  suggestion,  whereby  natural  environment  symbolizes 
or  enhances  the  central  idea  of  the  story  ?  Compare  plot-technique 
of  the  short-story.  (4)  Is  unity  of  plot  characteristic  of  the  idyl? 
(5)  At  what  point  in  the  story  does  the  idyl  begin  ?  end  ?  (6)  Does 
the  idyl  affect  any  particular  sort  of  denouement  ?  or  suspense  ? 
(7)  To  what  extent  is  the  plot  furthered  by  the  dialogue  of  the 
characters  ?  by  situation  ? 

(c)  Character,  (i)  The  chief  problem  lies  in  the  relative  natural- 
ness and  artificiality,  in  the  truth  to  life,  of  the  characters  depicted. 
What  has  been  the  practice  of  the  great  idyllists  ?  Does  a  certain 
degree  of  artificiality  enhance  the  idyllic  effect?  Compare  the 
'  Dresden  Shepherdess.'  (2)  Is  character  development  inconsistent 
with  the  scope  of  the  idyl  ?  (3)  How  is  character  revealed  ? 
(4)  Does  the  brevity  of  the  poem  insure  consistency  of  character  ? 


452  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  7 

(d)  Action,  (i)  Is  action  represented  directly,  dramatically?  or 
does  the  idyllist  prefer  to  suggest  action,  character,  and  emotion 
by  the  symbolism  of  environment  ?  (2)  How  are  action  and  natural 
description  reconciled  in  presentation  ?  (3)  Is  the  idyl  more  con- 
cerned with  situation  than  with  action  ? 

(i)  Style.  In  addition  to  questions  noted  above,  under  (a)  In 
General :  (i)  Does  the  author  lose  himself  in  his  story  and  descrip- 
tion? or  is  the  idyl  a  subtle  method  of  self-realization?  or  both? 
(2)  What  of  the  flexibility  of  idyllic  style,  or  manner  ?  Have  these 
varied  greatly  from  age  to  age  ?  (3)  What  of  sincerity  and  artifi- 
ciality of  style  ?  Contrast  Theocritus  with  his  Alexandrian,  Roman, 
and  Renaissance  imitators ;  or  the  poems  of  these  last  with  the 
natural  pastoral  idyl  which  was  revived  by  Crabbe,  Burns,  Goethe, 
Barnes,  Wordsworth,  Keats,  Tennyson,  and  others.  (4)  Is  the 
descriptive  style  of  the  idyl  characterized  by  fidelity  to  nature  ?  or 
by  quaintness  of  conceit  ?  Contrast  as  above. 

For  early  essays  upon  the  nature  of  the  idyl  see  the  list  in  Blanken- 
burg,  Art.  Hirtengedichte.  Representative  are :  M.  A.  de  Saint-Amant 
(1653),  as  noted  below,  §  9,  vi,  B;  G.  Colletet,  Discours  sur  le  poeme 
bucolique  ou  il  est  traite*  de  l'e"clogue,  de  1'idylle,  etc.  (Paris:  1657); 
R.  Rapin,  Diss.  de  Carmine  Pastorali,  in  his  book  of  eclogues  (Paris : 
1659),  tr.  into  English  by  Creech  (1684),  and  prefixed  to  the  latter's 
trans,  of  Theocritus ;  B.  de  Fontenelle,  Discours  sur  la  nature  de 
l'e"clogue  (Paris  :  1 688),  —  a  famous  and  authoritative  essay  in  its  day, 
which  did  much  to  encourage  the  China  Shepherdess  affectations  of  the 
1 8th-century  pastoral ;  Abbe*  C.  C.  Genest,  Dissertation  sur  la  poe"sie 
pastorale,  ou  de  1'idylle  et  de  l'e"glogue  (Paris:  1707);  A.  Pope,  Dis- 
course on  Pastoral  Poetry  (1709);  The  Spectator,  No.  523;  The 
Guardian,  Nos.  22,  23,  28,  30,  32;  The  Rambler,  Nos.  36,  37;  The 
Adventurer,  No.  92. 

For  later  essays  see  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  the  refer- 
ences given  below,  §  10,  under  the  history  of  the  idyl;  also  Sainte- 
Beuve,  essay  on  Theocritus  in  Portraits  Littdraires  ( 1 844) ;  W.  S.  Landor, 
Idyls  of  Theocritus,  in  For.  Quart.  Rev.,  30:  161.  1842,  and  Heroic 
Idyls  (1863);  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  Art.  Theocritus  in  Johnson's  Univ. 
Cyclop. ;  J.  Macgilwray,  An  Essay  on  the  Greek  Pastoral  Poets,  in 
Classical  Journal,  17:  74-84,  18:  30-47,  280-298,  20:  134-141. 
1818-19;  Oliver  Yorke  (F.  S.  Mahoney),  Greek  Pastoral  Poets,  in 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  453 

Fraser's  Mag.,  12:  222-241,394-408,  541-550,  13:  92-104.  1835; 
Lowth,  Lects.  on  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews  (Eng.  tr.  by  G.  Gregory, 
1 787) ;  Charles  le  Goffic,  Art.  Idylle,  in  La  Grande  Encyclopedic ; 
W.  Moggride,  Idyllic  Poets;  Leigh  Hunt,  A  Jar  of  Honey  from 
Mount  Hybla. 


SECTION  8.    GENERAL  REFERENCES 

For  references  on  the  general  principles  of  art,  poetry,  and 
versification,  and  remarks  on  the  value  of  such  works  in  relation 
to  the  study  of  treatises  on  literary  types,  see  the  paragraphs  that 
introduce  §  2,  above. 

Many  of  the  references  cited  below,  §  1 1 ,  may  also  be  consulted 
by  the  student  of  theory  and  technique. 

ABERCROMBIE,  L.   The  Epic.   The  Art  and  Craft  of  LettersvSeries. 

Lond. :  n.d. 

A  brief,  facile  sketch,  gossipy  but  with  much  good  sense,  of 
"  conspicuous  instances  of  epic  poetry  ...  as  stages  of  one  con- 
tinuous artistic  development."  These  stages  are  characterized 
inadequately  but  suggestively.  The  criticism  of  the  distinction 
between  folk  epic  and  art  epic  (Chap.  II)  should  be  compared  with 
the  more  careful  article  of  Professor  C.  B.  Bradley  (see  below). 

ADAM,  F.    Die  Aristotelische  Theorie  vom  Epos  nach  ihrer  Ent- 

wickelung  bei  Griechen  und  Romern.  Wiesbaden  :  1889. 
A  short  •  monograph  which  may  be  consulted  advantageously 
for  the  opinions  of  the  ancients  on  many  of  the  Aristotelian 
canons  of  the  epic.  Here,  among  other  notices,  may  be  found 
brief  summaries  of  the'  theory  and  practice  of  Eustathius,  Aris- 
tarchus,  Callimachus,  Lycophron,  Apollonius,  Statius,  Silius 
Italicus,  etc. 

ADDISON,  J.    Milton's  Paradise  Lost. 

Spectator,  Nos.  267,  273,  279,  285,  291,  297,  303,  309,  315, 
321,  327,  333,  339,  345,  351,  357,  363,  369.  For  the 
best  edition,  see  Cook,  below.  Compare  also  Hansen 
and  Kabelmann,  below,  §  9,  vn,  c. 


454  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

Most  useful,  not  merely  as  a  special  criticism,  but  as  affording 
a  commentary  on  the  fun6tion  and  nature  of  the  epic  in  general, 
and  a  series  of  criteria  which,  though  not  always  based  upon 
sufficiently  broad  induction,  are  instructive  and  trustworthy  within 
the  classical  field  to  which  they  apply.  Addison  follows  Aristotle 
carefully,  but  admits  (No.  273)  that  principles  drawn  from  the 
practice  of  Homer  cannot  be  expected  to  coincide  perfectly  with 
the  practice  of  epics  of  other  ages  and  environments.  No.  417 
contains  a  comparison  of  the  imaginative  powers  of  Homer,  Virgil, 
and  Milton;  No.  523,  an  argument  against  the  use  of  ancient 
mythology  in  modern  poetry. 

ALDEN,  R.  M.    An  Introduction  to  Poetry.    N.  Y. :   1909. 

See  above,  §  2.    Pp.  40-41  The  Pastoral;  41-55  The  Epic. 

ARISTOTLE.    Poetics  (Wharton's  Ed.). 

in,  i  ;  v,  4-5;  vin,  1-4;  xviu,  4-6;  xxm-xxvi. 
Aristotle  considers  chiefly  the  following  matters :  the  features 
common  to  epic  and  tragedy ;  unity  of  time  and  of  action ;  the 
plot  of  the  epic  and  the  epic  arrangement ;  the  compass  of  the 
plot ;  the  kinds  of  the  epic,  simple  and  complex,  pathetic  and 
ethical ;  the  attitude  of  the  poet  toward  his  story ;  the  degree  to 
which  the  wonderful,  the  irrational,  the  dangerous,  the  impossible, 
the  essential  and  the  accidental,  the  ideal,  the  contradictory,  may 
present  themselves  in  the  artistic  epic ;  the  relative  excellence  of 
epic  and  tragic  poetry.  Subjects  for  discussion  are :.  Aristotle's 
statement  that  the  compass  of  the  epic  should  be  confined  to  the 
joint  length  of  the  tragedies  intended  for  one  hearing  (xxiv,  4) ; 
that  tragedy  is  superior  to  the  epic ;  also*  his  problems  and  solu- 
tions. See  notes  in  Pye  and  Twining.  Butcher  (Aristotle's  Theory 
of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art,  4th  ed.  1907)  comments  at  length  upon 
unity  of  action  in  tragedy  and  epic  (p.  285  ff.).  See  also  his  note 
(p.  285)  :  "  In  the  Poetics  the  epic  is  treated  chiefly  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  drama  ;  in  Dryden's  dramatic  criticism  the  converse 
holds  true."  —  Compare  M.  Carroll,  Aristotle's  Poetics  in  the  Light 
of  the  Homeric  Scholia  (Baltimore:  1895.  Diss.). 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  455 

ARMES,  W.  D.    Old  English  Ballads  and  Folk  Songs.    N.Y.:  1904. 

Introduction,  pp.  xi-xlv :    an  admirable  brief  survey  of  the 

characteristics  of  the  ballad  and  theories  of  its  origin. 

ARNOLD,  M.'  On  Translating  Homer.    N.Y. :   1899. 

These  famous  essays  should  be  read  in  their  entirety  by  every 
student  of  the  epic.    Arnold's  immediate  purpose  is  to  point  out 
the  faults  of  previous  translators  of  Homer,  and  also  the  right 
ends  to  be  attained  by  future  translators ;  but  the  essays  contain 
in  addition  one  of  the  most  incisive  characterizations  of  the  literary  ^ 
art  of  Homer.    As  a  basis  for  the  study  of  the  art  of  other  epics, 
the  student  can  find  nothing  more  helpful.    Arnold  selects  four  • 
characteristics  of  Homer's  style,  and  then  shows  how  the  trans- 
lators have  failed  or  succeeded  in  conveying  these  characteristics 
in  an  English  form.  . 

Homer  is  rapid  in  his  movement,  Homer  is  plain  in  his  words  and 
style,  Homer  is  simple  in  his  ideas,  Homer  is  noble  in  his  manner. 
Cowper  renders  him  ill  because  he-  is  slow  in  his  movement,  and 
elaborate  in  his  style ;  Pope  renders  him  ill  because  he  is  artificial 
both  in  his  style  and  in  his  words ;  Chapman  renders  him  ill  because 
he  is  fantastic  in  his  ideas ;  Mr.  Newman  renders  him  ill  because  he 
is  odd  in  his  words  and  ignoble  in  his  manner  (p.  200). 

Newman's  statement  that  the  effect  of  Homer  is  quaint,  garru- 
lous, prosaic,  low,  and  antiquated,  is  combated  at  length  (171  ff.)..: 
In  comparing  the  style  of  the  ballad  with  that  of  Homer,  Arnold 
makes  the  point  that  the  ballad  is  plain,  natural,  and  spirited,  and 
in  these  respects  resembles  Homer ;  but  that  it  lacks  Homer's 
nobility  and  "  grand  style."  Even  Scott,  the  "  coryphaeus  of 
balladists,"  in  striving  after  the  "  grand  style,"  attains  what 
can  be  called  only  a  "bastard  epic  style"  (195).  As  to  the 
"  grand  style,"  it  "  arises  in  poetry,  when  a  noble  nature,  poeti- 
cally gifted,  treats  with  simplicity  or  with  severity  a  serious  sub- 
ject "  (265).  "  The  best  model  of  the  grand  style  simple  is  Homer ; 
perhaps  the  best  model  of  the  grand  style  severe  is  Milton.  But 
Dante  is  remarkable  for  affording  admirable  examples  of  both 
styles  .  .  ."  (266). —  Compare  T.  S.  Omond,  Arnold  and  Homer, 


456  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

in  vol.  Ill  (1912)  of  Essays  and  Studies  by  Members  of  the 
English  Association,  and  articles  on  the  '  grand  style,'  by  G.  Saints- 
bury  and  John  Bailey  in  vols.  I,  II,  III  of  the  same  series. 
For  Newman's  reply  to  Arnold,  see  F.  W.  Nevyman,  Homeric 
Translation  in  Theory  and  Practice  (Lond. :  1861).  For  a  more 
minute  criticism  of  a  translation  of  Homer  —  a  detailed  criticism 
of  the  renderings  of  particular  phrases  and  passages  —  see  A.  W. 
von  SchlegePs  Homers  Werke  von  Johann  Heinrich  Voss  (in 
Sammtliche  Werke.  Ed.  by  E.  Bocking.  Leipz. :  1846  +  ;  vol.  X, 
pp.  115-193). 

ARNOLD,  M.    Essays  in  Criticism.    2 d  Series.    Lond.:   1888.   • 

See  essay  on  Wordsworth  for  the  statement  that  the  Greek 
"categories  of  epic,  lyric,  and  so  forth,  have  a  natural  propriety 
and  should  Ije  adhered  to."  Compare  Posnett,  Comparative 
Literature,  p.  41,  Note. 

BABBITT,  I.    The  New  Laokoon.    An  Essay  on  the  Confusion  of 

the  Arts.    Boston  and  N.Y.:   1910. 

Although  this  work  does  not  bear  directly  upon  the  epic  (see 
its  Index,  however,  under  Homer  and  Mambrun),  the  student  of 
epic  criticism  will  find  it  a  valuable  help  toward  understanding 
the  general  spirit  and  fundamental  principles  of  both  neo-classical }/ 
and  romantic  criticism. 

BATTEUX,  CHARLES,  ABB£.    Les  beaux-arts  re'duits  a  un  meme 
principe.    Paris:   1747. 

Pp.  152-153,  199-218.   Cf.  above,  §  2,  and  below,  §  9,  vi,  c. 
The  epic  is  defined  thus  (pp.  200-201) : 

Un  rdcit  en  vers  d'une  action  vraisemblable,  he"roi'que,  et  merveilleuse. 
On  trouve  dans  ce  peu  de  mots,  la  difference  de  1'Epope'e  avec  le 
Romanesque,  qui  est  au-dela  du  vraisemblable ;  avec  1'Histoire,  qui  ne 
va  pas  jusqu'au  merveilleux;  avec  le  Dramatique,  qui  n'est  pas  un  re"cit; 
avec  les  autres  petits  Poe'mes,  dont  les  sujets  ne  sont  pas  he"roiques. 

The  author  continues  with  a  discussion  of  the  marvellous ;  on 
pp.  208-209  ne  takes  issue  with  Le  Bossu. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  457 

BAUMGART,  H.    Handbuch  der  Poetik.    Eine  kritisch-historische 
Darstellung  der  Theorie  der  Dichtkunst    Stuttgart:    1887. 
See  Chap.  V  for  the  difference  between  epic  and  lyric :  "  Hand- 
lung   als    Gegenstand   der    Nachahmung    das    Kennzeichen    der 
epischen,  als  Mittel  derselben  der  lyrischen  Gattung."   Chaps.  XV- 
XVIII  discuss  the  epic  at  length,  touching  upon  ethical  quality 
and  upon  dignity  of  subject,  and  drawing  comparisons  between  the 
epic  and  idyl,  popular  and  artificial  epics,  romantic  and  comic  epics. 

BELSHAM,  W.     Essays,   Philosophical,    Historical,    and   Literary. 
2  vols.    Lond. :   1791. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  275-303  On  Epic  Poetry. 

•An  essay  of  great  good  sense,  modelled  on  Voltaire  (see  below). 
The  author  realizes  clearly  and  forcefully  the  value  of  inductive 
criticism,  and  appreciates  Aristotle's  principles  of  the  epic  accord- 
ingly. His  strictures  upon  Le  Bossu  are  to  the  point : 

It  would  be  strange,  if  no  general  or  interesting  truth  could  be 
deduced  from  the  narration  of  a  great  and  memorable  event ;  but,  to 
make  the  Poem  a  mere  vehicle  for  the  communication  of  it,  is  to  con- 
found the  plan  of  the  Epopee,  and  to  degrade  it  to  a  level  with  that  of 
a  fable  of  Aesop  (p.  781). 

He  maintains  further  that  a  hero  "  favorise  du  ciel,  qui  execute 
un  grand  dessein  en  triomphant  de  tous  les  obstacles  qui  s'y 
opposent,"  is  not  a  necessity  in  the  epic,  and  that  it  would  be 
absurd  to  deny  Paradise  Lost  the  title  of  epic  because  of  such 
a  mistaken  idea.  The  necessity  of  supernatural  machinery  is  also 
denied.  The  gifts  of  the  epic  poet  are  enumerated,  and  a  series 
of  brief  notices  of  the  principal  epics,  after  the  manner  of  Voltaire, 
closes  the  essay. 

BENECKE,  E.  F.  M.    Antimachus  of  Colophon,  and  the  Position 

of  Women  in  Greek  Poetry.    Lond.:   1896. 
A  fragmentary  and  unconvincing  piece  of  work,  but  it  throws 
a  side-light  upon  Homeric  characters.    "  A  man  living  in  a  society 
in  which  women  were  despised,  had  to  deal  with  legends  belonging 


458  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

to  an  earlier  social  condition,  in  which  women  played  a  prominent 
part."  —  Compare  W.  C.  Perry,  The  Women  of  Homer  (Lond.: 
1898). 

• 

BERNHARDY,  G.    Grundriss  der  griechischen  Litteratur. 
See  above,  §  2. 

BLAIR,   H.     Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and   Belles   Lettres.     3  vols. 
Edinb. :   1813.    Orig.  ed.,  1783. 

Vol.  Ill,  pp.  190-271. 

Chapters  covering  the  epic  in  general,  —  Homer,  Virgil,  Lucan, 
Tasso,  Camoens,  Fenelon,  Voltaire,  and  Milton.  Criticizes  Le 
Bossu  as  frigid  and  absurd ;  defines  epic  broadly,  as  a  "  poetical 
recitation  of  great  adventures "  ;  the  predominant  tone  of  the 
epic  is  admiration,  excited  by  heroic  actions.  Nature  of  subject, 
construction,  the  happy  ending,  the  time-limit,  characters,  and 
machinery  are  also  discussed.  Aristotle  is  followed  throughout. 

BLANKENBURG,  F.  VON. 

See  below,  under  J.  G.  Sulzer. 

BOILEAU-DESPREAUX.  N.    L'art  poe'tique.    Paris:   1674. 

See  pp.  91-109  of  the  CEuvres  completes  (Paris:  1875);  or 
pp.  188-220  of  the  edition  by  M.  Amar  (Paris:  1821). 
D.  N.  Smith's  edition  for  the  Pitt  Press  Series  (Cam- 
bridge :  1 898)  is  furnished  with  valuable  notes,  and  also 
with  introductory  essays  upon  the  criticism  and  doctrine 
of  the  Art  Podtique,  and  its  influence.  For  reprint,  with 
translation  by  Sir  William  Sloane,  see  Cook's  Art  of 
Poetry;  see  also  Batteux's  Les  quatre  podtiques. 

Satirical,  -and,  like  most  other  '  Poetics,'  dogmatic,  rather  than 
inductive,  in  the  statement  of  principles.  The  references  to  the 
epic  are  in  the  third  canto  (11.  160-334).  No  definite  theory  of 
the  epic  is  put  forward ;  it  is  regarded  loosely  as  "  le  vaste  re'cit 
d'une  longue .  action  "  (1.  161).  Unlike  Tasso,  Boileau  prefers 
pagan,  subjects  to  Christian.  Formal  rules  take  up  most  of  the 
passage ;  but,  in  general,  he  supplements  the  position  of  the  older 
classicists,  who  promulgated  a  set  of  rules  on  the  authority  merely 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  459 

of  the  ancients,  by  asserting  broadly  that  these  rules  are  grounded 
in  '  nature  '  and  '  reason/  In  Boileau's  answer  to  Perrault's  attack 
upon  the  ancients,  contained  in  Boileau's  Reflexions  critiques  sur 
.  .  .  Longin  (CEuvres.  4  vols.  Amsterdam:  1735  ;  vol.  Ill),  will 
be  found  a  defense  of  Homer  and  some  attacks  upon  the  modern  - 
French  epic.  See  also  the  Satires  and  Epistles  for  matter  bearing 
upon  the  epic.  —  Compare  F.  Brunetiere,  L 'evolution  des  genres 
(3d  ed.  Paris:  1898;  vol.  I,  pp.  15,  87-110);  Esthe'tique  de 
Boileau  (in  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes,  June  i,  1889);  I.  T.  Myers 
(see  below,  §  n),  pp.  21-22;  A.  S.  Cook,  Art  of  Poetry,  p.  xl. 
An  informing  work  upon  Boileau  is  that  of  G.  Lanson,  Boileau 
(Paris:  1892).  See  also  A.  Bourgoin,  Les  maitres  de  la  critique 
au  XVII6  siecle  (Paris :  1889),  p.  129  ff. 

BRADLEY,  C.  B.  On  the 'Distinction  between  the  Art- Epic  and  the 
Folk-Epic.  In  University  of  California  Chronicle,  8  :  377-387. 
The  ultimate  materials  used  both  in  the  art  epic  and  the  folk 
epic  ar.e  the  same :  myth,  legend,  and  tradition.  In  both,  moreover, 
the  complete  and  final  form  is  due  to  the  skill  of  some  individual 
poet  and  artist.  The  elements  of  difference,  then,  are:  (i)  the. 
individual  power  and  skill  of  the  poet ;  (2)  the  essential  character 
and  the  degree  of  elaboration  of  the  popular  materials  as  they 
come  to  the  poet's  hand ;  (3)  the  contemporary  attitude  of  men 
regarding  this  material,  as  affecting  the  freedom  the  poet  may 
allow  himself  in  dealing  with  it ;  (4)  our  own  knowledge  or 
ignorance  of  the  precise  facts  as  regards  these  points,  and  of 
the  conditions  under  which  the  poet  worked  — a  subjective  factor 
which  unconsciously,  but  surely,  affects  our  impression,  and  there- 
fore our  classification,  of  individual  epics.  The'  author  shows  that 
none  of  these  differentiae,  with  the  exception  of  the  second,  is  a 
sure  criterion  of"  classification. 

The  distinction  then  between  the  Folk-epic  and  the  Art-epic  so- 
cai'ed  is  a  vanishing  one,  convenient  indeed  for  certain  purposes  of 
education  and  criticism,  and  in  typical  cases  apparent  enough  for  such 
purposes;  but  too  subjective,  too  impressionistic,  too  little  based  on 
fact  and  knowledge  to  be  final  (p.  387). 


460  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

No  student  of  the  epic  can  afford  to  neglect  this  keen  criticism  of 
the  distinction  between  the  folk  epic  and  the  art  epic ;  cf.  Nettleship 
and  Zimmermann,  below. 

BRAITMAIER,  F.    Geschichte  der  poetischen  Theorie  und  Kritik 
von  den  Diskursen  der  Maler  bis  auf  Lessing.    2  Thl.   Frauen- 
feld:   1888-1889. 
Valuable   as   summarizing   the   views   upon   literary  types  of 

Gottsched,  Bodmer,  Breitinger,  the  Schlegels,  Mendelssohn,  et  al. 

See,  especially,  pp.  38-39,  185,  241,  and  Pt.  I,  Chap.  IV.    For 

criticism  of  the  work,  see  O.  F.  Walzel,  in  Anzeiger  d.  Zeitschrift 

fur  deutsches  Alterthum,  17:  55-74. 

BROCKHAUS,  F.  A.    Konversations-Lexikon.    Berlin:   1893. 
Vol.  VI,  Art.  Epos. 

BRUCHMANN,  K.  Poetik.  Naturlehre der Dichtung.  Berlin:  1898. 
Pp.  122-206.  Note  the  following:  190,  character  of  the  age 
of  the  folk  epic;  192,  mixing  of  mythology  and  history; 
195,  material  of  epic;  196,  character  of  the  age  of  the 
art  epic ;  1 99,  relation  of  epic  to  fairy-tales ;  200,  to 
beast-fables;  202,  to  romance;  205,  to  parody,  idyl, 
ballad,  etc.  On  the  method  of  the  book,  see  above,  §  2. 

BUTCHER,   S.   H.    Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art. 

4th  ed.    Lond. :   1907. 

"  This  book  takes  rank  as  the  most  complete  apparatus  in 
English  for  the  study  of  Aristotle's  Poetics."  —  In  commenting 
upon  Aristotle's  views  on  character  in  tragedy,  Butcher  contrasts 
character  in  epic  as  follows : 

The  action  which  springs  out  of  character,  and  reflects  character, 
alone  satisfies  the  higher  dramatic  conditions.  Here  there  is  a  marked 
difference  between  epic  and  dramatic  poetry.  The  epic  poem  relates 
a  great  and  complete  action  which  attaches  itself  to  the  fortunes  of  a 
people,  or  to  the  destiny  of  mankind,  and  sums  up  the  life  of  a  period. 
The  story  and  the  deeds  of  those  who  pass  across  its  wide  canvas  are 
linked  with  the  larger  movement  of  which  the  men  themselves  are  but 
a  part.  The  particular  action  rests  upon  forces  outside  itself.  The  liero 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  461 

is  swept  into  the  tide  of  events.  The  hairbreadth  escapes,  the  surprises, 
the  episodes,  the  marvellous  incidents  of  epic  story,  only  partly  depend 
upon  the  spontaneous  energy  of  the  hero.  The  tragic  drama,  on  the 
other  hand,  represents  the  destiny  of  the  individual  man  (p.  354). 

See  also  above,  under  Aristotle. 

CAMPBELL,  L.    Religion  in  Greek  Literature.    Lond. :   1898. 

Chaps.  Ill,  IV  Religion. in  Homer. 

Notice  the  contention  that  a  period  of  religious  development 
intervened  between  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey ;  also  the  view  that 
Homer  takes  his  gods  less  seriously  than  his  mortals  (p.  76). 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS.    Biography.   In  Eraser's  Mag.,  No.  27.    1832. 

Carlyle,  preaching  the  supreme  poetic  value  of  reality,  takes 
occasion  to  inveigh -against  epic  machinery.  The  instant  myth 
ceases  to  be  "  authentically  supernatural,"  ceases  to  command 
belief  as  in  a  reality,  it  is  "  in  very  deed  mechanical,  nowise  inspired 
or  poetical,"  and  becomes  a  "  miserable,  meaningless  Deception, 
kept-up  by  old  use-and-wont  alone."  And  since  only  the  earliest 
epics  can  claim  this  "  distinction  of  entire  credibility,  of  Reality," 
all  the  rest  are,  in  comparison,  "  frosty,  artificial,  heterogeneous 
things."  A  thesis  which  may  well  be  tested  in  the  light  of  fact  and 
aesthetic  theory.  Compare  Carlyle's  own  appreciation  of  the  poetic 
truth  of  Shakespeare's  characters  (State  of  German  Lit,  1827  ;  in 
Edinb.  Rev.,  No.  92). 

In  his  very  readable  article  The  Nibelungen  Lied  (1831  ;  West- 
minster Rev.,  No.  29),  Carlyle  presents  an  effective  picture  of  the 
story  of  the  great  German  epic,  has  something  to  say  about  the 
impression  the  poem  has  made  upon  him0  (as  of  life-large  figures 
reduced  to  clear  but  elf-like  miniatures),  which  he  attributes  partly 
to  the  fact  that  the  poem  was  intended  to  be  sung.  He  also  utters 
some  conventional  criticism  under  the  formal  heads  of  Fable, 
Invention,  Marvel,  and  Style.  Of  specific  epic  criticism  there  is 
next  to  nothing.  See  also  The  Hero  as  Poet :  Dante,  Shakespeare, 
in  On  Heroes,  H era-Worship,  and  the  Heroic  in  History  (1841). 


462  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

CARRIERE,  M.    Die  Poesie.    Ihr  Wesen  und  ihre  Formen.    2d  ed. 

Leipz. :   1884.    ist  ed.  1854. 

A  most  suggestive  essay  in  philosophical  (Hegelian)  criticism. 
In  pp.  193-367  the  epic  is  treated  systematically  and  comparatively. 
The  epic  hero  is  held  to  be  representative  of  his  race,  and  his  story, 
to  be  the  revelation  of  the  moral  laws  of  the  world-order.  The  epic 
is  a  microcosmos  (Das  Weltbild  im  Epos).  The  epic  poet  is  always 
conscious  of  the  divine  law  directing  the  actions  of  man,  of  his 
race-hero ;  and,  thus,  the  epic  reveals  the  supernatural  in  the 
moral  world  :  "  das  Zusammenwerken  des  Gottlichen  und  Mensch- 
lichen  bei  allem  Grossen  in  der  Weltgeschichte  ist  die  Idee  welche 
Homer  durch  das  Erscheinen  seiner  Cotter  und  ihr  Eingreifen 
in  die  Handlung  sinnlich  plastisch  veranschaulicht "  (p.  298).— 
On  ballad  and  idyl  see  p.  3 1  o  ff .  —  Cf .  the  same  author's  Aesthetik 
(2  vols.  Leipz. :  1885),  vol.  II,  pp.  540—567. 

CHAMBERS,  K  K.    English  Pastorals.    N.  Y. :  1895. 

This  charming  collection  is  introduced  by  a  brief  but  excellent 
critical  essay,  dealing  with  pastoral  and  idyl. 

CHILD,  F.  J.    English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads. 
See  below,  §  1 1 . 

CHOLMELEY,  R.'J.    The  Idylls  of  Theocritus.    Lond. :   1901. 

Text,  notes,  etc.  See  the  valuable  introduction  for  a  discussion 
of  the  relation  of  the  poems  of  Theocritus  to  contemporary  and- 
older  art  and  folk  poetry.  "  Just  as  in  the  case  of  the  epic  idylls, 
and  the  pastorals,  we  find  that  Theocritus  is  not  only  a  follower  of 
a  school  among  his  contemporaries,  but  the  exponent  of  that  school 
in  its  purest  form,  so  irt  the  mimes  we  know  of  a  contemporary 
rival"  (p.  31). 

CINTIO,  GIRAI.DI.    Scritti  estetici  di  G.  B.  Giraldi  Cintio.    2  vols. 
Milano:   1864  (in  Daelli's  Biblioteca  Kara). 

Vol.  I,  Discorso  intorno  al  comporre  del  Romanzi  (written  in 
1 549)- 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  463 

Cintio  is  important  in  the  history  of  epic  criticism  because  of 
his  early  formulation  of  the  laws  of  the  romantic  epic,  with  its' 
many  actions  and  heroes.  He  based  his  induction  upon  Boiardo 
and  Ariosto,  just  as  Aristotle  had  based  his  laws  for  the  epic  of 
single  action  and  a  central  hero  upon  his  observation  of  Homer. 
On  page  82  occurs  a  discussion  of  the  propriety  of  mixing  Christian 
and  pagan  mythology.  Cintio's  classification  of  the  varieties  of  the 
epic  as  (i)  the  classical  epic,  in  the  Aristotelian  sense,  (2)  the 
romantic  epic  of  Boiardo  and  Ariosto,  and  (3)  the  biographical 
poem,  is  still  noteworthy  and  suggestive.  To  the  epic  as  to  tragedy 
he  ascribes  the  function  of  purgation  of  pity  and  fear,  as  did,  also, 
his  contemporary,  Minturno  (see  below,  §  9,  v,  A).  Compare  Spin- 
garn,  p.  112  ff.  (ist  ed.) ;  Irene  Myers  (see  below,  §  n),  p.  17  ; 
Saintsbury,  Hist,  of  Grit.,  II,  58;  F.  Beneducci,  II  Giraldi  e 
1'epica  nel  Cinquecento  (Bra:  1896). 

CLARK,  J.    A  History  of  Epic  Poetry.    Edinb. :   1900. 
See  below,  §  1 1 . 

COLERIDGE,  H.    Essays  and  Marginalia.    2  vols.    Lond. :   1851. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  18-39  On  the  Poetical  Use  of  the  Heathen 
Mythology.  Compare  vol.  II,  pp.  26-28. 

COLERIDGE,  S.  T.     Seven  Lectures  on  Shakespeare  and  Milton. 
1856. 

See  also,  on  Milton,  Lit.  Remains,  I,  169-178;  Biog.  Literaria, 
Chap.  II ;  Table  Talk,  May  8,  1824,  and  Aug.  18,  1833  ; 
on  Spenser,  Lit.  Remains,  I,  89-97;  Table  Talk,  June  24, 
1827 ;  on  Homeric  objectivity,  Table  Talk,  May  12,  1830, 
cf.  July  9,  1832. 

Chiefly  on  poetic  expressiveness. 
COOK,  A.  S.    The  Art  of  Poetry.    Boston:   1892. 

A  reprint  of  the  poetical  treatises  of  Horace,  Vida,  and  Boileau, 
with  the  translations  by  Howes,  Pitt,  and  Soames ;  and  with  notes 
and  illustrative  comments.  The  most  convenient  edition  of  these 
texts.  For  references  to  the  epic,  see  under  Vida,  Boileau,  in  this 
section ;  under  Horace,  below,  §  9,  n. 


464  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

COOK,  A.  S.    Criticisms  on  Paradise  Lost.    Boston:   1892. 

The  best  annotated  reprint  of  Addison's  papers  on  Paradise 
Lost.  Professor  Cook  himself  holds  (p.  xii)  that  the  term  'epic'  is 
a  critical  convention,  and  questions  whether  or  not  as  a  name  of 
a  poetical  species  it  has  any  meaning  apart  from  that  convention. 
"  If  an  opponent  denies  that  the  name  is  properly  bestowed  upon 
a  composition  which  you  call  an  epic,  have  you  any  recourse  except 
to  the  statements  of  the  literary  historians  and  critics,  your  prede- 
cessors, who  have  given  the  name  to  works  which  you  esteem 
similar?"  Compare  Croce  below. 

COUAT,  A.    La  poesie  alexandrine.    Paris:   1882. 

Pp.  391-441  Idyls  of  Theocritus,  —  an  attractive,  sympathetic 
study. 

COURTHOPE,  W.  J.  Life  in  Poetry  :  Law  in  Taste.  Lond. :  1901. 
See  pp.  94-97  (Homer's  universal  genius  vs.  the  picturesque 
talent  of  Apollonius;  cf.  (p.  102)  the  English  epic)  and  329-359 
(Paradise  Lost  as  an  imitation  of  the  universal  in  nature,  of  an 
age  and  the  character  of  the  age ;  as  harmonizing  opposite  prin- 
ciples of  art,  etc. ;  pp.  343—347  contain  a  criticism  of  Macaulay's 
famous  comparison  of  the  styles  of  Dante  and  Milton). 

CROCE,  B.    Estetica,  come  scienza  dell' espressione  e  linguistica 
generale.    I  Teoria;  II  Storia.    Milano:  1902.   2d  ed.  1904. 
See  pp.  38  ff.,  454  ff.,  for  a  treatment  of  types  in  general,  "  in 
which  the  distinctions  of  literary  kinds,  and  their  historic  evolution 
as  a  subject  of  study,  are  dismissed  as  wholly  unreal  and  unscien- 
tific."  Cf.  the  review  in  The  Nation  (N.  Y.),  75  :  252. 

DACIER,  MADAME  A.    Des  causes   de   la   corruption  du  goust. 

Paris :   1714. 

This  work,  a  reply  to  Lamotte's  strictures  upon  the  Iliad,  and 
the  two  following,  which  formed  part  of  the  "  Ancient  and  Modern  " 
quarrel,  may  be  consulted  for  criticism  of  particular  details  in 
Homer.  For  further  references  concerning  the  quarrel,  see  Gayley 
and  Scott,  p.  435,  and  §  9,  vi,  H,  c,  below. 


§  8]  GENERAL  -REFERENCES  465 

DACIER,  MADAME  A.  The  Iliad  of  Homer,  translated  by  Oldis- 
worth  and  others.  2d  ed.  5  vols.  Lond. :  1714  +  .  From 
the  French,  L'lliade  d'Homere,  traduite  en  frangois,  avec 
des  remarques.  1711.  ist  ed.  1699. 

The  Preface  is  an  example  of  the  pseudo-classic  moralistic  inter- 
pretation of  Homer  (cf.  below,  §  9,  vi,  B,  c).  The  author  defends 
Homer  against  those  who  attack  his  fictions,  by  insisting  upon 
the  allegorical  significance  of  the  fictions ;  against  those  who  find 
his  manners  and  characters  contemptible,  by  an  argument  for  veri- 
similitude, and  by  parallel  cases  in  Holy  Writ ;  against  those  who 
balk  at  the  improbable  and  marvellous,  by  pointing  out  the  super- 
natural agency  of  these  wonders.  For  an  uncompromising  state- 
ment of  the  moral  purpose  of  the  epic,  see  p.  Ivii. 

DACIER,  MADAME  A.  L'Odyssee  d'Homere,  traduite  en  frangois, 
avec  des  remarques.  3  vols.'  Paris:  1716.  ist  ed.  1708. 

For  further  notice  of  Madame  Dacier,  see  below,  §  9,  vi,  c. 
In  the  Preface  to  this  work  the  author  fulfils  a  promise  given  at 
the  close  of  the  work  above,  by  essaying  a  discourse  upon  the  rules 
of  the  epic,  and  the  application  of  those  rules  to  La  Calprenede's 
historical  romance  Cassandre,  with  a  view  to  showing  how  far 
short  of  the  Ancients  the  Moderns  fall.  The  Preface  is  divided 
into  four  parts:  (i)  the  nature  and  .origin  of  epic  poetry;  its 
principles  according  to  Aristotle  and  Horace  ;  its  purpose,  wisdom, 
and  utility ;  application  to  contemporary  epic  and  romance  to  show 
how  entirely  lacking  they  are  in  true  epic  art;  (2)  defense  of 
Homer  against  the  Platonic  objectors  ;  (3)  examination  of  Longinus 
on  the  Odyssey,  and  defense  of  the  Odyssey  as  the  equal  of  the 
Iliad  in  vigor  and  spirit ;  (4)  encomiums  of  various  kinds,  but  all 
with  strong  moralistic  bent.  The  definition  of  epic  is  typical  of 
the  "  age  of  reason  " :  "  un  discours  en  vers,  invente  pour  former 
les  mceurs  par  des  instructions  deguisees  sous  1'allegorie  d'une 
action  generate  et  des  plus  grands  personnages  "  (p.  xii).  Saintsbury 
disposes  of  Mme.  Dacier 's  criticism  as  "very  aggressive,  very  eru- 
dite, and  very  unintelligent"  Is  this  quite  fair  ? 


466  THEORY  OF -THE  EPIC  [§  8 

DAVENANT,  SIR  W.    Works.    Lond. :   1673. 

Preface  to  Gondibert,  pp.  1-27. 

Important  historically  (first  ed.  1650)  in  the  development  of 
English  criticism  of  the  epic,  but  otherwise  negligible.  For  Hobbes' 
answer,  see  below.  For  Davenant's  agreement  with  the  conclu- 
sions of  Tasso,  see  Spingarn,  Crit.  Essays,  II,  332  ;  for  French 
influence  on  Davenant,  see  A.  H.  Upham,  The  French  Influence 
in  English  Literature  (N.  Y. :  1908),  pp.  387-389. 

DIXON,  W.  M.    English  Epic  and  Heroic  Poetry.    Lond. :   1912. 

For  notice  of  this  valuable  work,  see  below,  §  1 1 . 
Chap.  I  contains  a  discussion  of  the  definition  of  the  epic, 
already  referred  to  above,  §  7,  i. 

DOUMIC,  R.    Eludes  sur  la  litterature  franchise.    iere  Serie.   Paris : 

1896. 

See  under  Froissart  for  a  popular  discussion  of  the  relations  of 
epos  and  history. 

DRYDEN,  JOHN.    Prose  Works.    Ed.  by  Edmund  Malone.    4  vols. 
Lond. :   1800. 

DRYDEN,  JOHN.  Works.  Ed.  by  Scott-Saintsbury.   1 8  vols.  Edinb. : 
1882-1899. 

References  for  the  epic,  in  Malone,  are  as  follows:  I,  Pt.  II, 
209  ff.,  Of  Heroic  Plays;  I,  Pt.  II,  395,  Pref.  to  State 
of  Innocence;  II,  154,  Pref.  to  Albion  and  Albanius; 

II,  253  ff.,  An  Account  of   the   Poem  entitled  Annus 
Mirabilis,  etc.;  Ill,  66-69,  Character  of  St.  Evremont; 

III,  73  ff.,  esp.  91,  95,  99,  103,  115  ff.,  Discourse  on  the 
Original  and  Progress  of  Satire;  III,  285-287,  Dedica- 
tion of  the  Third  Miscellany;  III,  309-316,  341-350,  A 
Parallel  of  Poetry  and  Painting;  III,  425-556,  A  Dis- 
course on  Epick  Poetry;  III,  598-602,  Pref.  to  Fables, 
Ancient  and  Modern.  —  For  aids  to  the  study  of  Dryden, 
see  below,  §  9,  vn,  R. 

Dryden,  in  the  Discourse  on,  Epick  Poetry,  takes  considerable 
pains  to  prove  that  Aristotle's  estimate  of  the  relative  excellence  of 
epic  and  tragedy  should  be  reversed.  Says  Dryden : 


§8|  GENERAL  REFERENCES  467 

A  heroic  poem  truly  such  is  the  greatest  work  of  man ;  the  epic  por- 
trays more  of  life  than  the  tragedy,  has  more  lasting  ethical  effect ; 
displays  more  amply  the  nature  of  virtuous  action,  and  more  surely 
the  dignity  of  character. 

Compare  with  Aristotle's  Poetics,  chap.  xxvi.  Dryden  interprets 
Aristotle  as  attributing  greater  nobility  to  the  drama  because  of 
its  more  rapid  action :  but  is  not  Aristotle  speaking  of  the  pleasant- 
ness rather  than  the  nobility  of  the  types  ?  Note,  p.  437  (Malone's 
ed.),  the  argument  concerning  the  fitness  of  the  marvellous  and 
the  colossal  for  the  epic,  and  compare  Aristotle  xxiv,  8.  Is  Dry- 
den's  preference  for  simile  over  metaphor  substantiated  by  the 
practice  of  great  epic  poets  ?  For  characteristics  of  epic,  see 
pp.  426-490.  Especially  noteworthy  is  the  dictum  concerning  the 
extent  to  which  the  epic  poet  may  alter  the  facts  of  history.  Dryden 
pays  insufficient  attention  to  the  environment  and  period  of  the 
epic  poet,  but  his  essay,  in  spite  of  its  borrowings  from  Segrais, 
is  the  first  real  contribution  in  English  to  epic  criticism.  For 
opinions  contradictory  to  those  expressed  in  the  Discourse  see  III, 
432,  Twining's  note  ;  437,  and  references  there  to  2 18,  and  I,  218; 
311;  115  and  note.  A  convenient  edition  of  the  Essays  of  John 
Dryden,  with  an  introduction  and  commentary,  has  been  arranged 
by  W.  P.  Ker  (2  vols.  Oxford:  1900);  consult  pp.  xv-xix,  Ixix-lxxi, 
and  the  commentary  on  the  essays  noted  above. 

DUCHESNE,  J.   Histoire  des  poe'mes  epiques  franc_ais  du  XIIe  siecle. 
Paris:    1870. 

See  below,  §  1 1 . 

KC<;ER,  E.    L'Hellenisme  en  France.    2  vols.    Paris:   1869. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  391-410  The  growth  of  French  criticism  upon 
the  epic ;  Chaps.  XVI,  XXVII  The  Pastoral.    • 

FINSLER,  G.   Hotner  in  der  Neuzeit,  von  Dante  bis  Goethe.   Italien, 

Frankreich,  England,  Deutschland.   Leipz.  und  Berlin  :   1912. 

For  a  complimentary  review,  see  Lit.  ZentralbL,  1912,  No.  19. 

In  this  valuable  and  scholarly  compendium  the  place  of  Homer 

in   European  culture  from   Dante  to  Goethe  is  indicated  by  a 


468  THEORY 'OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

description  of  the  general  acquaintance  with  the  Homeric  poems, 
and  of  criticism,  translation,  and  imitation  of  them,  in  Italy,  France, 
the  Netherlands,  England,  and  Germany.  Since  the  epic  criticism 
of  the  period  was  concerned  in  very  great  part  with  Homer,  it  will 

• 

readily  be  seen  that  this  work  goes  a  long  way  toward  tracing  the 
development  of  Renaissance  and  neo-classic  epic  theory  and  prac- 
tice. A  book  of  similar  scope  and  industry  on  the  place  of  Virgil 
(Comparetti's  Virgil  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  of  different  scope) 
would  admirably  supplement  the  materials  presented  by  Finsler. 
The  method  of  treatment  is  primarily  chronological  under  each 
national  division,  with  indications,  however,  of  important  divisions 
according  to  matter.  No  student  of  the  history  of  epic  criticism  can 
afford  to  neglect  this  work.  If  he  uses  it«in  connection  with  Quadrio 
and  Blankenburg-Sulzer,  he  has  excellent  apparatus  for  pursuing 
such  studies  as  are  indicated  in  §  9,  below  (Outlines  of  Theory 
by  Nationalities). 

FISCHER,  R.  Zu  den  Kunstformen  des  mittelalterlichen  Epos. 
Wien  und  Leipz. :  1899.  In  Wiener  Beitrdge  zur  englischen 
Philologie,  Bd.  IX. 

A  very  methodical  and  minute  analysis  of  Hartmann's  Iwein, 
the  Nibelungenlied,  Boccaccio's  Filostrato,  Chaucer's  Troylus  and 
Cryseyde.  The  essay  shows,  somewhat  "  dishearteningly,"  what 
can  be  accomplished  by  applying  the  exact  methods  of  science  to 
literature.  The  aim  of  the  author  is  to  discover  the  principal '  art- 
forms  '  of  the  epic  and  to  explain  their  functions.  In  the  Intro- 
duction, the  epic  is  held  to  be  far  more  formless  than  the  drama. 
The  latter  is  likened  to  a  watch  in  a  glass  case  through  which  all  the 
workings  of  the  machinery  can  be  seen  ;  but  the  epic  is  rather  like 
one  in  a'gold  case  on  the  face  of  which  can  be  seen  only  the  out- 
ward signs  of  the  hidden,  moving  powers  underneath.  Compare 
Aristotle,  Dryden,  Goethe  and  Schiller,  Heinze,  Humboldt,  Ker, 
etc.  The  analysis  of  the  '  art-forms  '  of  the  epic  is  as  follows : 
A.  Subjective  or  ideal  '  forms '  (dealing  with  impressions  of  the 
reader). 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  469 

1.  Composition,  by  phases  of  ideal  independence  ("  ideelle 

Selbstandigkeit "),  viz.,  exposition,  moment  of  excita- 
tion, confusion,  crisis,  unravelling,  and  solution. 

2.  Construction,  by  a  series  of  pictures  or  scenes  which 

make  up  the  whole. 
B.  Material  '  forms.' 

1.  Epic  '  form,'  in  which  the  author,  with  his  indirect  narra- 

tive, stands  between  the  action  and  the. reader. 

2.  Dramatic  'form,'  —  i.e.  direct  action. 
(a)  Monologue,  dialogue,  etc. 

(£)  Technique  of  characters. 

Now,  inasmuch  as  the  '  art-forms '  are  the  immediate  expression 
of  the  spiritual  contents,  and  inasmuch  as  the  relation  between 
form  and  content  is  not  a  dead  symmetry  but  a  living  harmony,  it 
follows  that  the  material  forms  are  symptomatic  of  the  spiritual 
contents.  Thus,  the  '  forms '  will  fully  decide  the  literary  type,  as 
epic,  for  instance. 

FOURNEL,  V.    Le  Virgile  travesti  .  .  .  par  Paul  Scarron,  precede 
d'une  etude  sur  le  burlesque  par  Victor  Fournel.    Paris: 
1853. 
Of  interest  as  bearing  up^on  the  burlesque  epic. 

FREYBE,  A. .  Klopstock's  Abschiedsrede  iiber  die  epische  Poesie. 
Halle:   1868. 

Klopstock's  essay  was  a  youthful  and  somewhat  feverish  appre- 
ciation of  the  epic,  especially  of  its  religious  aspect.  The  future 
author  of  the  Messias  naturally  gave  his  highest  praise  to  Paradise 
Lost,  which  he  ranked  above  the  Iliad.  Summary  in  Frick  and 
Polack  (below,  §  n),  and  in  Klopstock's  Werke,  ed.  R.  Hamel, 
vol.  I,  pp.  xxxviii-xl  (Kiirschner's  Deut.  National-Litt.,  vol.  46). 

FRIEDEMANN,  K.   Die  Rolle  des  Erzahlers  in  der  Epik.    In  Unter- 

such.  z.  neueren  Sprach-  und  Litgesch.,  N.  F.,  No.  9.    19 10. 
A  hasty  and  otherwise  inadequate  treatment  of  a  big  -subject, 
—  the  technique  of  narrative. 


470  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

GARTELMANN,  H.    Dramatik.    Berlin:  1892. 

The  object  of  the  drama  is  to  represent  characters  by  means 
of  action,  of  epic  to  represent  action  by  means  of  char- 
acters. Cf.  Ker  on  dramatic  representation  of  characters 
in  epic  -and  on  characterization  in  epic  and  romance 
(pp.  cit.  infra). 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.    The  Principles  of  Poetry. 

See  above,  §  2.  Pp.  xcii-xcvii  Poetry  of  Recital:  Ballad,  Hero- 
Saga,  Gest,  Epic,  etc. ;  quoted  above,  §  7,  I.  Pp.  ci-cii 
Idyl  and  Pastoral. 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.,  and  SCOTT,  F.  N.   An  Introduction  to  the  Methods 
and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism. 
See  above,  §  2. 

GINER,  F.    Estudios  de  Literatura  y  Arte.    Madrid:   1876. 

Pp.  65-81  De  la  Poesia  Epica,  y  en  Particular,  de  la  Epopeya. 
Cf.  pp.  47-64- 

GLADSTONE,  W.  E.    Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age. 
3  vols.    Oxford:   1858. 

Vol.  Ill,  pp.  500-545.  Section  V  Homer  and  some  of  his 
successors  in  epic  poetry,  in  particular  Virgil  and  Tasso. 

The  author,  comparing  Milton  (p.  500),  Dante  (p.  502),  Virgil 
(pp.  502-532),  and  Tasso  (pp.  534-545)  with  Homer,  furnishes 
suggestions  which  will  materially  assist  in  an  inductive'  study  of  the 
essentials  of  the  epic.  Note  particularly  the  theories  arrived  at 
with  regard  to  the  natural  or  the  supernatural  as  the  sphere  of  the 
epic,  the  human  or  the  extra-human  in  characterization,  the  ethical 
or  the  artistic  in  purpose,  the  influence  of  the  age  upon  the  quality 
of  the  work,  the  atmosphere  of  religious  simplicity  and  faith 
investing  the  events  narrated  (510-512),  the  choice  of  subject, 
individual  or  national,  actual  or  fanciful  (535-540),  the  blending 
of  fatalism  and  free-will  (529-535).  A  valuable  reference. 

GLOVER,  T.  R.    Studies  in  Virgil.    Lond. :   1904. 

A  series  of  sympathetic  lectures  covering  the  literary  influences, 
national  relation,  and  interpretation  of  Virgil.  The  conclusion  is 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  471 

that  Virgil's  was  the  "  voice  of  hope  and  gladness  in  the  Roman 
world."  For  two  other  famous  essays  on  Virgil,  see  Green  and 
Myers,  as  cited  below. 

GOETHE   and    SCHILLER,    Correspondence   between.     Trans,    by 
L.  Dora  Schmitz.    2  vols.   Lond. :   1877-1879.   (Bohn's  Lib.) 

The  detached  remarks  upon  the  epic  are  of  great  value.  They 
should  be  traced  through  the  entire  correspondence  ;  but  the  most 
important,  notices  lie  near  together,  in  the  following  letters: 
Nos.  300,  305,  306,  399,  429,  636  (Goethe);  and  301,  303,  304, 
311,  400,  402,  428,  498  (Schiller).  Letter  399  should  be  studied 
in  particular.  It  contains  a  formulation,  by  Goethe,  of  his  and 
Schiller's  ideas  about  the  epic  and  drama.  Here  occurs  Goethe's 
suggestive  statement  that,  "  if  any  one  wished  to  deduce  the 
details  of  these  laws  (i.  e.  of  the  epic  and  the  drama)  from  the 
nature  of  man,  he  would  need  always  to  keep  before  his  mind 
a  rhapsodist  and  a  mimic,  both  as  poets,  the  former  surrounded 
by  his  circle  of  silent  listeners,  the  latter  by  his  eager  and  observ- 
ant spectators,  and  it  would  not  be  very  difficult  to  discover  what 
it  was  most  appropriate  for  each  of  the  two  species  of  poetry  to 
do,  what  subjects  each  chiefly  selects,  and  what  motives  they 
chiefly  make  use  of ;  I  say  chiefly,  for,  as  I  said  above,  neither  of 
them  can  assume  anything  exclusively  to  itself."  Both  .epic  and 
tragedy,  he  observes,  are  subject  to  general  laws,  particularly  to 
the  law  of  unity  and  development ;  they  employ  similar  subjects 
and  all  sorts  of  motives ;  they  contemplate  the  physical,  the  moral, 
and  the  fanciful ;  at  the  best,  epic  and  tragedy  deal  with  characters 
who  possess  independence  of  action ;  they  differ  in  that  the  epic 
presents  events  as  past,  the  drama  as  present;  the  opposition 
in  the  epic  is  objective  and  external,  and  requires  breadth  of  treat- 
ment, but  tragedy  deals  more  subjectively  with  its  characters  and 
so  requires  a  less  extensive  stage ;  epic  is  calm  in  its  appeal,  con- 
templative of  past  events,  but  drama  is  immediate,  personal, 
compelling  in  its  effect ;  etc.  Compare  Harnack  and  Hartung, 
below ;  also  the  notice  of  Goethe  in  §  9,  vm,  B. 


4/2  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

GOSSE,  EDMUND.    Articles,  Epic  Poetry,  Idyl.    In  Encyc.   Brit, 
nth  ed. 

GOSSE,   EDMUND.     An    Essay  on  English    Pastoral  Poetry.     In 
A.  B.  Grosart's  ed.  of  Spenser,  vol.  III.    Lond. :  1882. 

See  also  the  "  Rider  "  by  Grosart. 
A  charming  and  valuable  essay. 

GOTTSCHALL,  R.    Poetik,  etc. 

See  above,  §  2.  Vol.  II,  pp.  97-190  Die  epische  Dichtung. 
Gottschall,  after  a  pre-prandial  on  the  character  of  epic  poetry, 
attacks  omnivorously  the  larder  of  poetic  narrative  in  general : 
folk-epic,  art-epic  (historical,  romantic,  religious,  comic),  poetic 
story  (epical ;  didactic-epical,  —  fable  and  parable  ;  lyric-epical), 
romance  and  tale  (historical  romance,  contemporary  romance, 
fairy-story,  novella),  and  didactic  poem  (epigram,  learned  poem, 
satire,  epistle).  —  For  ballad,  see  pp.  48-52. 

GRAVINA,  G.    Prose  di  Gianvincenzo  Gravina.    Firenze:   1857. 

Delia  Ragion  Poetica,  pp.  6-32,  44-51,  66-68;  for  Italian 
epic,  pp.  88-135. 

GREEN,  J.  R.  Stray  Studies  from  England  and  Italy.  N.  Y. :   1876. 

Pp.  227-253  Aeneas :  A  Virgilian  Study. 

One  of  the  most  sympathetic  studies  of  the  Aeneid  ever  written. 
Comparison  will  show  that  Gladstone's  depreciatory  utterance 
upon  the  same  subject  is  an  underestimate.  Professor  Green 
unfolds  the  nature  of  the  ethical,  purposeful,  national  epic.  For 
him  the  Aeneid  is  no  song  of  Aeneas,  but  of  Rome;  not  of  her 
past,  but  of  her  future ;  of  the  self-mastery,  the  submission,  the 
divine  order,  the  subordination  of  temporal  desires  to  eternal 
purposes.  It  is  the  national  epic  of  Stoicism,  ideal  manhood, 
endurance,  piety  :  but  through  all  is  heard  the  footfall  of  the  Fates. 

GREG,  W.  W.   Pastoral  Poetry  and  Pastoral  Drama.   Lond.:  1906. 
This  extensive  and  authoritative  study  of  Elizabethan  pastoral 
drama  is  of  prime  value  to  the  student  of  pastoral  poetry.    Note 
the  helpful  bibliography,  pp.  444-7448. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  473 

GROTE,  G.    History  of  Greece. 
See  below,  §  1 1 .    ' 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.    A  Handbook  of  Poetics.   3d  ed.   Boston:   1898. 

Pp.  7-39  The  Epic.    Pp.  29-30;   80-8 1    Pastoral  and  Idyl. 

For  the  ballad,  see  The  Beginnings  of  Poetry,  by  the 

same  author,  as  listed  above,  §  5,  and  below,  §  1 1 ;  also 

other  works  noted  in  §  1 1 . 

GURTEEN,  S.  H.  The  Epic  of  the  Fall  of  Man.  A  Comparative 
Study  of  Caedmon,  Dante  and  Milton.  N.  Y.  and  Lond. : 
1896.  • 

The  "  comparative  study "  consists  of  a  weak,  appreciative 
comparison  of  parallel  passages  in  Caedmon  and  Milton,  with 
some  reference  to  Dante.  The  task  is  superficially  conceived 
and  lightly  undertaken.  The  like  may  be  said  also  of  the  same 
author's  Arthurian  Epic  (N.Y.:  1895),  which  is  more  historical 
in  method,  but  popular  and  untrustworthy. 

HALL  AM,  H.    Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe.    7th  ed. 
4  vols.    Lond. :   1864.    ' 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  235-243. 

An  enthusiastic  laudation  of  Paradise  Lost.  Hallam  believes 
that  Milton's  subject  is  the  grandest  ever  chosen  for  heroic  poetfy, 
that  the  unity  of  the  poem  is  more  complete  than  that  of  the  Iliad 
or  the  Aeneid,  and  that  the  subject  is  of  greater  interest  than 
Tasso's.  But  he  falls  foul  of  theology  and  machines. 

HAMILTON,  C.    Methods  and  Materials  of  Fiction.    N.Y. :   1908. 
Pp.  153-160. 

A  contrast  of  epic  and  novel  in  respect  of  social  scope  and 
individualization  of  character.  Is  it  true  that  in  epic  the  characters 
are  "  not  adjudged  as  individuals,  apart  from  the  conflict  in  which 
they  figure  "  ?  What  of  ballad-like  interest  in  epic  characters  ? 

HARDIE,  W.  R.    Lectures  on  Classical  Subjects.    Lond.:   1903. 

Lect.  V  The  Vein  of  Romance  in  Greek  and  Roman  Litera- 
ture: on  the  relation  of  Alexandrian  romance  and  idyl 
to  their  environment;  cf.  pp.  270-271. 


474  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

HARNACK,  O.  Die  klassische  Aesthetik  der  Deutschen.  Wiirdi- 
gung  der  kunsttheoretischen  Arbeiten  Schiller's,  Goethe's 
und  ihrer  Freunde.  Leipz. :  1892. 

Harnack  desired  to  extend  the  work  of  Heinrich  von  Stein,  who 
traced  the  history  of  aesthetic  theory  to  Lessing  and  Winckelmann. 
His  book  is  valuable  for  its  convenient  exposition  of  the.  ideas  of 
Goethe,  Schiller,  and  their  friends  regarding  literary  types  as 
judged  by  theories  of  art  as  a  whole.  For  a  summary  and  dis- 
cussion of  Schiller's  opinions  concerning  the  relative  rank  of  epic 
and  tragedy,  see  pp.  93-95.  His  veitlict  in  favor  of  tragedy, 
because  of  its  greater  problems  and  difficulties,  is  held  by  Harnack 
to  be  a  logical  result  of  Schiller's  "  play-theory."  Goethe's  atti- 
tude, and  his  preference  for  the  epic,  are  found  on  pp.  125-128. 
Compare  Humboldt  on  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  treated  by 
Harnack  pp.  141-153. 

HART,  W.  M.    Ballad  and  Epic. 

See  below,  §  1 1 . 

A  scholarly  investigation  of  the  scope  and  technique  of  the 
simple  ballad,  the  border  ballad,  the  gest  and  heroic  ballad,  and 
the  epic. 

HART,  W.  M.    English  Popular  Ballads.    Chicago:   1916. 
See  below,  §  1 1 . 

HARTMANN,  E.  VON.  Ausgewahlte  Werke.  2d  ed.  Leipz.:  n.d. 
Bd.  IV  Zweiter  systemat.  Theil  der  Aesthetik,  pp.  714-732 
On  the  Epic.  See  also  pp.  732-733,  on  the  lyrical  epic; 
and  pp.  758-761,  on  the  epical  drama.  For  Hartmann's 
classification  of  poetry,  see  the  notice  in  Gayley  and 
Scott,  §  20. 

The  division  of  the  epic  into  plastic,  or  pure  epical,  epic, 
and  picturesque,  or  lyric,  epic,  rests  upon  a  differentiation  of 
plastic  and  picturesque  (mahrisehe)  art  (see  pp.  634-642).  Much 
more  importance  than  that  of  fanciful  resemblance  attaches  to 
the  author's  parallels  between  the  lack  of  background,  the  typical 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  475 

subject  (god  and  hero),  absence  of  subjective  color,  etc.,  which  he 
finds  to  be  characteristic  of  sculpture,  and  the  corresponding  traits 
of  the  natural  epic.  To  what  extent  may  these  parallels,  and 
those  between  painting  and  the  picturesque,  or  artificial,  epic,  be 
explained  as  necessary  effects  of  similar  social  and  intellectual 
conditions  manifesting  themselves  in  different  media  ?  On  the 
Idyl,  see  Bd.  Ill,  p.  439  ff. 

HARTUNG,  J.  A.  Lehren  der  Alten  iiber  die  Dichtkunst  durch 
Zusammenstellung  mit  denen  der  besten  Neueren.  Hamburg 
und  Gotha:  1845. 

A  valuable  and  convenient  little  book  of  reference.  Ancient 
and  modern  parallels  and  extensions  of  Aristotle's  dicta  are 
arranged  side  by  side  with  the  corresponding  passages  of  the 
Poetics.  Of  the  ancients,  Horace,  Longinus,  and  Plutarch  are 
most  often  cited ;  Lessing,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  Humboldt  of 
the  moderns.  For  the  epic,  see  pp.  225-264. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Aesthetik.  Werke. 
18  vols.  Berlin:  1833-48. 

Bd.  X,  Abt.  Ill,  pp.  326-396.  See  also  J.  S.  Kedney,  Hegel's 
Aesthetics,  A  Critical  Exposition  (Chicago:  1885), 
pp.  278-281. 

Hegel  traces  the  epic  from  the  germ  to  be  found  in  the  epigram 
or  gnome,  through  the  ancient  Greek  elegy,  the  philosophical  epic 
(of  Xenophanes  and  Parmenides),  the  cosmogonies,  etc.,  to  the 
epos  proper.  But  is  there  anything  of  an  epic  nature  in  the 
epigram,  or  in  the  didactic  cosmogony  ?  Is  not  human  action 
requisite  to  the  unity  of  the  epic?  The  definition  of  the  epic 
proper  (Kedney  p.  278,  Hegel  pp.  331,  332,  340)  is  one  of  the 
most  suggestive  that  the  student  can  find.  Notice  the  emphasis 
laid  upon  "  the  life  of  a  nation  or  the  history  of  an  epoch  and 
the  totality  of  the  beliefs  of  a  people  "  as  the  realm  of  subject- 
matter.  But  do  not  this  definition  and  the  statement  concerning 
the  period  best  adapted  to  epic  composition  rule  out  the  literary 
epic  ?  Can  the  epic  that  deals  with  an  age  of  which  we  have  no 


476  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

sympathetic  understanding  fulfil  the  requirements  of  "  absolute  " 
poetry  ?  —  "  Complex  relations  are  unsuitable  to  the  epic."  What 
shall  we  say,  then,  of  the  theological  problems  involved  in  Paradise 
Lost  ?  —  "  The  connection  of  man  with  nature  should  be  primitive." 
Apply  to  the  Divine  Comedy.  —  Hegel  makes  destiny  in  the  epic 
a  result  of  exterior  forces ;  but  does  not  the  idea  of  destiny  vary 
with  the  age  in  which  the  poet  lives  ?  —  Discuss  his  remarks  upon 
the  idyl  and  the  "epic  of  the  Bourgeoisie."  —  For  a  still  more 
highly  philosophical  view  of  the  epic,  see  Hegel's  Die  Phanome- 
nologie  des  Geistes  (1807),  —  English  trans,  by  J.  B.  Baillie, 
vol.  II,  p.  738  ff. 

HEINZE,  R.    Virgils  epische  Technik.    Leipz. :   1903. 

A  decidedly  informing  treatise.  The  author  is  concerned,  not 
with  general  and  abstract  questions  of  epic  criticism,  but  with  the 
aesthetic  exposition  of  a  particular  epic.  He  analyzes  the  Aeneid 
into  its  various  parts,  displaying  the  composition  of  each  part,  and 
the  composition  of  the  whole  ;  then,  gathering  the  results  together, 
seeks  to  present  a  systematic  view  of  epic  technique  under  the 
heads :  method  of  creation,  invention,  representation  (narration, 
description,  speeches),  composition,  aims.  —  For  further  discussion 
of  this  subject,  see  H.  T.  Pliiss,  below. 

HENDERSON,  T.  F.    The  Ballad  in  Literature.    Cambridge:  1912. 
An  excellent  compendium.    For  the  form,  character,  sources, 
and  themes  of  the  ballad,  and  its  peculiarities  as  lyric-epic  and 
as  related  to  epic  proper,  see  Chaps.  I  and  II. 

HEPPLE,  N.    Lyrical  Forms  in  English.    Cambridge:   1911. 
See  remarks  upon  idyl  and  pastoral. 

HERDER,  J.  G.    Sammtliche  Werke.    Ed.  by  B.  Suphan.    32  vols. 
Berlin:   1877-99. 

Bd.  Ill,  pp.  195-272.  See  also  the  article,  Herder  on  the 
Epic,  in  Blackwootf,  42 :  734-744.  For  a  more  ex- 
tended notice  of  Herder,  see  below,  §  n. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  477 

The  article  in  Blackwood  will  furnish  the  student  with  a  fair 
resume  of  Herder's  theory.  He  treats  of  the  epos  as  a  living 
tradition,  of  its'  requisites  and  characteristics  and  its  historical 
development,  of  the  difference  between  epic  poetry  and  history, 
and  of  Aristotle's  dicta  concerning  the  relative  excellence  of 
epic  and  tragedy.  Especially  worthy  of  consideration  are  the 
following  statements :  that  successive  picturing  and  imagery  of 
language  are  vital  to  the  epic  (pp.  738-739) ;  that  in  it  the 
weightiest  events  depend  upon  accidents  beyond  man's  control ; 
that  the  epos  disappears  as  belief  in  celestial  interposition  wanes ; 
and  that  (p.  7,41)  the  epos  and  history  "flee  the  one  from  the 
other."  "  The  epos  must  arise  in  new  splendor " :  does  this 
prophecy  refer  to  the  revival  of  interest  in  the  old  epic,  or  to 
the  birth  of  some  modern  type  of  epic?  Consider  the  validity 
of  the  assertion,  "  Epos  has  a  wider  compass  and  a  deeper 
foundation  than  tragedy."  Cf.  Aristotle,  Dryden,  Addison,  Pope, 
Schiller,  Goethe,  etc. 

HILLARD,  G.  S.  The  Relation  of  the  Poet  to  his  Age.  Boston : 
1843  (Harvard '*BK  Lecture). 

Pp.  26-32  Some  remarks  upon  the  relation  of  the  epic  poet 
to  his  subject-matter. 

HILLEBRAND,    J.      Aesthetica    Literaria    Antiqua    Classica,    etc. 

Moguntiae:   1828. 

A  rather  inadequate  collection  of  critical  loci  from  the  ancients 
upon  the  art  of  literature.  §  48  Epic ;  49  Pastoral ;  46  Lyric ; 
43  Tragedy ;  44  Comedy. 

HINNEBERG,  PAUL  (ed.).  Die  Kultur  der  Gegenwart  Thl.  I, 
Abt.  VIII  Die  griechische  und  lateinische  Literatur  und 
Sprache.  See  above,  §  5. 

See  index  for  notices  by  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, 
Krumbacher,  etc.,  under  Epos,  Eidyllia,  Erzahlung, 
Fabel,  Rhapsoden,  and  names  of  epic  and  idyllic  poets. 
See  other  volumes  of  the  same  series  for  brief  accounts 
of  oriental  and  other  occidental  literatures. 


478  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

HIRN,  YRJO.    The  Origins  of  Art.    A  Psychological  and  Socio- 
logical Inquiry.    Lond. :   1900. 

In  this  informing  and  most  suggestive  study  of  the  nature, 
origin,  and  development  of  the  art-impulse  the  seeker  after  the 
fundamental,  original  qualities  of  poetic  narrative  will  find  much 
help.  In  Chap.  VII,  Deduction  of  Art  Forms,  Hirn  shows  the 
relation  of  descriptive  and  "  what  in  the  widest  use  of  the  term 
we  may  call  an  epic  "  purpose  to  the  fundamental  impulse  "  to 
secure  a  faithful  response  to  an  overmastering  feeling."  The 
beginnings  of  such  '  epical '  presentations  among  the  lower  races 
are  noted  in  Chap.  XII  Historical  Art. 

HOBBES,  T.    The  English  Works  of  Thomas  Hobbes.    Ed.  by 
Sir  William  Molesworth.    lovols.    bond.:   1839-44. 

Vol.  IV,  pp.  443-458  The  Answer  to  Sir  William  Davenant's 
Preface  before  Gondibert. 

To  the  student  of  theory  the  Answer  is  of  value  only  as  a 
document  in  the  history  of  English  criticism.  Hobbes'  conception 
of  the  epic  appears  in  this  astonishing  statement :  "  The  .  .  . 
figure  of  an  epic  poem,  and  of  a  tragedy,  ought  to  be  the  same : 
for  they  differ  no  more  but  in  that  they  are  pronounced  by  one, 
or  many  persons  "  (444).  The  greater  part  of  Ihe  essay  is  taken 
up  with  praise  of  Davenant's  poem.  See  also  Hobbes'  Preface 
to  his  translation  of  Homer  —  To  the  Reader  Concerning  the 
Virtues  of  an  Heroic  Poem  —  where  the  seven  virtues  of  the 
epic  are  stated  as  follows :  choice  of  words,  construction,  contriv- 
ance of  the  story  or  fiction,  elevation  of  the  fancy,  justice  and 
impartiality  of  the  poet,  clearness  of  description,  amplitude  of 
the  subject  (vol.  X,  pp.  iii-x). 

HUDSON,  W.   H.    An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Literature, 
ad  ed.    Lond.:   1913. 

Pp.  134-145  Objective  Poetry. 

A  brief  treatment  of  the  ballad,  the  epic  of  growth,  the  epic  of 
art,  the  metrical  romance,  realistic  poetic  narrative. 


§  8]  GENERAL.  REFERENCES  479 

HUMBOLDT,  W.  VON.     Gesammelte    Schriften.     12   vols.    in    15. 
Berlin:   1903-1912. 

Bd.  II,  pp.  115-319  Ueber  Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorothea. 
For  a  discussion  of  Humboldt's  theories  in  relation  to 
the  Wolfian  hypothesis,  see  K.  Fortmiiller,  Die  Theorie 
des  Epos  bei  den  Briidern  Schlegel,  den  Klassikern  und 
W.  von  Humboldt  (Progr.  Wien  :  1903). 

Perhaps  the  most  admirable  of  German  theories  of  the  epic 
advanced  during  the  eighteenth  "century.  The  inquiry  is  based 
upon  the  peculiar  impression  produced  by  the  Hermann  und 
Dorothea;  and  upon  an  attempt  to  differentiate  the  kinds  of 
poetry  according  to  their  relations  to  certain  types  of  emotional 
and  imaginative  creation  and  appeal.  The  method  of  approach 
is,  therefore,  psychological.  After  a  consideration  of  the  distinc- 
tive emotional  type  out  of  which  the  epic  evolves  and  which,  also, 
it  expresses  to  the  reader,  the  epic  poem  is  defined  as :  "...  eine 
solche  dichterische  Darstellung  einer  Handlung  durch  Erzahlung 
.  .  .,  welche  (nicht  bestimmt  einseitig  eine  gewisse  Empfindung 
zu  erregen)  unser  Gemiith  in  den  Zustand  der  lebendigsten  und 
allgemeinsten  sinnlichen  Betrachtung  versetzt  (§  Ixii)."  The  six 
laws  of  the  epopee  with  which  Humboldt  concludes  are  simple 
and  commend  themselves  to  the  attention.  They  require  concrete- 
ness  of  presentation,  continuity  of  development,  uniformity  of 
poetic  purpose,  tranquillity  of  atmosphere,  a  broad  (or  universal) 
outlook,  and  normal  or  probable  rather  than  historic  truth  (Gesetze 
der  hochsten  Sinnlichkeit,  durchgangiger  Stetigkeit,  der  Einheit, 
des  Gleichgewichts,  der  Totalitat,  und  pragmatischer  Wahrheit). 
The  comparison  of  Homer  and  Ariosto  (§  §  xxi-xxvi)  is  suggestive 
and  inspiring.  Compare  Schiller's  letter  to  Humboldt,  criticizing 
the  essay,  June  27,  1798  (Schiller's  Briefe.  Ed.  by  F.  Jonas, 
7  vols.  Leipz.  etc.:  1892-1896.  Vol.  V,  pp.  392-398). 

• 
HUNT,  L.    What  is  Poetry?    Ed.  by  A.  S.  Cook.    Boston:   1893. 

Pp.  64-69  An  answer  to  the  question :  Which  class  of  poetry 
is  the  highest?  Hunt  votes  for  the  epic  but  doubts 
whether  this  class  has  included  the  greatest  poet. 


480  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§8 

HUSTVEDT,   S.    B.     Ballad  Criticism   in   Scandinavia   and    Great 

Britain  during  the   i8th  Century.    N.  Y. :   1916. 
"  A   survey  of   the   development   of   the   interest   in   popular 
ballads,    showing   the   importance   of   such    ballads   in   inspiring 
great   creative   writing   in    recent   times'  and   throwing  light  on 
international  relationships." 

JOHNSON,  C.  F.    Forms  of  English  Poetry.    N.Y. :   1904. 

Pp.  325-356. 
A  book  for  beginners. 

JOHNSON,  SAMUEL.    Works.    9  vols.    Oxford:   1825. 

Vol.  Ill,  p.  I25ff.  Life  of  Milton. 

Johnson  maintains  that  Milton,  and  Milton  alone,  followed  the 
rules  laid  down  by  Le  Bossu  as  a  recipe  for  an  epic  poem. 
Could  anything  worse  be  said  of  an  epic  poet  ?  For  Johnson's 
formal  criticism  of  Milton's  prosody,  see  The  Rambler,  Nos.  86, 
88,  90  ;  on  Spenser,  No.  121.  —  For  Johnson  on  the  pastoral  and 
idyl,  see  The  Adventurer,  No.  92,  Criticism  on  the  Pastorals  of 
Virgil ;  The  Rambler,  Nos.  36,  37,  Reason  why  Pastorals  Delight, 
True  Principles  of  Pastoral  Poetry. 

JORDAN,  W.    Epische  Briefe.    Frankfurt  am  Main:   1876. 

Superficial.  Under  Part  II,  Chap.  II,  is  a  brief  exposition  of 
the  folk  and  saga  conditions  deemed  prerequisite  to  the  develop- 
ment of  an  epic.  Chap.  Ill  differentiates  epic  poetry  and  epos, 
and  limits  the  latter  by  natural  and  national  boundaries  to  the 
Hindus,  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Germans.  Notice  the  following 
upon  the  relation  between  individual  myths  (and  hero-stories)  and 
the  epos :  "  Erreicht  aber  sind  die  Eigenschaften  des  Epos  erst 
dann,  wenn  auf  dem  Hintergrunde  solcher  Gottersage  ein  geschlos- 
senes  Drama  der  Heldensage  die  Schicksale  und  die  Weltanschau- 
ung eines  Culturvolkes  spiegelt "  (p.  43).  To  such  a  stage,  he 
avers,  the  Kalevala  has  not  attained.  The  fourth  letter  con- 
siders the  material  of  the  epic;  the  remaining  letters  deal  with 
particular  epics. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  481 

JORDAN,   W.     Das   Kunstgesetz    Homers    und    die    Rhapsodik. 

Frankfurt  a.  M. :    1896.' 

A  sketchy  discussion  of  Homer's  art  as  that  of  the  '  scop '  or 
'  rhapsodist.' 

KEBLE,  J.    Lectures  on  Poetry. 

See  above,  §  2. 

Scattered  through  these  charming  lectures  are  many  forceful, 
some  trenchant,  criticisms  of  epic  art,  especially  that  of  Virgil. 
See  the  Index  under  Achilles,  Aeneid,  Dante,  Epics,  Heroic  Age, 
Homer,  Iliad,  Milton,  Odyssey,  Spenser,  Ulysses,  Virgil,  etc. 

KEDNEY,  J.  S.    Hegel's  Aesthetics. 
See  above,  under  Hegel. 

KER,  W.  P.    Epic  and  Romance.    Lond. :   1897. 

These  essays,  descriptive  of  "  some  of  the  principal  forms  of 
narrative  literature  in  the  Middle  Ages,"  contain  the  most  solid 
and  original  contribution  in  English  to  epic  criticism.  They  are 
equally  valuable  on  the  theoretical  and  historical  sides.  The  Intro- 
duction differentiates  in  descriptive  fashion  the  heroic  age  of 
medieval  literature  from  the  later  romantic  epoch;  theorizes  a 
bit  upon  the  relations  of  epic  and  romance,  and  upon  the  relation 
of  both  to  mythology ;  and  introduces  the  subjects  of  the  first 
four  chapters :  Teutonic  Epic,  Icelandic  Sagas,  and  •  the  Old 
French  Epic. — In  Chap.  I,  §  i,  the  author  seeks  to  establish 
the  claim  to  the  title  of  epic  for  the  Beowulf,  Nibelungenlied, 
Chansons  de  Geste,  Icelandic  Sagas,  etc.,  both  by  proving  a 
similarity  of  social  conditions  in,  and  environment  of,  these  poems  | 
and  the  Homeric  poems,  and  also  by  showing  a  similar  growth  in  l 
form.  Are  not  these  criteria  fundamental  and  sufficient  ?  The 
characteristic  growth  of  the  epic  is  held  to  be  a  progress  "  out 
of  the  older  and  commoner  forms  of  poetry,  hymns,  dirges  or 
panegyrics  .  .  . ,  towards  intellectual  and  imaginative  freedom " 
(p.  15).  This  growth  is  distinctly  present  at  the  beginning  of  the 
history  of  the  modern  nations,  but  has  generally  been  thwarted 


1)1  • 

482  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  i  [§8 

and  left  incomplete.  —  In  §  2  the  author  holds  that  dramatic 
presentation  of  character  is  of  prime 'and  characteristic  importance 
in  the  epic.  The  Northern  epics  possess  the  "  epic  quality  of 
drama  "  (23),  and  they  do  not  realize  the  historical  meaning  and 
importance  of  the  events  with  which  they  deal.  The  epic  poet 
is  free  in  the  conduct  of  his  story  (23-27).  It  is  the  power  of 
national  glory  —  not  mere  history  —  that  passes  into  the  freehand 
character-delineation  of  the  epic  and  is  realized  there  in  a  heroism 
and  lofty  spirit  which  were  themselves  the  product  of  historical 
events  (28-30).  Romance  is  not  the  opposite,  though  a  danger, 
to  epic ;  it  is  an  ingredient  of  epic  (34-38).  —  In  §  3  the  author 
treats  of  the  interruption,  by  classical  and  Christian  influences, 
of  the  medieval  epic's  independent  development  of  romantic 
mythology ;  in  §  4,  the  relations  in  general  of  medieval  epic  and 
romance.  —  Chap.  II  considers  the  Teutonic  epic  as  follows:  that 

it  conforms  to  the  Aristotelian  canon  in  its  dramatic  realization  of   - 

]/ 

plot,  from  which,  and  not  from  a  psychological  interest  in  the  ydy, 
the  interest  arises  (§  i) ;  that  the  Teutonic  epics  are  not  on  the  • 
Homeric  scale,  but  that  they  are  too  independent  to  be  regarded 
as  pre-epic  lays  out  of  which  a  great  epic  might  have  been 
"cobbled"  (attack  upon  the  composite  theory,  pp.  139-141) 
(§  2) ;  that  they  are  similar  in  scale  to  ballad-poetry,  but  unlike 
the  ballad  are  ambitious,  self-conscious,  aristocratic,  accomplished, 
and  the  possessors  of  an  unballadlike'  interest  in  character  (§  3) ;  i 
the  style  of  the  poems  (§  4) ;  that  the  poems  developed  very  well 
without  the  interference  of  "contaminating  editors,"  progressing 
"  by  a  free  and  natural  growth  into  a  variety  of  forms,  through  the 
ambitions  and  experiments  of  poets"  (§  5);  Beowulf  as  an  epic 
(§  6).  —  Chapters  III  and  IV  are  concerned  with  the  Icelandic 
Sagas  and  the  Old  French  Epic  respectively ;  Chap.  V,  with 
Romance  and  the  Old  French  Romantic  Schools. 

KLEINPAUL,  E.    Poetik.    8th  ed.    3  pts.    Leipz. :   1879-80. 

Pt.  Ill,  pp..io5-i85. 

Under  the  head  of  Epische  Poesie  the  author  classifies  every- 
thing in  narrative  style,  from  the  fable  and  the  allegory  to  the 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  483 

romance  and  the  tale.  Pp.  121-169  treat  more  especially  of  the 
development  and  character  of  the  epos.  By  way  of  the  legend 
and  the  saga,  the  idyl,  the  ballad,  and  metrical  romance,  Kleinpaul 
approaches  the  epic.  This  he  subdivides  as  epopee,  national  epic, 
romantic  epic,  lesser  historical  epic,  epic  of  country  and  town, 
religious  epic,  and  mock-heroic  epic.  The  numerous  references 
to  German  literature  are  of  special  value.  Kleinpaul,  like  most 
Germans,  ranks  the  Hermann  und  Dorothea  among  the  epics. 
Compare  Humboldt,  as  noted  above. 

LACOMBE,  P.    Introduction  a  1'histoire  litteraire.    Paris:   1898. 

Pp.  7ff,  3M  ff- 
A  discussion  of  the  relative  superiority  of  the  literary  types. 

LANG,  A.  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus.  Rendered  into  English 
Prose,  with  an  Introductory  Essay.  Lond. :  1880.  Also  in 
Golden  Treasury  Series. 

To  the  student  who  does  not  read  Greek  these  admirable  trans- 
lations offer  the  best  introduction  to  the  study  of  Theocritus  and 
the  Theocritean  idyl.  The  sympathetic  and  often  penetrative  intro- 
duction places  too  great  emphasis,  perhaps,  upon  the  indebtedness 
of  Theocritus  to  folk-poetry.  Compare  the  review  in  Berl.  phil. 
Wochetischr.,  1893,  776  ;  also  G.  Knaack's  criticism  in  Art.  Bukolik, 
Pauly-Wissowa,  Real-Encyc.  (1899). 

LANVG,  A.    Art.  Ballads,  Encyc.  Brit.,  nthed. 

LANGE,  K.    Das  Wesen  der  Kunst.    2d  ed.    Berlin:   1907. 

A  book  on  a  much  wider  subject  than  the  epic,  but  valuable 
for  its  psychological  and  aesthetic  orientation  of  the  epic  as  one 
of  the  subdivisions  of  art.  The  point  of  departure  of  the  book  is 
the  illusion  implicated  in  all  art.  Epic  and  history  are,  accordingly, 
differentiated  (pp.  70-72).  To  history  illusion  is  only  a  dispensable 
means  of  vividly  imparting  truth  to  others ;  but  for  the  epic-poet 
illusion  is  the  essential  end  of  his  work.  Cf.  p.  185.  For  the 
illusion  of  epic-marvels,  see  pp.  340,  621-622. 


484  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

LE  Bossu,  R.  P.    Traite  du  poeme  e  pique.    Paris:  1675. 

English  translations :  W.  J.,  Monsieur  Bossu's  Treatise  of 
the  Epic  Poem,  etc.  2d  ed.  London:  1719;  General 
View  of  the  Epic  Poem  .  .  .  Extracted  from  Bossu,  pre- 
fixed to  Pope's  transl.  of  the  Odyssey,  Chalmers'  English 
Poets,  19:  158-166. 

It  is  easy  to  say  that  this  treatise  is  antiquated,  that  it  deals 
with  altogether  too  limited  a  collection  of  epics,  and  consequently 
presents  nothing  that  to  the  critic  -of  to-day  will  seem  new,  sug- 
gestive, or  profitable.  But  to  the  due  understanding  of  certain 
theories  of  the  epic,  Le  Bossu's  Traite  is  not  only  a  direct  but 
delightful  guide.  Nor  should  its  influence  on  Dennis,  Addison, 
Pope,  and  Johnson  be  overlooked.  In  Book  I  of  the  Traite, 
Chap.  Ill,  Definition  du  Poeme  fipique  (in  spite  of  the  actual 
definition),  and  Chaps.  XIV  and  XV,  Des  Actions  Ve'ritables  et 
Feintes,  are  full  of  common  sense.  In  Book  II,  the  chapters  De 
1'Unite  de  1'Action  and  Du  Nceud  et  du  Denouement  should  be 
read ;  in  Book  III,  De  1'Admirable  et  des  Passions ;  in  Book  IV, 
Chap.  V,  Des  Mceurs  de  1'Heros  ;  and  in  Book  V,  Des  Machines. 
Le  Bossu's  serious,  topsy-turvy  recipe  for  the  making  of  an  epic 
poem  is  almost  more  absurd  than  Pope's  famous  mock-recipe 
(Art  of  Sinking  in  Poetry,  Chap.  XV) ;  yet  it  gives  the  key 
to  the  Renaissance  idea  of  the  moral  purpose  and  moral  self- 
consciousness  of.  the  epic  and  epic-poet.  Le  Bossu's  definition 
is  found  in  the  English  translation,  Book  I,  Chap.  Ill :  "  The 
Epopea  is  a  Discourse  invented  by  Art,  to  form  the  Manners 
by  such  instructions  as  are  disguised  under  the  Allegories  of 
some  one  important  Action,  which  is  related  in  Verse,  after  a 
probable,  diverting,  and  surprising  Manner."  In  order  to  achieve 
this  remarkable  product,  Le  Bossu  advises  the  poet  first  to  catch 
a  moral,  then  let  it  simmer  into  action,  then  season  with  appro- 
priate characters  (Bk.  I,  Chaps.  VI,  VII;  Bk.  II,  Chap.  I). 
Compare  Voltaire's  Criticism  of  Le  Bossu  (p.  371  of  work  cited 
below);  Spectator,  No.  369;  Saintsbury,  Hist,  of  Crit.,  vol.  II, 
P-  3i5- 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  485 

LILLY,  M.  L.  The  Georgic.  A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  the 
Vergilian  Type  of  Didactic  Poetry.  Diss.,  Johns  Hopkins 
Univ.  Baltimore :  1917. 

Chap.  III.    The  Relation  of  the  Georgic  to  the  Pastoral. 

LOHRE,  H.  Von  Percy  zum  Wunderhorn.  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte 
der  Volksliedforschung  in  Deutschland.  In  Palaestra,  No.  22. 
1902. 

LOISE,  F.    Histbire  de  la  poesie,  etc.    Bruxelles  :   1887. 
For  notice,  see  under  §  1 1 . 

LOTZE,  H.  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik  in  Deutschland.  Miinchen : 
1868.  Eng.  transl.  by  G.  T.  Ladd,  Outlines  of  Aesthetics. 
Boston:  1886. 

Pp.  619-643  of  the  German  ed.  Das  Epos  und  der  Roman 
(review  of  Humboldt,  Schelling, " etc.).  Pp.  93-98  of  the 
transl.  Nature  of  the  Epic. 

Lotze  discusses  the  epic  as  a  member  of  the  first  species  of 
poetry,  —  the  narrative,  "  which  preserves  a  careless  disposition, 
seeking  only  an  elevating  expression  of  the  mind."  But  is  the 
narrative  the  first,  or  earliest,  species  of  poetry  ?  He  next  depicts 
the  Greek  mode  of  apprehending  the  world,  and,  emphasizing  the 
Greek  joy  in  objectivity,  the  Greek  earthliness,  simplicity,  and 
religiousness,  draws  therefrom  the  characteristics  of  the  Greek 
epic.  Examine  his  contrast  between  epic  and  dramatic  unity,  and 
his  dicta  concerning  the  peaceful  nature  of  the  catastrophe,  the 
simplicity  of  the  characters,  the  stately  leisure  of  the  epic,  the  evi- 
dent motivation.  Review  finally  the  comparison  between  the  epic 
and  the  romance. 

MACAULAY,  T.  B.    Milton.    In  Edinburgh  Rev.,  Aug.  1825. 

A  comparison,  more  facile  than  convincing  (see  Courthope,  as 
cited  above),  of  Milton  and  Dante,  especially  as  regards  style  and 
the  use  of  machinery.  Compare  the  essay  on  Dante,  in  Knighfs 
Quarterly  Mag.,  Jan.  1824. 


486  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§8 

MACKAIL,  J.  W.    Lectures  on  Poetry.    Lond. :   1911. 

Pp.  72-92  The  Aeneid  ;   1 23-1 53  Arabian  Epic  and  Romantic 
Poetry;   154-178  The  Divine  Comedy. 

The  first  reference  sketches  "the  circumstances  in  which  the 
Aeneid  was  created  .  .  . ,  its  quality  as  a  work  of  art,  and  as  an 
expression  and  interpretation  of  life,"  —  a  forceful  and  enthusi- 
astic introduction  to  the  Aeneid,  which  the  student  should  not 
neglect.  The  second  reference  discusses  an  "  inchoate  Arabian 
epic,"  and  contains  valuable  suggestions  in  respect  of  the  absence 
of  the  epic  in  Arabian  poetry  and  the  influence  of  the  latter  upon 
medieval  romantic  poetry.  In  the  essay  on  the  Divine  Comedy 
two  questions  are  considered :  Why  did  Dante  call  his  poem  a 
Comedy  ?  and  "  in  what  sense  is  that  name  rationally  or  poetically 
applicable  to  it "  ?  Valuable  information  as  to  the  state  of  critical 
knowledge  in  the  time  of  Dante  concerning  the  epic  and  dramatic 
types  is  contained  in  this  chapter. 

MAMBRUN,  P.    Dissertatio  Peripatetica  de  Epico  Carmine.    Paris : 
1652. 

For  summary,  see  Blankenburg-Sulzer  (noted  above),  vol.  II, 
p.  9. 

Thoroughly  Aristotelian,  but  supporting  the  interesting  proposi- 
tion that  a  woman  may  be  a  heroine  of  tragedy,  but  not  of  epic. 
What  does  such  a  doctrine  suggest  as  to  the  social  presupposition 
of  the  epic,  —  as  compared  with  that  of  medieval  romance  or 
the  novel  ?  Cf.  Chapelain's  La  Pucelle,  as  noted  below,  §  9,  vi,  B. 

MARSH,  A.  R.   Epic  Poetry.   In  the  Universal  Cyclopaedia.  N.  Y. : 
1900. 

See  below,  §  i  r.. 

MEIER,  J.  Warden  und  Leben  des  Volksepos.    Halle  a.  S. :   1909. 
See  below,  $  1 1 . 

Mn .I.KR,  (i.  M.    Dramatic  Element  in  the  Popular  Ballad. 
See  below,  §  1 1 . 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  487 

MONGE,  L.  DE.    Eludes  morales  et  litteraires.    2  vols.    Paris  and 

Bruxelles:   1887,  1889. 

A  discussion  of  the  moral  values  in  the  epics  and  romances  of 
chivalry.  The  poems  that  come  under  discussion  are  as  follows  : 
Nibelungenlied,  Roland,  Cid,  Romances  of  the  Table-Round, 
Orlando  Furioso,  Amadis,  etc. 

MOULTON,  R.  G.    Biblical  Idyls.    N.  Y. :   1905. 

See  the  critical  introduction  for  a  discussion  of  the  idyl.  In 
subject  the  idyl  is  homely  rather  than  heroic  ;  in  form  it  may  be  of 
many  kinds,  but  it  is  characteristically  brief.  See  also  a  chapter 
on  the  lyric  idyl  in  the  same  author's  Lit.  Study  of  the  Bible 
(Boston:  1896). 

MOULTON,  R.  G.    The  Modern  Study  of  Literature.    1915. 

See  reference  to  this  work,  above,  §  2. 

For  an  analysis  of  the  plots  of  the  Iliad  arid  the  Odyssey,  see 
pp.  136—143;  on  types  of  narrative  plot,  144;  on  relation  of 
epical  narrative  to  short-story  and  novel,  152-161. 

MULLER,  E.    Geschichte  der  Theorie  der  Kunst  bei  den  Alten. 

2  Bde.    Breslau :   1834-37. 

Minute  and  exhaustive.  Frequent  reference  is  to  be  found  in 
Gayley  and  Scott. 

MULLER,  K.  O.  A  History  of  the  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece 
to  the  Period  of  Isocrates.  Transl.  by  G.  C.  Lewis.  Lond. : 
1847. 

Chap.  XXI,  p.  285. 

The  difference  between  epic  and  dramatic  poetry.  The  formal 
and  the  spiritual  distinctions  considered.  The  question  resolved 
into  one  of  the  mental  and  emotional  attitude  of  the  poet  toward 
his  subject. 

MYERS,  F.  W.  H.    Virgil.    In  Essays,  Classical.    1883. 

"  The  most  famous  English  essay  on  Virgil,"  —  aesthetic,  his- 
torical, speculative,  but  bearing  only  indirectly  upon  epic  theory. 


488  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

MYERS,  IRENE.    A  Study  in  Epic  Development. 
See  below,  §  1 1 . 

NEILSON,  W.  A.    Essentials  of  Poetry. 
See  above,  §  2. 

NESSLER,  K.   Geschichte  der  Ballade  Chevy  Chase.   In  Palaestra, 
No.  1 12.    1911. 

NETTLESHIP,  H.    Lectures  and  Essays  on  Subjects  Connected 
with  Latin  Literature, and  Scholarship.    Oxford:   1885. 

Pp.  97-142   Suggestions   introductory  to  the   study  of   the 
Aeneid. 

Professor  Nettleship  attributes  to  literary  epics  the  following 
characteristics:  (i)  disproportion  of  the  epic  framework  to  the 
indwelling  idea;  (2)  superabundance  of  detail,  but  lack  of  primi- 
tive simplicity ;  (3)  disregard  of  the  realities  of  nature  for  the 
sake  of  literary  effect ;  (4)  vague  or  dim  realization  of  the  hero's 
character;  (5)  lack  of  the  poetic  element  of  personal  interest; 
(6)  attempt  to  atone  by  impressiveness  of  idea  for  ungraceful 
execution ;  (7)  inability  on  the  part  of  the  subject  (although  it 
may  impose  upon  the  imagination)  to  stimulate  the  invention ; 
(8)  a  present  idealized  with  the  halo  of  the  past ;  (9)  a  reflection 
of  a  multitude  of  contemporary  beliefs  ;  (10)  a  note  of  universality 
which  in  the  heroic  epic  was  unknown.  It  would  be  profitable  to 
test  by  such  criticisms  the  Paradise  Lost,  the  Divine  Comedy, 
Sigurd  the  Volsung,  the  Earthly  Paradise,  the  Epic  of  Hades,  the 
Light  of  Asia,  the  Epic  of  Saul,  and  other  modern  epics.  Cf. 
Bradley,  above. 

OLRIK,  A.    Epische  Gesetze  der  Volksdichtung.    In  Zeitschr.  fur 

deut.  Altertum,  51  :   1-12. 

On  laws  of  composition  common  to  epic,  Marchen,  and  saga. 
These  laws  are  named  as  follows  :  "  das  Gesetz  des  Einganges  und 
Abschlusses,  die  Wiederholung,  die  Dreizahl,  die  szenische  Zweiheit, 
das  Gesetz  des  Gegensatzes,  das  Zwillingsgesetz,  das  Achtergewicht, 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  489 

die  Einstrengigkeit,  die  Schematisierung,  die  Plastik,  die  Logik 
der  Saga,  die  Einheit  der  Handlung,  die  Konzentration  um  die 
Hauptperson." 

PANZER,  F. 

See  below,  §  1 1 . 

PARIS,  G.,  and  MEYER,  P.    Histoire  poetique  de  Charlemagne. 

Paris:   1905. 

The  Introduction  treats,  in  part,  and  with  extreme  clarity  and 
simplicity,  of  the  origin,  elements,  and  form  of  epic  poetry  and  of 
the  epos  in  general.  The  relations  of  early  lyric  and  epic  poetry  are 
briefly  sketched,  and  the  epos  is  considered  under  four  essential 
divisions :  facts,  idea,  character,  form.  The  facts  and  characters 
are  furnished  by  national  tradition.  The  idea  is  national,  religious, 
and  moral;  but  the  individuality  of  the  poet  may  leave  its  mark 
upon  the  poem  by  the  proportional  importance  assigned  to  these 
aspects  of  the  idea.  The  form,  determined  by  previous  poetry, 
allows  the  poet  liberty  to  manifest  himself  further  in  the  talent 
with  which  he  perfects  the  form.  The  facts  may  be  historical  or 
mythical,  but  mythical  to  the  modern  critic  only.  The  myth-epic 
was  historical  in  its  original  intention  and  reception.  The  national 
idea  displays  itself  in  three  ways :  in  a  choice  of  tales  which  honor 
the  nation ;  in  a  poetical  realization  of  the  aspirations  of  the 
nation ;  and  in  a  glorification  of  the  nation  above  other  peoples 
and  a  corresponding  humiliation  of  its  enemies.  —  The  epic  will 
also  represent  one  or  the  other  of  two  great  social  or  political 
tendencies  always  present  in  national  life,  —  the  aristocratic  and 
democratic  tendencies.  —  The  religious  idea  is  very  closely  asso- 
ciated with  the  national,  and  lends  sanctity  and  profundity  to  it. 
The  moral  idea  is  present,  as  an  idea  of  justice,  in  the  subject  and 
denouement  of  the  epic,  and  also  in  the  conception  of  human  life  — 
its  problems  and  experiences.  This  conception  of  life  is  national 
rather  than  individual.  —  The  characters  are  :  gods  or  other  supe- 
rior beings,  kings  and  chiefs,  women,  the  people,  and  the  enemy. 
Their  roles  and  the  method  of  their  presentation  vary  with  different 


490  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

poems  and  nations.  At  the  head  of  the  personnel  stands  the  hero, 
whose  character  sums  up  all  the  ideas  and  inspirations  of  the  epic, 
and  further  imprints  them  upon  the  nation  itself.  —  It  is  impossible 
to  generalize  upon  the  form  of  the  epic,  because  of  the  great 
variety  of  nations,  languages,  and  poetic  talents.  The  authors 
mention  only  two  uniform  characteristics  :  the  repetition  of  identical 
formulas  in  identical  situations,  and  the  perpetual  use  of  dialogue. 
These  are  interpreted  psychologically  (p.  9).  —  The  remainder  of 
the  Introduction  is  concerned  with  the  application  of  these  gener- 
alizations to  the  French  £popee. 

Few  short  resumes  of  epic  theory  are  of  more  value  than  this. 
For  a  critique  of  the  first  edition  (1865),  see  P.  Meyer,  Recherches 
sur  Pepopee  franchise  (Paris :  1867). 

PIGNA,  G.    I  Romanzi.    Venice:   1554. 

Cintio,  Pigna,  Castelvetro,  and  Patrizzi —  all  of  the  sixteenth 
century  —  unite  in  entering  an  early  protest  against  the  application 
of  the  Aristotelian  principles  of  the  epic  to  the  romantic  epics  of 
the  Renaissance.  They  perceived  the  historical  anomaly  involved 
in  such  a  procedure,  and  attempted  an  induction  of  new  epic 
principles  from  a  study  of  Boiardo  and  Ariosto.  See  Spingarn, 
ist  edj,  pp  112-116,  163-166. 

PLUSS,  H.  T.    Virgil  und  die  epische  Kunst.    Leipz. :   1884. 
See  above,  R.  Heinze. 

POSNETT,  H.  M.    Comparative  Literature.    N.  Y. :   1896. 

Pp.  41-44. 

An  argument  against  the  a  priori  conception  of  the  epic  as  a 
universal  type.  Pp.  158-159,  beginnings  of  the  epic.  For  pastoral 
and  idyl,  see  pp.  240,  257-259.  See  also  the  same  title  under  §  1 1, 
below;  and,  for  general  critique,  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§2  and  17. 

QUADRIO,  F.  S.   Delia  storia  e  della  ragione  d'  ogni  poesia.    7  vols. 
Bologna  e  Milano  :   1739-1752. 
Cf.  above,  §  2. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  491 

The  fourth  volume  (about  800  pages)  is  taken  up  for  the  most 
part  with  the  consideration  of  didactic  and  contemplative  poetry, 
which  is  classified  under  the  general  head  of  epic  poetry.  Paradise 
Lost  is  considered  as  a  didactic  epic,  p.  285.  The  romances  of 
chivalry  are  considered  in  pp.  289-607.  The  epic  proper,  or  heroic 
poem,  as  it  is  called,  is  treated  rather  briefly,  in  comparison  with 
the  treatment  of  less  important  types  (pp.  608-711).  The  usual 
recipes  for  epic  construction  are  collected  in  pp.  608-645.  Pp.  646- 
711  contain  a  dictionary  of  writers  of  heroic  poems.  For  the  idyl 
see  vol.  II,  pt.  2,  pp.  349-361.  With  Quadrio  the  student  may 
compare  the  learned  work  of  L.  A.  Muratori,  Delia  perfetta  poesia 
italiana  (2  vols.  Modena:  1706). 

RABB,  KATE  M.    National  Epics.    Chicago:   1896. 

Summaries,  specimens,  and  brief  bibliographies  of  the  chief 
epics :  intended  as  an  introduction  for  those  without  the  leisure  to 
read  and  study  the  poems  in  their  entirety.  A  similar  work  is 
H.  A.  Guerber's  The  Book  of  the  Epic  (Philadelphia:  1913),- 
the  epics  summarized  in  prose ;  also  C.  M.  Gayley's  Classic  Myths 
in  English  Literature  and  in  Art  (rev.  ed.  Boston  :  1911),  pp.  277- 
43 1  :  outlines  of  Iliad,  Odyssey,  Aenejd,  Volsunga  Saga,  Nibe- 
lungenlied ;  pp.  450-465,  records  of  more  important  national  epics. 

RAJNA,  Pio.    Le  origine  dell' epopea  francese.    Firenze  :   1884. 
See  below,  §  I  i . 

RAPIN,  R.  The  Whole  Critical  Works  of  Monsieur  Rapin  (with 
Preface  to  second  vol.  by  Rymer).  2  vols.  2d  ed.  Lond. : 
1716. 

Vol.  I  Comparison  of  Homer  and  Virgil ;  vol.  II  Reflections  on 
Aristotle's  Treatise  of  Poesie.  The  first  is  an  essay  of  the  old 
enthusiastic  fashion,  based  lavishly  upon  Aristotle,  but  it  affords 
quaint  reading  for  the  student  of  to-day  (cf.  the  reproach  of 
Nausicaa  for  lack  of  decorum  in  "  too  far  Indulging*  her  own 
Curiosity  at  the  Sight  of  a  Person  in  such  desperate  Circum- 
stances " ;  or  the  commendation  of  Virgil's  heroes  because  they 


492  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

quarreled  "  like  Persons  of  Quality ").  The  second  is  scarcely 
more  than  a  repetition  and  illustration  of  Aristotle's  principles  ;  but 
in  it  occurs  (pp.  201-204)  a  "run"  of  short  estimates  of  modern 
epics,  —  all  very  "neat  and  narrow-minded."  Rapin,  like  many 
other  Renaissance  critics,  believed  that  the  end  of  the  epic  was  to 
teach  rather  than  to  delight,  and  he  subordinated  genius  to  rules 
and  interdicts.  Homer  and  Virgil,  in  spite  of  certain  shortcomings 
which  he  notes,  he  regards  as  the  supreme  poets. 

RAYMOND,  G.  L.    Poetry  as  a  Representative  Art.    N.  Y. :   1886. 

Chap.  XXII  contains  an  analysis  of  Homer's  methods  of 
natural  description :  mental,  fragmentary,  specific,  typi- 
cal, progressive.  See  also  the  same  author's  Represent- 
ative Significance  of  Form  (2d  ed.,  N.Y.:  1909),  Chaps. 
XVIII  ff.,  on  the  epic,  realistic  and  dramatic. 

RIGAULT,  H.  Histoire  de  la  querelle  des  anciens  et  des  modernes. 
Paris:  1856. 

A  careful  and  thoroughly  readable  account  of  the  great "  Ancient 
and  Modern  "  confusion.  It  may  be  consulted  for  the  attitude  of 
the  following  toward  the  matters  in  dispute :  Sir  William  Temple, 
Saint-fivremond,  Wotton,  Dryden,  Boyle,  Bentley,  Swift,  Tasso, 
Boisrobert,  Saint-Sorlin,  Bouhours,  Fontenelle,  the  Perraults,  Dacier, 
Menage,  Francius,  Longepierre,  de  Callieres,  Huet,  Bayle,  Boileau, 
Arnauld,  Tourreil,  Regnier,  de  la  Motte,  Fenelon,  Saint-Hyacinthe, 
1'abbe  de  Pons,  Cartaud  de  la  Vilate,  Gacon,  Hardouin,  1'abbe' 
d'Aubignac,  1'abbe  Terrason,  Buffier,  Fourmont,  Pope,  Wiseman, 
Vico. 

Rigault  summarizes  the  quarrel  in  three  parts :  the  philosophical 
question  of  progress,  the  literary  comparison  of  the  ancients  and 
moderns  in  general,  the  dispute  concerning  Homer. 

ROCAFORT,  J.    Les  doctrines  litte'raires  de  1'Encyclope'die,  etc. 
See  above,  §  2. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  C.  A.  fitude  sur  Virgile  suivi  d'une  e'tude  sur 
Quintus  de  Smyrne.  4' ^d.  Paris:  1891. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  493 

§  I  Relation  of  the  culture  of  the  epic  poet  to  that  of  his 
heroes;  II  The  chantre  epique  and  the  poe'te  dpique ; 
VI  On  the  priority  of  the  epic  over  other  types;  VII 
On  the  epic  unity  of  time  as  one  year.  —  Other  references 
to  Sainte-Beuve  may  be  found  above,  §  2. 

Sainte-Beuve  supplements  Arnold's  view  that  the  poet  should 
take  his  subject  from  the  past,  by  showing  that  the  treatment  of 
the  past  is  not  incompatible  with  an  approximation  in  spirit,  at 
least,  to  the  conditions  of  vivid  contemporary  life,  — "  une  vie 
reelle  a  sa  date  et  parmi  les  contemporains,  et  non  pas  une  vie 
froide  pour  quelques  amateurs  dans  le  cabinet "  (p.  73). 

Pour  un  poe'me  e'pique,  tout  sujet  qui  presente  une  belle,  une  noble 
et  humaine  matiere,  une  riche  tradition,  peut  etre  bon  a  trailer ;  1'eloigne- 
ment  meme  ne  s'oppose  en  rien  a  1'inte'ret,  et,  bien  loin  de  nuire,  peut 
servir  1'imagination  du  poe'te  en  lui  laissant  plus  de  carriere.  Reculez 
done  tant  que  vous  le  voudrez  et  e"largissez  1'horizon ;'  remontez  aux 
antiquite's,  aux  origines ;  reprenez  meme  en  partie  des  sujets  deja  traites 
par  d'autres :  mais  que,  par  quelque  endroit  essentiel,  par  quelque 
courant  principal  de  1'inspiration,  il  y  ait  nouveaute,  et  application, 
appropriation  des  choses  passees  au  temps  present,  a  Page  du  monde 
ou  vous  etes  venu,  et  a  ce  qui  est  de  nature  a  interesser  d'une  maniere 
e'leve'e  le  plus  d'esprits  et  d'ames :  le  vrai  et  vivant  succes  est  a  ce  prix. 
—  Vivez  au  moins  une  premiere  fois,  c'est  la  premiere  condition  pour 
vivre  toujours  (p.  82). 

SAINT-^VREMOND,  C.    DE   M.    DE   SAINT-DENIS,   SEIGNEUR  DE. 

CEuvres  melees  de  S.-lL  3  vols.  Paris :  1865. 
See  vol.  II,  pp.  492-502,  Sur  les  poemes  des  anciens,  for  com- 
ment upon  the  influence  of  Christianity  in  changing  the  characters 
and  manners  of  epic-heroes.  —  Pp.  503-510,  Du  merveilleux  qui 
se  trouve  dans  les  poe'mes  des  anciens,  provide  a  comparison  of 
the  marvels  of  the  ancients  with  those  of  the  romancers.  The 
ideas  of  Saint-Sorlin  and  Perrault  should  be  compared  with  these 
of  Saint-fivremond.  See  Rigault.  See  also  F.  Pastrello,  fitude 
sur  Saint- fivremond  et  son  influence  (Trieste:  1875),  which  will 
inform  the  student  in  regard  to  the  general  critical  attitude  and 
authority  of  Saint- £vremond.  Compare  W.  M.  Daniels,  Saint- 
fivremond  en  Angleterre  (Versailles:  1907). 


494  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

SAINTSBURY,  G.    A  History  of  Criticism,  etc. 
See  above,  §  2. 

SANTAYANA,  G.    Interpretations  of  Poetry  and  Religion.    Lond. : 

1900. 

Though  not  dealing  directly  with  the  epic,  this  treatise  contains 
much  by  way  of  suggestion  for  the  student  of  the  aesthetic  and 
ethical  functions  of  the  epic. 

SCALIGER,  J.  C.    Poetices  Libri  Septem.    4th  ed.    In  Bibliopolio 
Commeliniano :   1607.    (ist  ed.    Lyons:   1561.) 

Lib.  I,  Cap.  XLI  Epic.  Lib.  V  Comparisons  between  Homer 
and  Virgil,  etc.  For  the  astonishing  statement  that  not 
the  Iliad  but  the  Odyssey  is  tragic,  see  Lib.  I,  Cap.  V. 

Important  only  in  the  history  of  criticism.  Compare  F.  M.  Padel- 
ford's  Select  Translations  from  Scaliger's  Poetics  (Yale  Studies  in 
English,  vol.  XXVI,  pp.  54,  73.  N.Y. :  1905);  E.  Lintilhac,  De 
J.  C.  Scaligeri  Poetice  (Paris:  1887);  G.  Saintsbury,  History  of 
Criticism,  vol.  II,  p.  77  ;  and  Irene  Myers,  p.  16,  who  says  that 
Scaliger's  doctrine  by  which  not  nature  but  the  classics  are  set  up 
for  imitation  —  in  which  he  went  a  step  beyond  Vida  —  had  an 
important  effect  upon  the  general  theory  of  the  epic.  See  J. 
E.  Spingarn,  Critical  Essays  of  the  i7th  Century,  vol.  I,  p.  xxiv, 
for  an  English  attack  of  the  seventeenth  century  upon  Scaliger's 
criticism  of  Homer.  Scaliger's  work  is  the  summation  of  the 
criticism  of  the  sixteenth  century.  A  French  writer  has  wittily 
said  of  him : 

Quand  il  entre  plus  au  fond  des  choses,  Scaliger  est  purement  disciple 
d'Aristote.  II  ne  s'en  distingue  qu'en  deux  points  :  Quand  Aristote  est 
profond,  il  ne  peut  le  suivre  jusqu'au  bout ;  quand  Aristote  est  dtroit,  il 
est  plus  dtroit  qu'Aristote  (Faguet,  Trag.  fr.  XVIe  siecle,  p.  45). 

But  Scaliger's  familiarity  with  Aristotle's  Poetics  is  questioned. 
Spingarn  says  his  conception  of  the  epic  is  Horatian  and  that  he 
evinces  little  or  no  acquaintance  with  the  Aristotelian  doctrine 
(Lit.  Grit,  in  the  Ren.,  in,  185-186). 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  495 

SCHELLING,  F.  W.  J.  VON.  Sammtliche  Werke.  Stuttgart:  1856- 
61. 

Abt.  I,  Bd.  V  Philosophic  der  Kunst,  pp.  645-687. 

Schelling's  theory  of  the  epic  is  cast  in  metaphysical  terms,  and 
can  he  fully  understood  only  in  the  light  of  his  philosophy ;  but 
several  canons  of  epic  theory  are  enunciated  with  clarity  and  logical 
support.  What  he  has  to  say  about  the  absence  of  the  element  of 
the  wonderful  in  Homer  (pp.  654,  670  ff.),  and  of  the  mistake 
of  the  moderns  in  imitating  the  supposed  wonders  of  the  Iliad, 
merits  attention.  The  more  important  statements  of  principle  may 
be  indicated  as  follows :  in  the  epic  the  infinite  and  the  finite  are 
one,  and,  consequently,  there  is  no  display  of  the  infinite  in  the 
epic,  not  because  it  is  not  there,  but  because  it.  rests  in  a  common 
unity  with  the  finite ;  there  is  no  lyric  opposition  of  freedom  and 
necessity,  no  tragic  representation  of  a  struggle  against  fate ;  the 
epic  itself  is  indifferent  to  time  —  rests  in  quiet  above  time  — 
although  it  embraces  in  its  narrative  a  long  chain  of  causes  and 
effects,  of  becomings  and  changes ;  the  epic  describes  great  and 
little  events,  significant  and  insignificant  circumstances,  with  equal 
circumstantiality,  for  the  poet  deals  quietly  and  impartially,  abso- 
lutely as  it  were,  with  the  events,  great  and  little,  of  his  unhurried, 
absolute  world ;  the  poet  is  not  oppressed  by  the,  fortunes  he 
narrates, —  Achilles  weeps  and  storms,  but  the  poet  appears  neither 
touched  nor  untouched  by.  the  hero's  passions  ;  "  endlich  fasst  sich 
alles  darin  zusammen,  dass  die  Poesie  oder  der  Dichter  iiber  allem 
wie  ein  hoheres,  von  nichts  angeriihrtes  Wesen  schwebe."  Other 
subjects  treated  are :  the  material  of  the  epic  and  its  relation  to 
mythology ;  Virgil  and  Homer  in  comparison ;  the  sub-species  of 
epic  (elegy,  idyl,  didactic  poem,  satire)  ;  the  romantic  epic ;  the 
Divina  Commedia  as  a  type  by  itself. 

SCHILLER,  J.  C.  F.  The  Aesthetical  and  Philosophical  Essays. 
Trans,  from  the  German.  Being  vol.  VIII  of  the  Cambridge 
Edition  of  Schiller's  Works.  Boston:  1884. 

Pp.  269-338  On  Simple  and  Sentimental  Poetry.    Compare 
Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  337. 


496  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

Is  the  naive  character  of  Schiller's  "  simple  "  poetry  the  equiva- 
lent of  epic  objectivity?  —  Compare  the  citation  under  Goethe, 
above  ;  also  J.  A.  Hartung ;  Carriere,  pp.  297-299  ;  Myers,  p.  30  ; 
Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesthetic,  26.  ed.,  p.  298  ;  below,  §  9,  vm,  B. 

SCHLEGEL,  A.  W.  VON.  Sammtliche  Werke.  Ed.  by  E.  Bocking. 
12  vols.  Leipa  :  18461!. 

Vol.  XI,  pp.  183-221  Goethes  Hermann  und  Dorothea. 
Schlegel,  in  his  attempt  to  state  the  principles  of  the  epic  in  a 
fresh  and  unconventional  manner,  shows  his  usual  rebellion  against 
the  school  of  Boileau. 

SCHLEGEL,  F.  VON.  The  Aesthetic  and  Miscellaneous  Works  of 
Schlegel.  Trans,  by  E.  J.  Millington.  Bohn's  Lib.  Lond. : 
1849. 

Part  II,  p.  224  ff.     Contributions   in    Aid  of   the    Study  of 
Romantic  Poetry. 

In  this  essay  occurs  (p.  235)  the  often  quoted  statement  that 
Camoens'  Lusiad  is  "  the  only  national  epic  poem  that  has  been 
produced  in  modern  times,  even  if  the  last  period  of  ancient  litera- 
ture be  included." 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.  The  World  as  Will  and  as  Idea.  Trans,  by 
Haldane  and  Kemp.  3  vols.  Lond. :  1883. 

Vol.  I,  pp.321,  324,  325,  413. 

Note  the  evolution  of  grades  in  the  poetic  representation  of  the 
idea  of  man.  If  we  assume  as  basis  of  differentiation  the  more  or 
less  intense  manifestation  of  the  poet's  personality,  shall  we  class 
the  epic  midway  between  lyric  and  drama,  as  subjective-objective  ? 
Examine  Schopenhauer's  hierarchy  of  Ballad,  Idyl,  Romantic 
Poem,  etc.  Compare  Schopenhauer's  distinction  between  poetry 
and  history  with  Aristotle's  (p.  325).  Does  Schopenhauer's  require- 
ment of  significant  characters  and  situations  adequately  distinguish 
epic  from  history  ?  "  A  genuine  and  enduring  happiness  cannot 
be  the  subject  of  art"  (p.  413):  test  this  aphorism  by  application 
to  the  epic,  the  drama,  the  idyl.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  211  Do  most  epics 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  497 

introduce  to  us  their  characters  in  a  state  of  peace  ?    Do  most 
dramas  ?  What  do  such  considerations  teach  us  regarding  the  tone 
« of  the  epic  ? 

SELLAR,  W.  Y.  The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age.  Virgil. 
Oxford:  1877. 

Pp.  277-413. 

In  Chap.  VIII  Sellar  considers  the  Roman  epic  before  the  time 
of  Virgil,  and  reviewing  the  conditions  and  characteristics  of  the 
literary  epic,  distinguishes  it  from  the  primitive  type.  Like  Pro- 
fessor Jebb  (§11,  below)  he  finds  ah  analogy  between  the  literary 
epic  and  the  histories  of  Livy  and  Gibbon.  In  Chaps.  IX  and  X 
the  author's  admiration  for  the  Aeneid  is  as  unreserved  as  that  of 
J.  R.  Green,  save  in  one  particular :  "  the  idea  of  the  Aeneid 
regarded  from  its  religious,  political  and  personal  side  is  one  which 
does  not  touch  the  heart  or  enlighten  the  conscience"  (p.  349)! 
To  what  extent  is  this  a  drawback  common  to  other  literary  epics  ? 
The  statements  that  the  Aeneid  represents  the  deeper  tendencies 
of  the  poet's  age,  that  it  is  a  new  kind  of  epic  (national),  that  it 
fulfils  a  double  purpose  —  reawakens  the  heroic  life  and  glorifies 
thereby  the  new  Rome  (294-320)  —  should  be  considered  in  their 
applicability  to  other  literary  epics.  On  the  atmosphere  of  pre- 
destination prevalent  in  the  Aeneid  as  compared  with  Paradise 
Lost  and  the  Divine  Comedy,  see  Chap.  X. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.   Aspects  of  Poetry.    Boston:   1882. 

Chap.   VI    Virgil   as   a    Religious    Poet;    Chap.   XIII    The 
Homeric  Spirit  in  Walter  Scott. 

In  the  second  reference,  after  differentiating  the  literary  and  the 
popular  epic,  Shairp  goes  on  to  show  that  Scott,  as  a  result  of 
environment  and  natural  endowment,  expressed  himself  poetically 
in  an  epic  fashion  similar  to  that  of  Homer. 

SHELLEY,  P.  B.  A  Defense  of  Poetry  (1821).  Ed.  by  A.  S.  Cook. 
Boston:  1891.  Also  in  Works.  Ed.  by  H.  B.  Forman. 
8  vols.  Lond. :  1880.  Vol.  VII,  pp.  99-144. 


498  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

Pp.  11-15  (Book's  ed.)  celebrate  the  universality  of  Homer's 
characters  and  the  ethics  of  his  art.  Epic  truth  (pp.  29-33)  lies  in 
the  fullness  with  which  the  epic  represents  the  knowledge,  senti- 
ment, and  religion  of  its  age  and  of  "  the  ages  which  followed  it, 
developing  itself  in  correspondence  with  their  development." 
"  Homer  was  the  first  and  Dante  the  second  epic  poet :  that  is, 
the  second  poet,  the  series  of  whose  creations  bore  a  defined  and. 
intelligible  relation  to  the  knowledge  and  sentiment  and  religion  of 
the  age  in  which  he  lived,  and  of  the  ages  which  followed  it."  On 
this  criterion,  see  J.  A.  Symonds,  The  Study  of  Dante  (4th  ed. 
Lond. :  1906),  pp.  96-99. 

SIDGWICK,  F.    Popular  Ballads  of  the  Olden  Time.    1903. 

SPIELHAGEN,  F.     Die  epische  Poesie  und  Goethe.     In   Goethe- 

Jahrbuch,  16:    1-29  (1895). 

Spielhagen  contends  that  the  novel  is  the  modern  development 
of  the  epic. 

SPIELHAGEN,  *F.    Neue  Beitrage  zur  Theorie  und  Technik  der 

Epik  und  Dramatik.    Leipz. :    1898. 

See  under  §  n,  where  the  work,  in  spite  of  its  title,  more 
properly  belongs. 

SPINGARN,  J.  E.    A  History  of  Literary  Criticism  in  the  Renais- 
sance.   N.  Y. :   1899.    2d  ed.  1908. 

For  references,  see  above,  §  7,  i,  ». 

An  extremely  valuable  work  as  a  guide  in  a  little-explored  field. 
See  below,  §  9,  passim,  for  further  notices  of  this  book. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.    The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry.    Boston : 

1892. 

References  to  the  epic,  ballad,  idyl,  etc.  may  be  traced  by 
means  of  the  index.  In  Chaps.  Ill  and  IV  (Creation  and  Self- 
Expression  ;  Melancholia),  the  pagan  and  Christian  eras  of  poetry 
are  distinguished,  respectively,  as  objective  and  subjective.  Con- 
trasting the  two,  the  author  finds  in  the  ancient,  pagan  world, 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  499 

"first,  a  willing  self-effacement  *as  against  the  distinction  of  indi- 
viduality ;  secondly,  the  simple  .zest  of  art-creation,  as  against  the 
luxury  of  human  feeling  —  a  sense  that  nourishes  the  flame  of 
consolation  and  proffers  sympathy  even  as  it  craves  it"  (pp.  139- 
140).  The  Homeric  epic  is  cited  as  an  example  of  the  "antique 
zest,  the  animal  happiness,  the  naivete  of  blessed  children " 
(pp.  94-97;  cf.  pp.  143,  176).  Firdawsi  is  introduced  thus: 

To  produce  an  epic  deliberately  that  would  simulate  the  primitive 
mould  and  manner,  in  spite  of  a  subjective,  almost  modern,  spirit, 
seems  to  have  been  the  privilege  of  an  Oriental,  and,  from  our  point 
of  view,  half-barbaric  race  (p.  1 1 1 ). 

Of  Dante : 

His  epic,  then,  while  dramatically  creative,  is  at  the  apex  of  subjective 
poetry,  doubly  so  from  its  expression  of  both  the  man  and  the  time ; 
hence  our  chief  example  of  the  mixed  type,  —  that  which  is  com- 
pounded of  egoism  and  inventive  imagination.  Its  throes  are  those 
of  a  transition  from  absolute  art  to  the  sympathetic  method  of  the 
new  day  (pp.  113-114). 

Milton:  pp.  115-118.  Compare  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  342. — 
For  a  complaint  that  modern  English  poetry  has  "  rounded  a 
beautiful  but  too  prolonged  idyllic  period,"  see  p.  275  ;  cf.  pp.  68, 
69,  87,  193,  225,  for  other  mention  of  the  idyl;  also  the  same 
author's  Victorian  Poets  (rev.  ed.  Boston:  1887+),  Chap.  V 
Tennyson,  VIII  Subject  Continued :  minor  idyllic  poets,  and 
other  passages  which  can  be  traced  by  means  of  the  index. 

STEINTHAL,  H.    Das  Epos. 
See  below,  §  i  r . 

SULZER,  J.  G.    Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schonen  Ku'nste,  etc. 

See  above,  §  2,  where  Blankenburg's  Zusatze  are  also  noted. 
All  references  to  Blankenburg-Sulzer,  or  Blankenburg, 
are  to  these  Zusatze.  Vol.  II  (ad  ed.  of  Sulzer),  pp.  494- 
568  Heldengedicht.  For  the  comic  epic,  see  vol.  IV, 
Art.  Scherzhaft. 

After  an  insistence  upon  the  necessity  of  deriving  the  principles 
of  the  epic  from  the  results  of  comparative  and  historical  research, 


500  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

there  follows  a  long  and  valuabfe  bibliography  of  ancient  epics, 
their  translations  into  modern  tongues,  and  the  cognate  critical 
treatises  up  to  1790.  With  page  511  begins  the  consideration  of 
modern  epic  poems,  and  here  the  bibliography  is  surprisingly  full, 
and  painstaking.  The  methodical  and  exhaustive  student  will  find 
these  bibliographies  of  great  assistance  in  the  study  of  the  earlier 
periods.  See  also  the  articles  Dichtkunst  (Poesie,  Poetik),  Episode, 
Handlung ;  also  the  articles  on  ballad,  pastoral,  eclogue,  idyl ; 
and  under  the  names  of  epic,  pastoral,  and  idyllic  poets. 

SUTTERMEISTER,  O.    Leitfadcn  der  Poetik  fur  den  Schul-  und 

Selbst-Unterricht.    2d  ed.    Zurich:   1874. 

A  convenient,  though  old-fashioned,  handbook.  Pp.  47-59  con- 
tain a  careful  division  of  epics  into  minor  kinds,  with  convenient 
citations  of  cases.  The  divisions  are  as  follows  :  Symbolic,  includ- 
ing allegory,  fable,  parable;  Historical  and  Fabulous,  including 
poetic  narrative,  idyl,  saga  and  Marchen,  legend,  ballad,  epos, 
romance,  novel. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.    Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dante.    1872. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.    Renaissance  in  Italy.    7  vols.    N.  Y. :   1879  +. 

See  Pt.  II  of  the  Catholic  Reaction,  Chaps.  VII,  VIII,  for 
Tasso;  Chap.  XI,  for  Marino's  Adone  and  Tassoni's 
mock-heroic  Secchia  Rapita;  Pt.  I  of  Italian  Literature, 
Chap.  I,  for  Chansons  de  Geste;  Chap.  II,  for  Dante 
and  Petrarch;  Chap.  VII,  for  Pulci  and  Boiardo; 
Chaps.  VIII,  IX,  for  Ariosto. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.   Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets.   2  vols.   N.Y.:  1880. 

.  ist  ed.    1873-1876. 

Chapters  I~V  contain  interesting  material,  mostly  appreciative, 
on  early  Greek  history  and  mythology,  and  Homer  and  Hesiod. 
On  the  impersonality  of  the  epic  poet,  the  character  of  Achilles, 
and  the  women  of  Homer,  the  author  dwells  at  some  length. 
The  chapter  on  the  Idyllists  contains  much  of  interest  and  sug- 
gestion, with  an  insistence  upon  the  variety  of  form  (epic,  lyric, 
dramatic)  and  identity  of  method  (the  pictorial)  of  the  idyl. 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  501 

TASSO,  T.  Discorsi  dell'  arte  poetica,  ed  in  particolare  sopra  il 
poema  eroico;  written  about  1564.  Original  ed.  1587.  In 
C.  Guasti,  Prose  diverse  di  T.  T.  2  vols.  Firenze:  1875. 

TASSO,  T.  Discorsi  del  poema  eroico.  In  vol.  Ill  of  Opere  di 
T.  T.  5  vols.  Milano:  1823-25.  ist  ed.  1594. 

Compare  Sulzer,  op,  cit.,  vol.  II,  p.  505 ;  or  Blankenburg- 
Sulzer,  vol.  II,  p.  9;  see,  also,  Spingarn,  ist  ed., 
pp.  119-124. 

Tasso's  object  in  both  essays  is  to  harmonize  the  character  of 
the  romantic  epic  with  Aristotle's  principles.  In  his  Poetics  he 
endeavors  to  reconcile  classic  and  romantic  epic-unity;  he  holds 
that  the  subject  of  the  epic  should  be  chosen  from  Christian 
history,  avoiding  at  once  the  contemporary  and  a  past  so  remote 
as  to  appear  strange  in  manners  and  customs ;  he  defends  Chris- 
tian marvels,  in  preference  to  pagan,  believes  the  epic  need  not 
arouse  pity  and  fear,  and  recommends  the  presentation  of  a 
Christian  hero  of  exalted  virtue.  In  the  Discourse  on  the  Heroic 
Poem  the  epic  is  defined  as  an  "  imitazione  d'  azione  illustre, 
grande  e  perfetta,  fatta,  narrando  con  altissimo  verso,  a  fine  di 
muovere  gli  animi  colla  maraviglia,  e  di  giovare  in  questa  guisa  " 
(Lib.  I,  p.  24).  Epic  material  must  possess  "  1'  autorita  dell'  istoria, 
la  verita  della  religione,  la-licenza  del  fingere,  la  qualita  de' tempi 
accomodati  e  la'grandezza  degli  avvenimenti "  (Lib.  II,  pp.  83-84). 
Lib.  Ill  considers  the  forming  of  the  material  into  the  fable,  and 
is  strongly  Aristotelian.  The  differences  between  romance  and 
epic  are  considered,  and  it  is  asserted  that  both  imitate  the  same 
objects,  with  the  same  instruments,  and  after  the  same  fashion. 
Further,  on  romantic  unity  in  variety,  characters,  thought,  etc.  The 
last  three  books  consider  under  the  head  of  diction  the  matter  of 
adornment.  On  page  204  it  is  affirmed  that  the  style  of  epic  is 
not  far  from  the  gravity  of  tragedy  or  the  grace  of  lyric,  and  is 
in  advance  of  both  in  splendor  and  marvellous  majesty. 

The  student  should  also  consult  the  Lettere  Poetiche  (vol.  Ill), 
and  the  Discorsi  delle  differenze  poetiche  (vol.  V).  These  four 


502  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

studies,  taken  together,  constitute  one  of  the  most  famous  utter- 
ances in  the  history  of  epic  criticism,  and  were  the  occasion  of 
*  endless  discussion  by  the  "  Ancients  and  Moderns."    Cf.  Rigault. 

ULRICI,  H.     Geschichte   der   hellenischen    Dichtkunst.     2   Thle. 

Berlin:    1835. 

Aside  from  the  historical  criticism  one  should  notice  the  theo- 
retical generalizations  of  Chap.  IV,  Pt.  I,  Wesen  und  Idee  der 
epischen  Poesie  in  ihrem  Gegensatze  zur  lyrischen  und  drama- 
tischen  Dichtung  iiberhaupt  und  nach  den  Kunstbegriffen  der 
Griechen  insbesondere.  Distinguishing  between  lyric  and  epic 
as  respectively  subjective  and  objective,  he  concludes  that  epic 
stands  on  the  periphery  of  human  life  and  "  leitet  von  da  aus 
die  Bewegungen  nach  innen  "  :  whereas  the  lyric  moves  from  the 
center  outward.  (Is  this  good  psychology  ?)  Both,  he  continues, 
extend  themselves  mutually,  and  stand  to  each  other  in  the  rela- 
tion of  the  '  World '  and  the  '  I.'  By  their  nature,  then,  both 
kinds  must  have  coexisted  from  the  beginning,  although  the 
objective  character  of  primitive  life  would  bring  the  epic  to  an 
earlier  fruition.  The  two  kinds,  as  expressions  of  two  sides  of 
consciousness,  will  continually,  after  their  separation  in  the  be- 
ginnings of  development,  seek  their  union  again  in  consciousness. 
The  product  of  this  longing  for  union  is  the  drama.  (But  does 
the  history  of  the  drama  bear  out  any  such  theory  ?) 

ULRICI,  H.  Shakespeare's  Dramatic  Art.  Trans,  by  Dora  Schmitz. 
Bohn's  Lib.    2  vols.    Lond. :  1876. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  324-326. 

Note  Ulrici's  contention  that  the  epic  is  the  poetry  of  the  past. 
"  It  describes  the  human  mind  not  so  much  from  the  inner  side 
—  but  from  the  side  and  in  the  form  in  which  it  advances  out 
of  subjectivity."  What  light  does  this  passage  throw  upon  the 
difference  between  the  epic  and  the  dramatic  spirit?  upon  the 
relation  of  will  to  action  in  the  epic  ?  upon  the  "  haze  of  distance 
that  envelops  the  epic  hero  "  ?  upon  the  ideal  and  typical  char- 
acter of  epic  individuals  ?  If  the  deeds  and  sufferings  of  epic 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  503 

individuals  are  due  to  direct  divine  ordinance  and  the  individuals 
are  aware  of  the  fact,  is  the  civilization  of  the  twentieth  century 
capable  of  producing  an  epic  proper  ?  Ulrici  holds,  also,  that  the 
epic  is  invariably  the  poetry  of  nature,  and  that  it  originates 
in  the  first  stage  of  mental  development.  Does  the  first  stage 
of  artistic  expression  coincide  with  the  first  stage  of  mental 
development? 

VIDA,  M.  H.    Opera.    Leyden:   1541. 

Pp.  213-274  De  Arte  Poetica.  Reprinted,  with  trans,  into 
French  prose,  by  Batteux  (see  §.2) ;  also,  with  Christopher 
Pitt's  English  trans.,  by  A.  S.  Cook  (Art  of  Poetry).  For 
summary,  see  Batteux,  II,  3-4;  Cook,  xxxv;  Irene 
Myers,  15;  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit,  2d  ed.,  II,  30-33. 

Bk.  II  deals  with  invention  and  disposition  of  material,  espe- 
cially in  the  epic.  But  the  criticism  is  purely  formal,  and  deals 
with  minutiae  of  composition,  rather  than  with  general  theory. 
The  book  amounts  to  the  practice  of  Virgil  reduced  to  a  set  of 
rules.  After  Vida,  epic  theory  plays  an  increasingly  important 
role  in  Italian  criticism. 

VIEHOFF,   H.     Die  Poetik  auf  der  Grundlage  der  Erfahrungs- 
seelenlehre.    Trier:   1888. 

P.  494  ff. 

A  convenient  discussion  of  the  relative  importance  of  plot  and 
character. 

VINCENT,  ABBE  C.    Theorie  des  genres  litte'raires. 
See  above,  §  2. 

VISCHER,  F.  T.    Aesthetik  oder  Wissenschaft  des  Schonen.  3  vols. 
Reutlingen-Stuttgart :   1 8 46-5  7 . 

Bd.  Ill,  Abschn.  2,  Hft.  5,  pp.  1265-1321,  13246%  1348, 
J376,  1389;  1289-1291,  1317-1321  Idyl;  1358-1367 
Ballad;  1292-1300  Epical  romances. 

Vischer  and  Carriere  should  be  studied  with  Hegel,  whose 
followers  they  are. 


504  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

VOLTAIRE,  F.  M.  A.  DE.    Essai  sur  la  poesie  epique.    In  CEuvres 
completes  de  Voltaire.    66  vols.    Paris:  1819-25. 

Vol.  VIII,  p.  346  ff.  The  student  should  compare  the  original 
form  of  this  essay  (1727-28)  with  the  revision  of  1733. 
Some  important  additions,  showing  the  influence  of  Du- 
bos,  may  be  noticed  in  the  latter.  See  F.  D.  White, 
Voltaire's  Essay  on  Epic  Poetry  (Bryn  Mawr  Diss.,  1915). 

Voltaire  brought  common  sense  back  into  French  criticism  of 
the  epic.  He  subjects  the  Renaissance  school  of  criticism,  with 
its  endless  and  barren  rules  for  the  proper  inditing  of  epics,  to 
the  criticism  invited  by  its  own  extremes  and  repetitions.  He 
ridicules  the  dead  weight  of  useless  regulations  contrived  by  the 
graceless  critic  who  has  "  discouru  avec  pesanteur  de  ce  qu'il 
fallait  sentir  avec  transport "  ;  asserts  that  Homer,  Virgil,  and 
Milton  obeyed  each  his  own  genius :  that  therefore  it  is  fallacious 
to  encumber  great  authors  with  rules  drawn  from  the  practice  of 
others,  and  that  those  who  lack  genius  are  but  feebly  aided  by 
such  preachments.  Moreover,  says  he,  most  of  the-  critics  have 
derived  their  rules  from  Homer.  But  Homer  composed  two 
poems  of  absolutely  different  nature.  Consequently,  the  critics 
are  at  great  labor  to  harmonize  Homer.  Virgil  unites  the  features 
of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  in  his  work :  more  harmonizing  for  the 
critics !  The  conventional  Renaissance  definition  of  the  epic  ("  Le 
poeme  epique  est  une  longOe  fable  inventee  pour  enseigner  une 
verite  morale,  et  dans  laquelle  un  heros  achieve  quelque  grande 
action,  avec  les  secours  des  dieux,  dans  1'espace  d'une  annee ") 
is  exploded  by  showing  it  will  not  fit  Paradise  Lost ;  and  Voltaire 
adds  that  it  is  impossible  to  define  works  of  the  imagination, 
which  are  always  changing  with  time  and  race,  as  one  defines 
metals,  animals,  and  the  like,  the  natures  of  which  always  remain 
the  same.  An  induction  for  the  epic  must  be  based  upon  wider 
material  than  Homer  and  Virgil.  On  pages  358-359  he  proposes 
a  comparative  view  of  all  epics. 

In  his  article  on  the  fipopee,  in  the  Dictionnaire  Philosophique 
(vol.  XXXV,  pp.  414-453),  Voltaire's  taste  is  not  the  equal  of  his 


§8]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  505 

common  sense  in  the  Essai.  He  rates  Virgil  above  Homer, 
praises  the  moral  exhortations  with  which  Ariosto  opens  his 
cantos,  and  is  not  without  misgiving  and  difficulty  when  praising 
certain  excellences  in  that  "  singular  poem,"  Paradise  Lost. 

WACKERNAGEL,  W.    Poetik,  Rhetorik  und  Stilistik.    3d  ed.    Halle 
a.  S. :   1906. 

For  notice,  see  §  11. 

WASSON,  D.  A.    Epic  Philosophy.    In  No.  Am.,  107  :  501-542. 

An  article  evidently  inspired  by  Hegel's  reconciliation  of  oppo- 
sites.  Note  Wasson's  statement  of  the  characteristics  of  the  epic : 
PP-  523>  525>  54S>  — tne  style  °f  invocation,  the  breadth  of  sub- 
ject, the  contest  of  the  "  all-comprehending "  with  its  opposite, 
the  insignificance  of  finite  suffering  as  set  over  against  the 
invulnerable  character  of  the  soul. . 

WATTS-DUNTON,  W.  T.    Poetry.    In  Encyc.  Brit,    nthed. 

For  a  general  review,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20. 
For  the  comparative  clearness  of  vision  possessed  by  Homer, 
Dante,  and  Milton,  see  the  earlier  part  of  the  essay.  Epic  and 
drama  are  discussed  in  respect  of  dialogue  and  of  exigencies  of 
plot.  The  notice  of  the  dramatic  quality  of  the  Iliad  should 
be  carefully  considered ;  also,  Watts-Dunton's  distinction  between 
the  epics  of  growth  (Mahabharata,  Niblung  story)  and  the  epics 
of  art  (Odyssey,  Aeneid,  Paradise  Lost,  etc.) ;  and  between  the 
epics  of  eastern  and  western  peoples:  the  former  characterized 
by  natural  flow  of  story,  persistence  of  artistic  motive,  and  a 
temper  of  resignation ;  the  latter,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  by 
nebulosity  of  motive,  disturbance  of  narrative,  unity,  and  a  Titanic 
temper  —  the  temper  of  revolt  against  authority  (at  its  best  in 
the  Niblung  story). 

WIRTH,  A.     Ueber  formelhafte   und   typische   Elemente  in  der 
englisch-schottischen  Volksballade.    Halle:    1897. 

Compare    Fehr,    Die   formelhaften    Elemente   in    den    alten 
englischen  Balladen  (Berlin :   1 900). 


506  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  8 

WOLFF,   E.     Prolegomena   der   litterar-evolutionistischen    Poetik. 

Kiel  und  Leipz. :   1890. 

See  p.  24  for  an  interesting  suggestion  as  to  the  catharsis  of 
epic  and  lyric.  For  further  notice,  see  below,  §  1 1 . 

WOODBERRY,  G.  E.  'The  Torch.    N.Y.:   1905. 

In  the  chapters  on  Spenser  and  Milton  the  author  expounds 
the  relation  of  those  poets  to  the  '  race-mind.'  The  whole  book 
is  valuable  as  presenting  a  view  of  the  social  function  of  imagina- 
tive literature  in  general  and  of  certain  poems  and  authors  in 
particular.  It  offers,  in  effect,  a  philosophy  of  the  marvellous  in 
literature,  as  exemplified  in  the  nobler  imaginative  contents  of  the 
epic  or  any  other  type.  Compare,  by  the  same  author,  A  New 
Defence  of  Poetry,  in  The  Heart  of  Man  (N.Y.:  1899). 

WOODBERRY,  G.  E.  The  Appreciation  of  Literature.   N.Y.:   1907. 

Pp.  61-77. 

One  of  the  best  of  short  utterances  upon  the  temper  and  spiritual 
basis  of  the  epic.  Epics  are  social  poems,  the  earlier  ones  contain-- 
ing  national  traditions  of  the  civilizations  to  which  the  authors 
belonged.  The  moral  significance  of  the  epic  is  found  in  its  reve- 
lation of  the  social  will  organized  in  the  life  of  nations,  and  in  a 
collision  which  is  social  rather  than  individual.  The  social  will  is 
interpreted  as  the  will  of  the  gods,  and  the  epic  is  thus  essentially 
optimistic,  though  continually  marked  by  the  tragedy  of  defeated 
wills.  "  Sacrifice  is  a  word  writ  large  in  the  epical  strife,  — 
sacrifice  of  both  victor  and  vanquished.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
optimism  of  the  epic  lies  in  the  efficacy  of  the  sacrifice,  that  is, 
in  the  validity  of  the  idea  of  social  progress."  In  the  religious 
sphere  the  epic  presents  the  "  notion  that  in  the  confused  field  of 
human  action  there  is  a  supreme  and  fatal  collision  between  the 
human  will  as  such  and  the  divine  will  in  omnipotence." 

ZIMMERMANN,  F.   Ueber den  Begriff  des  Epos.   Darmstadt:   1848. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  philosophical  disquisitions  upon 

the  epic.    The  theoretical  trend  of  the  essay  is  constantly  enriched 


§9]    OUTLINES  OF  THEORY  BY  NATIONALITIES     507 

and  checked  by  reference  to  'the  epics  themselves.  The  epos  is 
subsumed  under  the  broader  concept  of  epic  poetry,  and  is 
defined  as  "  die  durch  lebendige  Einheit  organisirte,  rein  objec- 
tive und  naive  Darstellung  von  Begebenheiten  heroischer  Indivi- 
duen  nach  ihrer  ganzen  Breite,  in  welchen  sich  die  Totalitat 
einer  absoluten  Vergangenheit  abspiegelt "  (p.  4).  The  differ- 
entiation of  Naturepos  and  Kunstepos  is  thorough  and  careful 
(pp.  7-15).  See  especially  pp.  14-15,  where  the  German  poetry 
of  chivalry  and  Boiardo,  Ariosto,  and  Tasso  are  assigned  to  a 
stage  midway  between  the  folk  epic  and  the  epic  of  the  Auf kid- 
rung.  See  p.  1 8  for  the  author's  opinion  concerning  communal 
authorship,  "  eine  in  der  Luft  der  Zeit  fahrende  Influenza." 
On  the  "epischen  allgemeinen  Weltzustand,"  p.  27.  Pp.  29-69 
discuss  the  men  and  gods  of  the  epic.  P.  42,  the  freedom 
and  necessity  of  the  hero ;  two  strains  of  epic  treatment  are 
noted.  The  discussion  of  the  ways  —  plastic  and  other  —  in 
which  the  various  epics  handle  their  gods  should  be  noticed. 
Pp.  69-94,  the  relation  of  the  hero  to  the  gods,  and  the  his- 
torical character  of  the  hero. 


SECTION  9.    OUTLINES  OF  THEORY  BY  NATIONALITIES  : 
SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

In  tracing  in  historical  order  the  minor  references  to  the  theory 
of  the  epic,  the  student  will  find  it  convenient  to  refer  to  Gay  ley 
and  Scott  (cited  above),  Chap.  VI,  where  the  history  of  poetics 
in  general  is  outlined.  To  be  sure,  no  notice  is  taken  there  of 
particular  types ;  but  in  the  search  for  discussions  of  the  various 
types  this  list  of  the  chief  ancient  and  modern  treatises  on  poetics 
will  be  of  considerable  aid. 

The  following  notes  are  in  aim  representative  rather  than 
exhaustive.  In  making  use  of  them  the  student  should  bear 
in  mind  that  the  more  important  references,  already  cited  in 
§  8,  are  seldom  repeated  here. 


508  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  .  [§  9 

I.  Greek  Theory  of  the  Epic. 

For  introductions  to  the  history  of  Greek  poetical  theory  in  general, 
see  above,  §  3,  I ;  see  also  F.  Adam  and  J.  A.  Hartung,  as  noted  above, 
§  8.  On  philosophical  criticism  of  poetry  see  also  B.  P.  Kurtz,  Studies 
in  the  Marvellous  (Lond. :  1910;  also  in  Univ.  Calif.  Pubs.  Philol., 
vol.  I),  where  the  history  of  Greek  criticism  of  the  fictitious  and  fabu- 
lous elements  of  poetry  is  traced;  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  139-159,— 
an  extensive  apparatus  for  the  study  of  ancient  theories  of  the  relation 
of  art  to  nature  and  truth. 

In  Greece  literary  criticism  originated  as  an  offshoot  of  a 
certain  philosophical  criticism  of  the  moral  improbabilities  in  the 
Homeric  epics.  As  early  as  the  yth  and  6th  centuries  B.C.  the 
myths  of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  it  is  said,  were  rejected  by  Theognis 
and  Solon,  who  endeavored  to  purify  the  moral  and  religious 
sentiment  of  their  age.  Both  Alcmaeon  and  Heraclitus  were 
sceptical  of  popular  myth,  and  the  latter,  according  to  Diogenes 
Laertius  (Lives  IX,  i),  said  that  Homer  ought  to  be  driven  from 
the  Games.  Pindar,  too,  realized  the  ethical  improprieties  of  the 
old  god-stories  and  even  endeavored  to  substitute  for  them  versions 
more  in  harmony  with  an  exalted  idea  of  divinity  (see  Pindar, 
O.  I,  42  ff.;  IX,  35  ff.;  cf.  N.  VII,  20  ff.).  Many  other  objections 
must  have  found  expression ;  to  us  remain  only  the  barest  frag- 
ments of  the  philosophical  thought  of  the  earlier  centuries.  But 
with  Xenophanes  (Fragments  i,  5,  6,  7,  21)  and  Plato  (Republic 
378-383,  386-391)  the  indictment  of  Homer  is  complete.  The 
epic  poet  is  accused  of  depicting  the  gods  as  thieves,  liars,  and 
prostitutes ;  of  retailing  the  disgraceful  stories  of  the  loves  of 
Ares  and  Aphrodite,  of  the  thefts  of  Hermes,  of  the  war-god's 
cries  on  the  fate  of  Ilium,  and  of  the  amours  and  boastings  of 
Zeus.  Eventually  even  the  fictitious  ('  imitative  ')  character  of  the 
poetic  art  was  deprecated  as  "  indiscriminate,  hypocritical,  futile, 
ignorant,  inconsistent,  provocative  of  irrational  excess"  (Gayley 
and  Scott,  p.  140,  where  references  are  given  to  Repub.  393-397, 
595-607  ;  Laws  669-674,  889  ;  Sophist  219,  235-237,  264-267; 
Timaeus  19;  Cratylus  423;  for  a  late  Greek  criticism  of  Plato's 


I]  GREEK  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  509 

"jealousy  of  Homer"  see  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  —  Letter 
to  Pompeius,  756,  Eng.  trans,  by  W.  R.  Roberts,  Dion,  of  Hal., 
p.  95).  But  in  opposition  to  such  a  judgment  Aristotle  insisted 
(Poetics  ix)  that  the  standard  of  truth  in  poetry  is  not  the  same 
as  in  real  life,  and  that  indeed  the  very  excellence  of  poetry  con- 
sists in  its  feigning.  This  doctrine  of  poetic  truth  marked  the  rise 
of  literary  criticism  as  a  discipline  distinct  from  the  philosophical 
indictment  of  ancient  myth.  Aristotle  proceeded  to  consider  the 
specific  qualities  of  the  epic  as  one  species  of  feigning  or  imitation, 
to  compare  it  with  tragedy  in  respect  of  such  qualities,  and  to 
argue  for  the  aesthetic  superiority  of  tragedy  (for  Aristotle  see 
above,  §  8).  Aristotle's  scattered  remarks  approach  nearer  to  a 
systematic  account  of  the  epic  than  anything  else  in  Greek  criti- 
cism. When  to  them  are  added  what  Longinus  says  of  Homer 
we  have  all  that  is  essentially  important  in  the  remains  of  Greek 
epic  criticism. 

After  Aristotle,  literary  criticism  in  part  followed  the  lines  laid 
down  by  the  Stagirite,  but  remains  of  this  criticism  are  lacking 
(for  lost  treatises  on  poetry  see  E\  Egger,  Hist,  de  la  crit, 
Chap.  IV  ;  Nettleship  —  cited  above,  §3,  i  —  pp.  227-229). 
What  we  do  possess  of  later  Greek  criticism  is  largely  in  the 
philosophical,  moral  vein,  deriving  from  Plato  rather  than  from 
Aristotle.  Inasmuch  as  this  moral  criticism  of  poetry  had  its 
origin  in  objections  to  Homeric  and  other  epic  narratives  of  the 
gods,  we  had  better  regard  here  its  further  development.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  Epicurus  (342-270  B.C.)  appreciated  poetry, 
and  there  is  a  tradition  that  his  pupil  Metrodorus  wrote  an  attack 
upon  it.  Epictetus  (ist  cent,  after  Christ)  stoically  regarded  lit- 
erary studies  as  a  wayside  inn,  tempting  the  philosopher  from 
his  pursuit  of  pure  freedom  and  contentment  (Encheiridion  Hi). 
The  Stoics,  indeed,  with  their  general  distrust  of  the  senses, 
adhered  somewhat  naturally,  if  not  logically,  to  the  ethical  dis- 
trust of  art,  which  they  disdained  as  a  species  of  '  cookery '  (cf. 
Marcus  Aurelius,  Meditations  i,  17,  who  thanked  heaven  that 
he  had  made  little  progress  in  rhetoric  and  poetry),  or  applauded 


510  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

only  so  far  as  it  supplied  ethical  precepts.  But  Plutarch  (ist  cent, 
after  Christ)  thought  that  under  proper  restrictions  and  cautions 
poetry  served  as  a  valuable  medium  of  ethical  education,  and-  in 
its  fictitious  character  he  found  a  palliative  for  its  representation 
of  the  ignoble  and  disgraceful,  —  all  of  which  marked  a  significant 
readjustment  of  view  (How  a  Young  Man  Should  Study  Poetry 
i,  ii,  iv,  vii-ix).  Maximus  Tyrius  (2d  cent,  after  Christ),  who 
may  be  rated  either  as  a  rhetorician  or  an  eclectic  Platonic  phi- 
losopher of  minor  magnitude,  pointed  out  that  Plato  did  not 
absolutely  disapprove  of  Homer  but  only  in  relation  to  certain 
standards  of  the  ideal  republic  (Essays,  ed  Reiske,  xxiii). 
Tyrius  discussed  the  philosophic  significance  of  the  Homeric 
epics  (xxxii),  and  applied  an  allegorical  method  of  interpreta- 
tion not  only  to  Homer  and  Hesiod  but  also  to  Sappho  and 
Anacreon,  —  in  fact  to  all  poets,  since  he  held  that  the  poets 
embody  philosophic  truth  in  sensuous  form  (x).  The  sceptical 
philosopher  Sextus  Empiricus  (yf.  A.  D.  200)  notices  with  an  in- 
nuendo that  Clytemnestra,  left  under  guardianship  of  a  bard, 
murdered  her  husband,  but  acknowledges  that  poetry  is  useful 
for  the  proverbs  it  contains  (Pyrrhonic  Sketches :  Against  the 
Dogmatists).  Philostratus  (3d  cent,  after  Christ;  on  the  three 
Philostrati  and  the  confusion  of  them  and  their  works  see 
KL  Miinscher  in  Philologus  1907,  Supp.  X,  pp.  469-557)  in  his 
Heroic  Dialogue  attacked  the  historical  accuracy  of  Homer  but 
praised  the  poet's  art.  With  Plotinus  (A.D.  c.  204-^.  270)  and  the 
Neoplatonic  philosophy  we  encounter  a  mystical  idealism  that 
softens  the  moral  rigor  of  the  older  Platonism  and  sees  in  poetry 
an  approximation  to  the  divine  (see  Bosanquet,  p.  113).  Thus 
the  way  is  at  last  repaved  for  an  aesthetically  free  criticism  of 
the  arts.  Porphyry  (A.D.  233-^.  304),  the  disciple  of  Plotinus, 
wrote  a  curious  work  (Quaestiones  Homericae)  in  which  he  dis- 
cussed such  non-literary  questions  as  why  Penelope  did  not  send 
Telemachus  to  her  own  parents  for  aid,  or  why  men  but  not  gods 
wash  their  hands  before  dining.  In  his  De  Antro  Nympharum, 
based  on  the  opening  of  the  i3th  book  of  the  Odyssey  (XIII, 


I]  GREEK  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  511 

102-1 12),  Porphyry  engaged  in  the  allegorical  explanation  of  myths 
for  the  purpose  of  harmonizing  them  with  the  higher  moral  con- 
ceptions, —  a  kind  of  interpretation  that  had  been  common'  for 
the  last  eight  hundred  years,  ever  since  Theagenes  of  Rhegium 
(^.525  B.C.)  engaged  in  the  vain  and  unhistorical  procedure. 

So  much  for  the  late  philosophical  and  allegorical  criticism  of 
the  Greeks,  which  may  be  traced  sometimes  in  the  innuendoes, 
sometimes  in  the  direct  statements  of  the  various  schools,  but 
at  other  times  must  be  deduced  from  their  general  philosophical 
character  or  trend.  Scholarly  and  pedantic  criticism  arose  in 
Alexandria,  with  such  famous  grammarians  as  Zenodotus,  Aris- 
tophanes, and  Aristarchus  (onward  from  the  3d  century  B.C.). 
These  critics  busied  themselves  with  establishing  texts,  dividing 
works  into  books  and  chapters,  discussing  philological  questions 
of  the  narrower  kind.  For  the  method  of  Aristarchus,  who  pre- 
pared a  critical  edition  of  Homer,  establishing  the  text  with  the 
division  into  books  substantially  as  we  have  it  now,  see  Susemihl's 
Gesch.  der  griech.  Litt.  in  der  Alexandrinerzeit,  vol.  I  (Leipz. : 
1891).  A  convenient  aid,  also,  is  the  dissertation  of  W.  Bachmann, 
Die  asthetischen  Anschauungen  Aristarchs,  etc.  (Niirnberg  :  1902). 
Zo'ilus,  the  Scourge  of  Homer  (Homeromastix),  so  named  because 
of  his  virulent  attacks  upon  the  Homeric  poems  (chiefly  upon  the 
fabulous  in  them),  probably  belonged  to  an  earlier  period  (c.  400- 
320  B.C.),  though  there  is  a  tradition  that  he  lived  during  the  time 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-247  B.C.).  On  the  Alexandrian  clas- 
sification of  poetry  and  canons  of  poets,  see  above,  §  3,  i,  and 
the  article  "Classics"  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.,  which  also 
gives  further  notices  of  Alexandrian  and  Pergamene  scholarship. 
Other  pedantic  criticism,  but  most  of  it  practically  useless  for  the 
student  of  epic  theory,  will  be  found  in  great  plenty  in  the  Greek 
Scholiasts  on  Homer,  for  which,  as  well  as  for  further  materials 
of  this  period,  see  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit,  vol.  I,  Chaps.  IV  and 
V  of  Book  I. 

But  the  most  interesting  loci  of  later  Greek  criticism  of  the 
epic  are  found  in  several  essays  on  style,  the  greater  number  of 


512  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

which  were  written  probably  either  in  the  first  century  before 
or  the  first  century  after  the  birth  of  Christ.  Something,  indeed, 
of  the  freshening  of  the  imagination  and  wonder-spirit  that  char- 
acterized those  centuries  seems  to  have  informed  the  critical 
opinion  of  these  essays.  Their  enthusiasm  is  approbative,  full 
of  admiration  of  the  stylistic  excellence  of  great  authors.  Natu- 
rally such  sympathetic  estimate  of  style  cannot  be  said  to  con- 
tribute greatly  to  the  theory  of  the  epic  as  a  separate  type ;  but 
it  reveals  a  free,  aesthetic  attitude  toward  poetry,  —  an  enjoyment 
of  poetry  for  its  own  beauties  and  not  for  its  fancied  pedagogical 
virtues.  The  essay  On  the  Sublime,  attributed  to  one  Longinus 
(date  uncertain),  contains  the  finest  and  most  famous  passages  of 
appreciative  appraisal  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  classical 
antiquity.  As  Gibbon  pointed  out  (Journal,  Sept.  3,  1762),  Lon- 
ginus again  and  again  criticizes  a  beautiful  passage  by  telling  us 
his  feelings  upon  reading  it,  and  he  "  tells  them  with  such  energy, 
that  he  communicates  them."  Nor  is  .there  any  passage  in  the 
essay  more  full  of  this  splendid  appreciative  energy  than  the  cele- 
brated chapter  on  Homer  (Chap.  IX ;  see  also  other  references  to 
Homer,  a  list  of  which  may  be  found  on  p.  228  of  the  admirable 
edition  and  translation  by  W.  R.  Roberts,  Cambridge:  1899). 
Longinus'  adverse  criticism  of  the  fabulous  in  the  Odyssey  is 
also  contained  in  this  chapter.  Whether  this  criticism  is  based 
upon  the  philosophical  objections  noted  above,  or  is  aesthetic  in 
character  is  an  interesting  question.  —  Other  essays  of  this  period 
on  style  deal  with  oratory  rather  than  poetry,  but  their  authors, 
as  was  common  in  antiquity,  drew  "  as  freely  from  the  poets 
as  from  prose-writers,  clearly  believing  that  the  study  of  poetic 
style  should  help,  rather  than  injure,  the  study  of  prose  style." 
The  best  examples  of  passages  on  epic  poets  are  in  the  works 
and  letters  of  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  (several  references 
are  given  in  W.  R.  Roberts'  edition  and  translation  of  the  Three 
Literary  Letters,  Cambridge:  1901;  see  the  Index,  p.  223, 
under  Homer),  and  in  the  On  Style  attributed  to  Demetrius 
Phalereus  (see  the  references  in  the  Index,  p.  327,  under  Homer, 


II]  ROMAN  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  513 

of  W.  R.  Roberts'  edition  and  translation,  Demetrius  on  Style, 
Cambridge:  1902).  —  For  further  notice  of  the  rhetorics  and 
technical  school  grammars,  see  Saintsbury,  Sandys,  Roberts,  and 
E\  Egger  (p.  3,  note  2,  and  Chap.  IV)  as  cited  above,  §  3,  i; 
also  M.  Egger,  Denys  d'Halicarnasse,  Essai  sur  la  critique  litt. 
et  la  rhe'torique  chez  les  Grecs  (Paris :  1902). 

For  Greek  Byzantine  criticism  see  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit,  vol.  I, 
Bk.  I,  Chap.  VI ;  Krumbacher,  as  cited  in  the  Appendix. 

Editions  and  Translations.  For  a  convenient  edition  and  translation 
of  the  pre-socratic  philosophers  see  A.  Fairbanks,  The  First  Philoso- 
phers of  Greece  (Lond. :  1898).  Ernest  Myers'  translation  of  Pindar, 
Jowett's  of  Plato,  Butcher's  of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  Padelford's  of  Plu- 
tarch's How  a  Young  Man  Should  Study  Poetry  (Yale  Studies  in 
English,  XV,  1902),  W.  R.  Roberts  of  Longinus,  Dionysius,  and 
Demetrius,  T.  W.  H.  Rolleston's  of  the  Encheiridion  and  T.  Taylor's 
of  Plotinus  are  recommended.  Maximus  Tyrius  has  recently  been  edited 
by  H.  Hobein  (Leipz. :  1910);  for  Sextus  Empiricus  see  the  edition 
by  Fabricius  (Leipz.:  1840);  for  Philostratus,  the  Teubner  edition  by 
Kayser;  for  Plotinus,  the  edition  of  Creuzer  (Lond.:  1862)  or  that  of 
R.  Volkmann  (1883-84).  A  list  of  references  on  Plotinus  is  offered  by 
Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  113.  Porphyry's  Horn.  Quests,  have  been  edited 
by  H.  Schrader  (1880,  1890);  the  De  Antro  Nymph,  by  A.  Nauck 
(1885),  which  also  was  translated  by  Thomas  Taylor  (1823).  For  the 
Scholiasts  on  Homer  see  the  edition  by  Dindorf  and  Maas  (6  vols. 
Oxford:  1855-88);  for  the  rhetoricians  see  Walz's  Rhetores  Graeci 
(1832).  Fuller  bibliography  on  all  the  Greek  critics  may  be  found  in 
W.  von  Christ's  Gesch.  d.  griech.  Litt.  (5th  ed.,  noted  above,  §  5). 

II.  Roman  Theory  of  the  Epic. 

For  introduction  to  the  history  of  Roman  poetical  theory  in  general, 
see  above,  §3,1;  see  also  F.  Adam,  as  noted  above,  §  8. 

Roman  criticism  of  the  epic  is  almost  negligible.  It  consists 
primarily  of  brief  criticisms  of  style,  adulation  of  Homer,  frag- 
mentary remarks  upon  the  character  of  the  epic,  repetitions  of 
the  Alexandrian  canons  of  epic  poets  and  drawing  up  of  similar 
canons  of  Roman  poets,  verbal  interpretation,  and  commentaries 
on  the  text  of  Virgil.  First  to  be  considered  is  the  continuation  of 
formal  Alexandrian  poetics  by  the  lost  De  Poematis  of  Varro  and 


514  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

the  famous  Ad  Pisones  (Ars  Poetica)  of  Horace.  Doubtless  many 
other  works  of  the  same  sort  have  been  lost.  The  De  Poematis 
"  was  in  all  probability  an  enumeration  of  the  different  kinds  of 
poetry,  made  on  the  basis  of  some  post-Aristotelian  work,  perhaps 
that  of  Theophrastus."  The  kinds  considered  were,  perhaps, 
dramatic,  narrative,  and  mixed  (i.e.  narrative  and  dramatic,  which 
would  include  epic,  elegy,  epode,  satire,  and  bucolic).  Some  de- 
scription of  each-  sort  and  sub-type  must  have  been  given,  with 
references  to  great  examples.  On  this  work  see  Nettleship,  pp.  233- 
234.  Horace,  whose  Ars  Poetica  is  said  to  have  been  modeled 
upon  the  lost  poetics  of  an  Alexandrian,  Neoptolemus  of  Parium 
(see  Nettleship,  pp.  228-229,  251),  informs  us  that  the  hexameter 
is  dedicated  to  "  res  gestae  regumque  ducumque  et  tristia  bella  " 
(Ars  Poetica  73-74)  ;  that  the  epic  poet  should  imitate  Homer  by 
beginning  modestly,  by  driving  rapidly  "  in  medias  res,"  by  passing 
over  what  cannot  be  made  illustrious,  by  so  mixing  the  real  and 
feigned  that  it  is  "  impossible  to  tell  the  opening  from  the  middle, 
the  middle  from  the  end"  (A. P.  136-152);  that  fiction  to  be 
pleasing  must  be  kept  as  near  as  possible  to  the  truth  (A.  P.  338- 
340)  ;  that  "  bonus  dormitat  Homerus  "  (A.  P.  359)  ;  that  Homer 
was  a  great  war  poet  and  a  great  moral  teacher  (A-P-  401-404; 
Epist.  I,  ii) ;  and  that  Ennius  was  scarcely  a  second  Homer,  but 
that  Virgil  is  the  equal  of  his  own  critical  fame  (Epist.  II,  j,  50-51, 
245-247).  —  Next  the  student  may  turn  to  the  rhetoricians,  noting 
Quintilian's  brief  but  judicious  appraisals  of  the  Greek  epic  (Insti- 
tutes X,  i,  46-59)  and  the  Roman  epic  (Inst.  X,  i,  85-92),  and 
his  arrangement  of  the  poets  in  canons.  Quintilian's  models  or 
sources  were  probably  Theophrastus  and  such  Alexandrian  critics 
as  Aristarchus  and  Aristophanes.  The  resemblance  of  several  of 
his  critical  estimates  to  passages  in  the  De  Imitatione  of  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus  has  been  noted  by  Nettleship  (pp.  258-262).— 
For  other  but  negligible  notices  of  epic  poets  see  Halm's  Rhetores 
Latirii  (2  vols.  Leipz. :  1863),  and  compare  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit, 
i :  345-354  (2d  ed.).  —  Learned  comment  and  verbal  criticism  are 
represented  by  the  great  commentary  of  Servius  (Jl.  end  of  4th 


II]  ROMAN  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  515 

century  after  Christ)  on  Virgil  (ed.  G.  Thilo  and  H.  Hagen,  1878- 
1902  ;  cf.  review  by  Nettleship  mjourn.  of  Philol.,  X),  which  con- 
tains in  its  vast  bulk  very  little  that  is  of  value  to  the  student  of 
epic  theory  (cf.  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit.,  i  :  334-340).  With  Servius 
we  may  associate  another  learned  commentator,  Aelius  Donatus 
(fl.  middle  of  4th  century),  fragments  of  whose  commentary  on 
Virgil  have  been  preserved  and  criticized  by  Servius.  Another 
Donatus  (Tiberius  Claudius),  contemporary  with  Servius,  wrote 
a  commentary  on  the  Aeneid  (see  O.  Ribbeck,  Prolegomena  to 
Virgil;  text  in  G..Fabricius'  ed.  of  Virgil,  1561,  ed.  H.  Georges, 
vol.  I,  1905).  —  For  the  rest,  the  student  may  search  Roman 
writers  in  general  for  brief  notices  of  Homer,  Virgil,  and  the  lesser 
epic  poets.  In  the  works  of  Cicero,  Ovid,  Petronius,  Seneca 
Rhetor,  Seneca  the  Younger  (Dialog.  X),  Persius,  Juvenal,  Martial, 
Pliny  the  Younger,  Statius  (Genethliacon  Lucani,  etc.),  and 
Ausonius  this  search  may  be  conducted  with  more  or  less  success, 
but,  on  the  whole,  with  little  profit.  Special  mention  must  be  made 
of  the  Noctes  Atticae  of  A.  Gellius  (fl.  zd  century  after  Christ).' 
Embedded  in  this  compendium  of  curious  learning  are  many 
remarks  pertaining  to  the  style  of  various  epic  poets,  to  verbal 
criticism,  and  even  to  the  history  of  epic  poetry  (see,  e.g.,  i  :  21, 
2  :  6,  3:  i'i,  5  :  8,  6:  6,  7  :  20,  9:  9,  10:  16,  12  :  2,  13  :  26, 
18  :  5).  The  comparison  of  Virgil  and  Pindar  on  Aetna  (17  :  10), 
the  chief  reference  for  the  epic  student,  was  answered  much  later 
by  Scaliger  (Poetice  V,  4),  who  refers  with  approval  to  Pontanus 
and  others  who  had  come  to  the  defense  of  Virgil.  The  criticism 
of  Gellius  has  been  summarized  in  a  helpful  way  under  heads 
corresponding-  to  the  chief  literary  types  by  Benedetto  Romano 
(La  critica  letteraria  in  Aulo  Gellio.  Torino :  1902).  In  the  Satur- 
nalia of  Macrobius  (5th  century),  another  curious  compendium, 
the  student  may  search  for  further  and  somewhat  similar  materials, 
especially  on  Virgil  (see  Libri  III-IV ;  V  deals  with  the  relation 
of  Virgil  to  the  Greeks  and  to  Homer  in  particular). 

Before  leaving  ancient  criticism,  Greek  and  Roman,  one  im- 
portant observation  remains  to  be  made,  namely,  that  throughout 


516  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

antiquity  a  wide  range  of  poems  was  commonly  regarded  as  '  epic.' 
Generally  speaking,  hexameter  poems  were  called  '  epics,'  whether 
they  were  heroic  in  character  (as  the  Iliad,  Odyssey,  the  Cyclic 
Epics,  the  Argonautica,  Aeneid,  Pharsalia,  Thebaid),  or  didactic 
(as  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod,  the  poems  of  Xenophanes, 
Parmenides,  and  Empedocles,  the  De  Rerum  Natura  of  Lucretius), 
or  commemorative  of  religious  mysteries  (as  the  reputed  Orphic 
poems,  or  the  Theogony  of  Hesiod).  To  be  sure,  Aristotle  had 
protested  against  grouping  Homer  and  Empedocles  under  one 
head  (Poetics  i,  6-9),  and  had  provided  the  basis  for  distinguishing 
types  according  to  method  of  imitation ;  but  the  formal  view  that 
the  metre  determined  the  type  of  the  poem  dominated  ancient  criti- 
cism as  a  whole,  and  was  incompatible  with  any  very  profound 
consideration  of  the  spiritual  and  social  distinctions  of  the  various 
poetic  kinds.  Neo-classical  criticism  labored  under  similar  formal 
conceptions,  even  developing  in  a  purely  formal  way  the  Aristo- 
telian principle  of  imitation.  It  remained  for  modern  philosophi- 
cal and  romantic  criticism  to  attempt  a  differentiation  according 
to  the  social  scale,  the  spiritual  content,  or  the  cultural  stage  of 
the  poem. 

Editions  and  References.  The  less  familiar  texts  have  been  suffi- 
ciently indicated  above.  Texts  and  translations  of  Horace,  Quintilian, 
and  other  well-known  Latin  writers  are  readily  accessible.  For  extensive 
bibliography  see  the  histories  of  Schanz  and  Teuffel. 

III.  Latin  Christian  Criticism  of  the  Dark  Ages. 

For  general  apparatus  for  the  study  of  patristic  and  pre-medieval 
Latin  criticism,  see  above,  §  3,  n. 

Of  literary  theory  proper  nothing,  or  next  to  nothing,  is  to  be 
found  in  this  long  period.  At  first  (2d  century  to  the  period 
of  Constantine,  323)  the  Fathers  of  the  Church  were  engaged 
in  combating  the  old  religion  and  establishing  the  new.  Part  of 
their  task  consisted  in  attacking  the  stories,  or  myths,  of  paganism  ; 
and  because  these  were  embodied  in  the  arts,  the  Fathers  were 
opposed  to  the  arts  themselves.  Artistic  power  and  appreciation 


Ill]  LATIN  CRITICISM  OF  THE  DARK  AGES  517 

were  held  to  be  a  machination  of  demons ;  the  arts  were  thought 
to  have  originated  among  the  fallen  angels  who  forsook  heaven 
for  the  daughters  of  men.  But  literature,  and  the  epic  in  particular, 
was  the  chief  repository  of  pagan  myth.  Hence  it  came  about 
that  the  Fathers  were  particularly  bitter  against  Homer  and,  to 
a  less  degree,  Virgil  and  Lucan.  The  opposition  to  Homer  was 
more  pronounced  among  the  Latin  than  among  the  Greek  Fathers, 
—  a  fact  due  perhaps  to  the  greater  familiarity  of  the  latter  with 
the  poet.  This  general  opposition  to  secular  literature  may  be 
traced  in  the  works  of  Tertullian  (see  especially  his  Apologeticus, 
De  Spectaculis,  De  Idololatria,  and  Ad  Nationes),  Cyprian,  Arnobius 
(Adversus  Gentes,  especially  Books  III,  IV,  V),  Lactantius  (Insti- 
tutiones),  and  Commodianus  (Instructiones).  For  typical  references 
to  Homer,  from  whom  "  every  depraved  writer  gets  his  dreams," 
see  Chap.  22  of  the  Octavius  of  Minucius  Felix,  and  Bk.  I, 
Chap.  10,  and  II,  7,  9,  of  Tertullian's  Ad  Nationes.  Further  refer- 
ences to  Homer  and  other  epic  authors  may  be  traced  by  means 
of  the  General  Index  in  vol.  X  of  the  American  edition  of  the 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers!  In  general,  this  '  puritanic '  opposition  to 
the  poets  may  be  compared  with  Plato's  view  of  the  poets,  and 
with  the  Academic,  Stoic,  Pyrrhpnist,  and  modern  Puritan  attitude 
toward  literature.  A  profound  philosophic  conviction  or  idealism 
and  a  profound  religious  '  otherworldliness '  alike  tend  toward 
impatience  with  and  disapproval  of  the  lightness  and  the  fictions 
of  secular  poetry  (see  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  i  :  380-382).  This 
criticism  of  literature,  then,  relies  upon  moral  and  philosophical  — 
not  upon  literary  and  aesthetic  —  criteria. 

Later,  from  the  time  of  Constantine  (323)  on,  the  gradual 
assimilation  of  the  pagan  arts  by  Christian  culture  mitigated  the 
severity  of  patristic  condemnation  of  the  pagan  epics.  Even 
St.  Augustine's  disapproval  of  the  "  sweetly  vain "  fictions  of 
Homer  and  Virgil  (Confessions  I,  13,  14)  lacks  the  declamatory 
fury  of  Tertullian  (see  further  in  the  Confessions,  and  note  in 
Augustine's  other  works  the  frequent  quotations  from  Virgil; 
translations  in  Schaff's  Nicene  and  Post-Nicene  Fathers).  But  no 


518  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

aesthetic  theory  of  poetry  was  developed.  Instead,  the  allegorical 
interpretation  of  Fulgentius  appeared,  —  symptomatic  of  a  chang- 
ing attitude.  After  the  manner  of  the  Stoics  and  the  Neoplatonists, 
and  with  some  slight  Christian  additions,  Fulgentius  (first  part  of 
the  6th  century,  or  last  part  of  the  5th)  proceeded  to  expound  the 
inner  meaning  of  the  old  myths  (see  his  Exposftio  Vergilianae  Con- 
tinentiae,  which  supplements  his  larger  Mythologiarum  Libri  III, 
ed.  R.  Helm,  Teubner  Series,  1898;  cf.  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit., 
i  :  393-396).  Already  Christians  were  familiar  with  the  allegorical 
interpretation  of  the  legends  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  had 
been  instituted  in  the  4th  century  by  Hilary  of  Poitiers  and 
Ambrose  of  Milan,  and  which  may  be  traced  back  to  Origen 
and  Philo  Judaeus.  The  New  Testament  itself  (e.g.  Gal.  iii,  16; 
iv,  21-31)  uses  this  method  of  interpretation.  After  Fulgentius 
the  allegorical  interpretation  of  profane  (as  well  as  sacred)  litera- 
ture becomes  more  and  more  common.  In  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  Renaissance  it  was  regularly  recognized  as  a  method  of  criti- 
cism (see  Grandgeht,  Dante,  pp.  244-277,  and  Spingarn,  Lit.  Crit. 
in  Renaiss.,  p.  8).  For  a  brief  but  suggestive  explanation  of  the 
prevalence  of  medieval  allegory,  see  E.  Brehaut,  An  Encyclopedist 
of  the  Dark  Ages  (Diss.,  Columbia.  N.  Y.:  1912),  pp.  65-67.— 
Isidore  of  Seville  (c.  560-636)  held  that  Christians  should  not  read 
the  fictions  of  the  poets  (Differentiae  III,  13,  i  ;  cf.  Etymologiae 
VIII,  7).  In  his  account  of  Grammar,  under  the  head  of  Metres, 
heroic  verse  is  defined  as  that  which  narrates  the  deeds  of  brave 
men,  and  Moses  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  compose  hexameters 
(Etymologiae  I,  39,  9).  The  remarks  on  the  forming  of  Centos 
on  various,  including  Biblical,  subjects  by  ingenious  recombination 
of  verses  from  Homer  or  Virgil  (ibid.,  I,  39,  25-26)  lay  open  a 
strange  development  of  epic  material  that  the  curious  student  may 
follow  further  (see  Encyc.  Brit.,  Art.  Cento).  For  the  works  of 
Isidore,  see  Migne,  or  the  Oxford  edition  of  the  Etymologiae, 
ed.  W.  M.  Lindsay,  1911  ;  see  also  E.  Brehaut,  op.  of. ;  Dressel, 
De  Isidori  Originum  Fontibus  (in  Rivista  di  Filologia,  vol.  Ill, 


IV]  GREEK  FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH  519 

IV.  Greek  Fathers  of  the  Church. 

For  accounts  of  Greek  patristic  literature  see  Battifol,  Les  anciennes 
litt.  chret. :  La  litt.  grecque(2d  ed.  Paris:  1898);  W.  Christ,  Gesch.  der 
griech.  Litt.  bis  auf  die  Zeit  Justinians  (ad  ed.  1890 ;  in  Miiller's  Handb. 
der  klass.  Altertums-Wisserischaft) ;  G.  Kriiger,  Hist,  of  Early  Christian 
Lit.  in  the  First  Three  Centuries,  trans,  by  C.  R.  Gillett  (N.Y. :  1897). 
Further  references  in  Kriiger,  pp.  4-10;  also  in  Christ. 

The  Greek  Fathers  were  somewhat  less  bitter  against  ancient 
art  and  religion  than  were  the  Latin  Fathers.  A  wider  and  more 
philosophical  education  inclined  the  Greeks  to  harmonize  the 
pagan  and  Christian  cultures  by  premising  that  the  former  was  a 
propaedeutic  to  the  latter.  Not  seldom,  by  way  of  proof,  the 
Greek  Fathers  are  at  pains  to  select  those  passages  from  the 
epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  poets  and  from  the  philosophers  of 
antiquity  which  evince  monotheistic  conceptions.  Thus  they  did 
not  raise  against  art  and  poetry  the  extreme  and  indignant  puri- 
tanical criticism  found  in  the  polemic  and  apologetic  literature 
of  the  Western  Church.  Their  fainter  objections  scarcely  con- 
fused the  aesthetic  appreciation  of  literature. 

Justin  the  Martyr,  in  his  Apology,  holds  indeed  that  pagan 
beliefs  are  machinations  of  the  demons.  But  in  the  Hortatory 
Address  to  the  Greeks  and  the  Monarchy  of  God,  both  formerly 
attributed  to  him,  Homer  and  the  dramatists  are  cited  in  support 
of  the  unity  of  God.  Tatian's  Address  to  the  Greeks  is  more 
bitter  in  criticism  of  the  pagan  gods.  The  Greek  poets  are  often 
quoted.  Similar  criticism  and  quotation  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Plea  for  the  Christians  of  Athenagoras  the  Athenian  and  in  the 
Autolycus  of  Theophilus  of  Antioch.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  in 
his  Exhortation  to  the  Heathen,  shows  the  folly  of  polytheism, 
quotes  Homer  and  the  dramatists,  and  yet  does  not  anathematize 
all  poetry.  Clement  can  draw  distinctions.  See  also  his  Stromateis, 
Paedagogue,  and  the  treatise  Against  the  Stage,  Bk.  IV,  Cap.  xi. 

Editions.  For  bibliography  of  each  of  the  above,  and  of  other  Greek 
Fathers,  see  Kriiger,  pp.  100-138,  162-255  ;  translations  may  be  found 
in  the  American  or  Edinburgh  edition  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers. 


520  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

V.  Italian. 

For  general  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  in. 
A.   To  the  End  of  the  Renaissance. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  in,  A.  In  Spingarn  see  pp.  107-124; 
in  Blankenburg-Sulzer  see  the  article  Heldengedicht  (vol.  II,  pp.  9-10). 
Of  great  aid  and  interest  are  pp.  1 5-94  of  Finsler's  work,  noted  above, 
§  8.  Irene  Myers  (cited  in  §  8)  gives  a  very  brief  review  of  the  chief 
Italian  writers  on  the  epic  (pp.  1 5-20). 

Before  considering  the  neo-classicism  of  the  Renaissance  it  will 
be  well  to  remember  that  the  critics  of  this  period  inherited  from 
the  Middle  Ages  a  method  of  studying  and  interpreting  literature 
which  continued  to  flourish  side  by  side  with  the  new  humanistic 
tendencies.  This  was  the  allegorical,  the  rise  of  which  we  have 
already  noted  (see  above,  i ;  in,  under  Fulgentius  ;  also  Spingarn, 
pp.  7-10).  Applied  alike  to  sacred  and  profane  literature,  this 
method  of  interpretation  presupposed  that  it  was  of  the  essence 
of  poetry  to  hide  moral  truths  in  pleasing  fictions  (cf.  Isidore  of 
Seville,  Etymolog.  VIII,  7,  10),  —  a  conception  the  similarity  of 
which  to  the  teachings  of  Plutarch  and  the  Stoics  the  reader  will 
readily  recognize.  Nor  should  one  neglect  to  observe  that  such  inter- 
pretation offered  in  reality  a  means  of  turning  against  the  Platonic 
and  .other  moral  '  Puritans '  their  own  objections  to  poetic  fiction. 
Fictions,  to  be  sure,  said  the  allegoricaf  school,  but  fictions  that 
are  intended  to  teach  truth  in  popular  forms,  thus  rendering  incal- 
culable service !  Moreover,  so  generally  recognized  and  followed 
was  the  method  of  interpretation  that  the  poets  themselves  con- 
sciously adopted  it  as  the  soul  of  their  creative  production. 
Dante,  to  take  the  greatest  example,  explained  his  poem  as 
having  four  meanings :  literal,  '  allegorical,'  moral,  and  anagogical 
or  mystical  (Epist.  XI,  7  ;  Convito,  II,  i,  i  ;  see  also  Grandgent,  , 
Chap.  XI  Allegory).  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  during  the 
Middle  Ages  poetry  was  commonly  classified  by  the  encyclopedists 
as  a  form  of  philosophy,  for  which  some  authority  was  found  in 
the  ancients  (see  Spingarn,  pp.  24-27).  From  this  circumstance 
derives  largely,  perhaps,  the  popularity  of  allegorical  interpretation. 


V,  A]  ITALIAN  521 

But  what  concerns  us  here  is  that  this  method  of  criticism,  if  it 
can  be  called  such,  was  applied  for  the  most  part,  naturally 
enough,  to  epical  narratives,  even  as  the  moral  criticism  of  poetry 
had  historically  begun  with  the  Greek  philosophic  objections  to 
the  epic  fictions  of  Homer.  Lyric  fiction  was  not  fiction,  or  at 
least  was  seldom  fiction,  in  the  same  sense  of  the  term ;  dramatic 
fiction  was  a  thing  little  known  during  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is 
indeed  in  Fulgentius'  lucubrations  concerning  the  Aeneid,  or  in 
Dante  on  the  Divine  Comedy  as  just  noted,  or  in  Petrarch's  letter 
De  Quibusdam  Fictionibus  Virgilii  (Opera,  1554,  p.  867),  that  we 
find  the  typical  examples  of  this  moral-utilitarian  criticism,  —  the 
common  method  of  Theagenes  of  Rhegium,  Porphyry,  Plutarch, 
Tzetzes,  Origen,  Philo  Judaeus,  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  Ambrose 
of  Milan,  Fulgentius,  Dante,  Boccaccio,  Leonardo  Bruni,  and 
hundreds  of  others,  known  or  forgotten.  The  student  of  epic 
criticism  who  is  ignorant  of  this  long  and  ancient  line  misses 
much  of  what  the  epic  has  meant  in  the  past,  and  he  who 
neglects  it  is  unhistorical  in  his  own  conception  of  both  epic 
and  epical  criticism.  To  trace  the  history  of  this  line  in  detail, 
so  far  as  that  is  possible,  noting  its  characteristic  deflections  as 
it  passes  from  age  to  age,  from  one  philosophy  or  religion  to 
another,  is  a  task  that  if  sympathetically  performed  would  not 
be  devoid  of  profound  interest  and  significance. 

From  the  Middle  Ages  also,  and  indirectly  from  Horace, 
whose  Ars  Poetica  was  known  throughout  the  Dark  and  Middle 
Ages  (see  Spingarn,  p.  n),  descended  another  and  yet  allied  way 
of  regarding  poetry,  viz.,  as  a  great  civilizing  agent  (cf.  Ars  Poetica, 
391-401 ;  for  an  early  statement  of  this  conception  see  Aeschylus' 
self-defense  in  the  Frogs  of  Aristophanes).  Mr.  J.  E.  Spingarn 
has  pointed  out  that  in  his  Sylvae  (written  toward  the  end  of 
the  1 5th  century)  Poliziano  adopts  this  view,  and  adds: 

The  second  section  of  the  Sylvae  discusses  the  bucolic  poets ;  the 
third  contains  that  glorification  of  Virgil  which  began  during  the 
Middle  Ages,  and,  continued  by  Vida  and  others,  became  in  Scaliger 
literary  deification ;  and  the  last  section  is  devoted  to  Homer,  who  is 


522  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

considered  as  the  great  teacher  of  wisdom,  and  the  wisest  of  the  ancients. 
Nowhere  does  Poliziano  exhibit  any  appreciation  of  the  aesthetic  value 
of  poetry,  but  his  enthusiasm  for  the  great  poets,  and  indeed  for  all 
forms  of  ancient  culture,  is  unmistakable,  and  combined  with  his 
immense  erudition  marks  him  as  a  representative  poet  of  humanism 
(Lit.  Crit.,  pp.  13-14). 

Mr.  Spingarn  proceeds  to  contrast  with  this  work  a  contempo- 
raneous puritanic  conception  of  poetry,  that  of  Savonarola  (in 
his  De  Divisione  ac  Utilitate  Omnium  Scientiarum,  c.  1492). 

As  he  turns  to  the  i6th  century  the  student  should  bear  in 
mind  that  from  Capriano  Bresciano  and  Minturno  on,  with  the 
exception  of  Castelvetro,  the  epic  was  considered  the  chief  form 
of  poetry,  Aristotle  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding  (see,  e.g., 
G.  P.  Capriano  Bresciano,  Delia  vera  poetica  libro  uno,  Vinegia : 
1555,  Cap.  IV,  V).  The  history  of  the  criticism  of  the  epic  may 
be  considered  under  five  heads :  (i)  Horatian  criticism ;  (2)  rise 
of  Aristotelian  criticism ;  (3)  the  quarrel  between  the  classicists 
and  the  supporters  of  the  romantic  epics  of  Boiardo  and  Ariosto, 
which  eventuated  in  (4)  the  quarrel  over  Tasso's  attempt  in  the 
Gerusalemme  to  combine  Aristotelian  formalism  and  romantic 
variety;  (5)  the  controversy  with  regard  to  the  unity  of  the 
Divine  Comedy.  As  a  whole  this  epic  criticism  is  formal  and 
legislative,  narrowly  and  naively  Aristotelian,  prescriptive  rather 
than  interpretative,  absolute  rather  than  historical.  Nevertheless 
several  notable  attempts  were  made  to  broaden  critical  dogma 
by  an  induction  of  principles  from  modern  as  well  as  ancient 
poetry,  —  attempts  undertaken  in  defense  of  the  romantic  epics 
against  the  charge  that  they  lacked  unity. 

From  Horace  descends  the  first  great  '  art  of  poetry '  of  the 
Renaissance:  Vida's  Latin  Ars  Poetica  (1527;  written  before 
1520)  —  an  attempt  to  lay  down  rules  for  the  epic  from  a  study 
of  the  practice  of  Virgil.  "  His  description  of  the  ideal  epic  is 
indeed  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  refined  analysis  of  the  Aeneid ; 
and  students  desirous  of  learning  what  the  Italians  of  the  sixteenth 
century  admired  in  Virgil,  will  do  well  to  study  its  acute  and  sober 


V,  A]  ITALIAN  523 

criticism."  But  Vida  is  concerned  formally,  like  his  master,  Horace, 
with  matters  of  style  and  invention,  polish  and  decorum  ;  of  deeper 
critical  problems  —  definition,  inner  form,  social  significance,  and 
function  —  he  knows  nothing.  His  comparison  of  Virgil  and 
Homer  should  be  read  in  the  light  of  previous  comparisons  by 
Petrarch,  Poliziano,  Valla,  and  Vittorino  da  Feltre  (see  Finsler, 
15  ff.).  In  1535  Dolce  translated  the  Ars  Poetica,  with  which 
should  be  compared  the  same  author's  Osservationi  (Vinegia : 
1560).  Danielle,  in  his  La  Poetica  (Vinegia:  1536;  cf.  Irene 
Myers,  p.  16),  copies  Horace's  definition  of  the  epic  —  a  poem 
about  the  heroic  deeds  of  great  kings  and  leaders ;  but  at  the 
same  time,  like  Aristotle,  he  contrasts  the  verisimilitude  of  the 
poet  with  the  sober  fact  of  the  historian.  Scaliger,  the  greatest 
critic  of  the  century  (Poetics,  1561,  commented  upon  above.  §  8), 
is  also  perhaps  more  Horatian  than  Aristotelian.  For  him  the 
epic,  the  story  of  the  lives  and  deeds  of  heroes,  is  the  greatest  of 
poems.  Scaliger  belongs  to  the  company,  already  noted,  of  Virgil 
worshippers,  and  his  attacks  upon  Homer  as  well  as  his  defense  of 
Virgil  against  the  strictures  of  Aulus  Gellius  (q.  v.)  supply  some  of 
the  most  interesting  and  significant  portions  of  his  epic  criticism. 
For  other  works  on  Virgil  see 'those  by  Regolo  (1563),  Maranta 
(1564),  Toscanella  (1566),  Fulvius  Ursinus  (1567),  etc. 

We  may  now  briefly  note  the  rise  of  the  Aristotelian  strain  of 
epic  criticism.  The  significance  of  the  discovery  of  Aristotle's 
Poetics  was  well  indicated  by  the  French  critic  Rapin  (1621—1687)  : 

We  have  had  no  Books  of  Poesie  till  this  last  Age ;  when  that  of 
Aristotle,  with  his  other  Works,  were  brought  from  Constantinople 
to  Italy ;  where  immediately  appear'd  a  great  Number  of  Commen- 
tators, who  writ  upon  this  Book  of  Poesie :  The  chief  whereof  were 
Victorius,  Robortellus,  Madius,  who  literally  enough  interpreted  the 
Text  of  this  Philosopher,  without  diving  much  into  his  Meaning. 
These  were  follow'd  by  Castelvetro,  Piccolomini,  Beni,  Riccobon, 
Majoragius,  Minturnus,  Vida  [sic],  Patricius,  Andre  Gili,  Vossius,  and 
many  others.  But  Vossius  has  Commented  on  him  meerly  as  a  Scholiast, 
Gili  as  a  Rhetorician,  Patricius  as  an  Historian,  Vida  as  a  Poet,  who 
endeavours  more  to  please  than  to  instruct;  Minturnus  as  an  Orator, 


524  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  .        [§  9 

Majoragius  and  Riccobon  as  Logicians,  Beni  as  a  Doctor  who  has  a 
sound  Judjment  when  the  Honour  of  his  Country  is  not  concern'd. 
For  he  compares  Ariosto  with  Homer,  and  Tasso  with  Virgil,  in  a 
treatise  made  expressly  upon  that  subject.  Castelvetro  and  Piccolomini 
have  acquitted  themselves  as  able  Criticks,  and  much  better  than  the 
rest;  Piccolomini  deals  with  Aristotle  more  fairly  than  Castelvetro, 
who  is  naturally  of  a  morose  Wit;  and  out  of  a  cross  Humour  makes 
it  always  his  Business  to  contradict  Aristotle,  and  for  the  most  part 
confounds  the  Text,  instead  of  explaining  it.  Notwithstanding  all  this, 
he  is  the  most  subtle  of  all  the  Commentators,  and  the  Man  from 
whom  most  may  be  learned  (The  Whole  Critical  Works  of  M.  Rapin. 
2vols.,  2ded.,  Lond. :  1716,  vol.  II,  pp.  132-133). 

For  the  early  Italian  editions  and  Latin  and  Italian  translations 
of  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle,  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  5i8ff.  Par- 
ticularly important  are  the  editions,  translations,  or  commentaries 
by  Pazzi  (1536),  Daniello  (1536),  Robortelli  (1548),  Segni(i549), 
Maggi  (1550),  Vettori  (1560),  Piccolomini  (1575),  and  Riccoboni 
(1587).  For  Salviati's  account  of  the  commentators  up  to  1586, 
see  Spingarn,  Appendix  B.  Robortelli's  In  Librum  Aristotelis  de 
Arte  Poetica  Explicationes  (Firenze:  1548)  is  an  extended  com- 
mentary, passage  by  passage,  which  should  be  studied  as  convey- 
ing the  early  Italian  conception  of  Aristotle  on  epic,  tragedy,  and 
comedy.  Maggi,  or  Madius  (Madius  and  Lombardus,  Poetica 
Arist,  1550),  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  suggest  a  unity 
of  time  for  the  epic  (Ebner,  Beitrag  zu  einer  Gesch.  d.  dramat. 
Einheiten  in  Ital.,  Munch.  Beitrage,  15:  38),  —  a  suggestion  that 
in  Minturno  (Poetica,  1564)  and  D'Aubignac  (see  below,  vi,  c) 
becomes  a  definite  rule  of  one  year. 

From  Trissino  we  have  the  first  Italian  art  of  poetry  based 
upon  Aristotle  (Le  sei  division!  della  poetica,  §§  V,  VI,  on  epic, 
lS^3'i  §§  I~IV,  1529).  The  differentiation  of  epic  and  tragedy 
with  reference  to  object  and  means  of  imitation  and  to  unity 
1  and  duration  of  action,  the  remarks  upon  the  province  of  the 
improbable  and  impossible,  and  the  comparison  of  epic  and  his- 
tory —  the  epic  loci  of  the  Poetics  —  are  all  repeated  by  Trissino. 
See  B.  Morsolin,  G.  Trissino,  etc.  (2d  ed.  Firenze:  1884). 


V,  A]  ITALIAN  525 

Trissino's  criticism  of  the  Italian  romantic  epics  (see  Boiardo, 
Ariosto,  et  al,  in  §  12,  below)  for  their  lack  of  unity  (see  the  dedi- 
cation to  his  Aristotelian  epic,  Italia  Liberata,  finished  by  1548) 
provoked  the  chief  controversy  in  the  epic  criticism  of  the  i6th 
century.  Against  the  attack  of  the  classicists,  Cintio,  Pigna, 
and  Castelvetro  defended  the  romanzi  on  the  ground  that  they 
constitute  a  new  sort  of  heroic  poetry  to  which  the  Aristotelian 
rule  of  epic  unity  cannot  logically  be  applied.  For  notices  of 
Cintio  (1549)  and  Pigna  (1554)  see  above,  §8.  In  1559 
appeared  Minturno's  De  Poeta,  and  in  1564  his  Arte  Poetica 
(cf.  Sulzer,  vol.  II,  p.  505  ;  Irene  Myers,  p.  18),  which  should 
be  studied  as  upholding  the  hostile  criticism  of  the  romanzo. 
Minturno,  it  may  be  noted  by  the  way,  adapts  Aristotle's  definition 
of  tragedy  to  the  epic,  divides  narrative  poetry  into  three  grades 
of  which  the  highest  is  the  imitation  of  the  life  of  a  single  hero 
(epic  proper,  or  eroid},  and  believes  that  the  Christian  religion 
affords  all  machinery  necessary  to  an  epic  poem.  In  Castelvetro 
the  century  recognized  one  of  its  greatest  masters  of  criticism. 
Coming  to  the  defense  of  the  romantic  epics,  he  nevertheless 
conceded  that  a  stricter  unity  of  action  gives  a  greater  poetic 
effect.  He  distinguished  different  varieties  of  the  epic;  he  care- 
fully differentiated  epic  from  tragedy,  which  had  not  been  done 
by  such  classicists  as  Scaliger  and  Minturno.  In  opposition  to 
the  general  opinion  of  the  century  he  esteemed  tragedy  more 
highly  than  epic.  To  Aristotelian  formulae  he  added  the  require- 
ment that  the  subject  of  the  epic  be  historical.  The  reader  will 
discover  in  Castelvetro  a  power  of  drawing  distinctions  and  a 
breadth  of  view  unusual  among  the  critics  of  this  period.  See 
especially  his  Poetica  d'Aristotele  vulgarizzata  et  sposta  (1570; 
Basilea:  1576),  —  the  1576  edition  containing  a  full  index  (see 
Epopea  and  the  names  of  the  chief  classical  and  Italian  epic 
poets);  see  also  Gli  Eroici,  etc.  (Vinegia:  1561).  The  Opere 
varie  critiche  (Lione :  1727)  are  accessible.  Compare  also 
Spingarn,  p.  in;  Irene  Myers,  p.  18;  A.  Fusco,  La  poetica 
di  L.  Castelvetro  (Napoli:  1904);  H.  B.  Charlton,  Castelvetro *s 


526  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

Theory  of  Poetry  (Manchester,  Univ.  Press:  1913).  For  other 
examples  of  the  classicist  view  see  the  Poetica  of  Denores  (1588), 
which  repeats  Aristotle  in  a  naive  way,  briefly  compares  Virgil 
and  Homer,  and  illustrates  the  perfect  tragic,  epic,  and  comic 
themes  by  the  tales  of  Boccaccio ;  also  the  Dialogo  primo  and 
the  Dial,  secondo  sopra  Virgilio  of  Sperone  Speroni  (Dialoghi  del 
Sig.  S.  Speroni,  etc.  Ven. :  1596). 

For  Tasso's  attempt  (1564,  1587,  etc.)  to  harmonize  the  Aris- 
totelian unity  of  form  with  the  varied  matter  of  medieval  romance 

—  an  attempt  first  made  in  theory  and  then  in  practice  —  see 
above,  §  8,  under  Tasso.    Whereas  Cintio,  Pigna,  and  Castelvetro 
had  distinguished  a  romantic  type  of  epic  that  did  not  require 
unity  of  action,  it  was  now  generally  admitted  that  every  epic 
must  possess  some  sort  of  unity :    the  new  question  was,  what 
sort  ?  Tasso's  or  Homer's  ?    Moreover,  both  sides  of  the  contro- 
versy appealed  to  Aristotle.    For  an  account  of  the  controversy 

—  of   Camillo    Pellegrino's   exaltation   of   Tasso's   Gerusalemme 
Liberata  above  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso  (II  Caraffa,   1583/4), 
of  Lionardo  Salviati's  defense  of  the  latter  (Difesa  dell'  O.  F., 
1585),  of  Tasso's  Apologia  (1585),  and  of   smaller   fry  —  see 
Finsler,  pp.  73-81,  or  Spingarn,  pp.  122-124;  longer  accounts 
in  the  histories  of  Italian  literature.    A  very  satisfactory  chapter 
on  the  matter  is  contained  in  Solerti's  Vita  di  T.  Tasso  (Torino: 
1895);  and  for  many  of  the  documents  of  the  controversy  see 
vols.  18-23  °f  Rosini's  edition  of  the  Opere  of  Tasso.       But  of 
all  the  writing  brought  out  by  the  episode,  F.  Patrizzi's  (or  Patrici's) 
Delia  Poetica  (Ferrara:   1585/6)  is  for  the  modern  student  most 
significant.    Here  is  a  poetics  that  is  inductive  in  method,  —  an 
attempt  to  formulate  the  principles  of  poetry  from  the  whole 
history  of  poetry,  instead  of  from  a  few  Greek  masterpieces  only. 
Aristotle  is  criticized  severely,  as  contradictory,  difficult,  and  mis- 
taken.   Finsler  notices  the  work  appreciatively ;    cf.  Saintsbury, 
Hist.  Crit.,  2  :  94-101.    With  it  may  be  compared  a  work  —  not 
belonging  to  this  controversy  —  that  went  still  further  in  breaking 
with  critical  traditions,  —  the  first  dialogue  of  Giordani  Bruno's 


V,  B]  ITALIAN  527 

Eroici  Furori  (Lond. :  1585),  a  protest  against  all  rule-giving 
poetics.  Bruno  points  out  that  the  poet  is  not  made  by  rules,  but 
that  rules  are  made  from  the  poet's  practice,  —  a  position  not  dis- 
similar to  that  of  Croce  to-day.  Bruno  does  not,  however,  conceive 
the  possibility  of  underlying  laws,  psychological  and  economic,  of 
literary  development.  For  defenses  of  Aristotle  see  F.  Buonamici's 
Discorsi  poetici  (1597)  and  F.  Summo's  work  of  the  same  title 
(Padova:  1600).  Needless  to  say,  the  dogmatists  triumphed. 

Finally  was  started  the  Dante  controversy  by  Varchi,  who  in 
his  Ercolano  (1570)  praised  Dante  at  the  expense  of  Homer. 
J.  Mazzoni's  Difesa  di  Dante  (Cesena:  1573)  and  his  longer 
Delia  difesa  della  Commedia  di  Dante  (Cesena:  1587)  stand 
out  from  the  works  contributed  to  this  discussion  (see  Saintsbury, 
Hist.  Crit.,  2:  105;  Spingarn,  124,  Note).  Mazzoni  met  the 
common  charge  against  the  Divine  Comedy  —  that  it  lacks  the 
conventional  traits  of  the  epic  —  by  asserting  that  the  poem  is 
not  an  epic,  but  a  comedy.  For  further  notice  of  the  debate 
see  the  histories  of  Italian  literature. 

B.   The  Seventeenth  Century, 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  in,  B.  Blankenburg,  Quadrio,  Gayley 
and  Scott,  Saintsbury,  Foffano,  and  Belloni  are  helpful ;  especially 
valuable  are  pp.  82-94  of  Finsler's  work,  noted  above,  §  8. 

In  striking  contrast  to  the  critical  significance  of  the  previous 
century  this  period  offers  little  to  repay  the  drudgery  of  research. 
It  was  an  age  of  debased  taste  (on  the  Marinism  of  the  period  see 
above,  §  6,  vm,  G)  and  over-production,  of  conceit,  paradox,  and 
subtlety,  of  sensational  oddity  and  superficial  novelty.  On  the  super- 
abundance of  treatises  — •  of  critical  censure,  apology,  and  allegory, 
of  arts  of  poetry  and  aesthetic  essays  —  and  on  the  almost  total 
lack  in  these  of  originality,  acumen,  and  method,  see  Belloni. 
Only  a  few  typical  utterances  are  noted  here.  Further  material 
may  be  traced  in  the  references  given  above,  and  by  means  of 
the  references  to  lesser  Italian  critics  contained  in  the  notes  to 
Lib.  II  of  B.  Menzini's  DelPArte  poetica  (Firenze :  1688). 


528  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

We  may  omit  discussion  of  many  poetics  and  commentaries 
upon  Aristotle,  such  as  those  of  P.  Beni  (1613),  Giov.  Bern. 
Brandi,  Chiodino  da  Monte  Melone,  Horat.  Marta,  Cam.  Pelle- 
grino,  Giov.  Colle  Bellunese,  Celso  Zani,  Flav.  Querengo,  Loretto 
Mattei,  and  Ces.  Grazzini  (the  last  two  translators  of  Horace's 
Ars  Poetica ;  for  titles  of  these  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  /.  c.),  and 
note  briefly  a  form  of  criticism  brought  into  great  vogue  in  this 
century  by  Traiano  Boccalini.  His  Ragguagli  di  Parnaso  (1612) 
is  a  fantastic  allegorical  satire  upon  contemporary  politics  and 
literature.  Apollo  sits  in  judgment  upon  complaints  offered  by 
various  figures,  and  his  decisions  distribute  the  author's  criticisms, 
not  a  few  of  which  bear  in  a  light  way  upon  epical  writing.  This 
ornamental  method  of  attack  appealed  to  the  taste  of  the  period 
and  found  many  imitators  immediate  and  remote,  both  in  Italy 
and  elsewhere  (see  Belloni  for  imitations ;  cf.  G.  B.  Marches!, 
I  Ragguagli  di  Parnaso  e  la  critica  letteraria  nel  secolo  XVII,  in 
Giornale  storico,  27  :  78-93 ;  J.  E.  Spingarn,  Critical  Essays, 
vol.  I,  p.  xxiii  ff. ;  R.  Brotanek,  in  Archiv  fur  das  Studium  der 
neueren  Sprachen,  1903,  3:  409-414;  G.  Mestica,  T.  Boccalini 
e  la  letteratura  critica  e  politica  del  seicento,  Firenze :  1878). 

Among  the  chief  vocations  of  the  critics  of  the  age  was  the 
writing  of  essays  upon  the  Gerusalemme  Liberata  or  upon  Dante, 
—  for  the  most  part  Aristotelian  or  superficially  original.  A 
number  of  such  works  may  be  encountered  in  Belloni  and  Tira- 
boschi ;  early  in  the  century  (i  6 1 6)  appeared  P.  Beni's  commen- 
tary on  the  Gerusalemme. 

Perhaps  the  most  striking  example  of  the  critical  perversity  of 
the  century  was  its  depreciation  of  Homer.  As  far  back  as  Vida, 
to  be  sure,  Homer  had  been  slighted ;  and  the  quarrel  over 
the  Gerusalemme  Liberata  had  been  productive  of  anti-Homeric 
criticism.  But  how  all  this  was  exaggerated  into  Homerophobia. 
Paolo  Beni  (Comparazione  di  T.  Tasso  con  Homero  e  Virgilio, 
insieme  col  commento,  Padova :  1 6 1 6)  not  only  came  to  the 
defense  of  Tasso's  poem  and  theories,  but  proceeded  to  anathe- 
matize Homer  by  bell,  book,  and  candle.  The  '  book  '  in  this 


V,  B]  ITALIAN  529 

case  was  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle,  for  Beni  accepted  the  critical 
canons  of  the  ancients  and  turned  them  against  the  classics  them- 
selves,—  a  procedure  that  reminds  us  of  that  adopted  by  Tasso 
before  and  Addison  afterward.  Of  epic  poets  in  this  case  Tasso 
is  rated  the  highest,  then  Ariosto,  third  Virgil,  and  lowest  of  all, ' 
Homer.  For  Homer's  characters  are  unworthy,  wanting  in  piety; 
his  construction  lacks  unity  (cf.  Salviati's  Difesa)  and  his  episodes 
are  poorly  managed ;  his  style  is  disfigured  by  repetitions,  and 
his  story-telling  is  prolix  and  boresome.  Moreover,  Tasso's  epic 
is  superior  to  Virgil's  because  the  former  appeals  to  all  Italy, 
whereas  the  latter  appealed  to  Rome  only ;  superior  to  Homer's 
because  Tasso  depicted  the  happy  conclusion  of  war.  Ales- 
sandro  Tassoni  went  a  step  further  by  maintaining  the  supremacy 
of  the  moderns  in  all  poetic  kinds  except  tragedy  and  comedy 
(see  Lib.  IX,  Cose  poetiche,  istoriche  e  varie,  of  his  Pensieri 
diversi,  1612,  first  published  in  1601  as  Questioni  filosofiche ; 
in  Lib.  X,  Ingegni  antichi  e  moderni,  pp.  371—454  of  the  1646  ed., 
and  Cap.  XIV,  Poeti  antichi  e  moderni,  pp.  393-395,  he  divides 
poetry  into  its  kinds  and  comments  briefly  on  each).  The  utter 
rejection  of  Homer  was  accomplished  with  spectacular  superfici- 
ality by  Udeno  Nisieli  (i.e.  Benedetto  Fioretti)  in  his  Proginnasmi 
poetici  (5  vols.  Firenze:  1620-39).  A  devotee  of  Tasso  and 
scorner  of  Ariosto,  he  revolts  from  Aristotle  (cf.  Patrizzi  and 
Bruno),  and  pillories  the  Homeric  poems  as  examples  of  everything 
that  poetry  should  avoid.  Homer  is  for  him  the  consummate 
artistic  failure  of  antiquity.  With  these  utterances  may  be  com- 
pared Niccola  Villani's  critical  lucubrations,  especially  his  Conside- 
razioni  di  Messer  Fagiano  sopra  la  seconda  parte  dell'  Occhiale  del 
cav.  Stigliani,  in  which  are  included  (pp.  155-230)  various  obser- 
vations upon  Dante  (see  Cosmo,  Le  osservazioni  alia  Divina 
Commedia  di  Niccola  Villani,  Citta  di  Castello:  1894). 

C.   The  Eighteenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  in,  c.    Finsler,  Blankenburg,  Concari, 
and  Saintsbury  are  especially  helpful. 


530  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

During  this  century,  which  witnessed  the  revival  of  political 
and  spiritual  life  known  as  the  Risorgimento,  critical  taste  put 
away  Marinism,  and,  after  dallying  with  the  affected  pastoral 
simplicity  of  the  Arcadian  school  (cf.  above,  §  6,  vin,  H),  turned 
again  to  the  ancient  classics  for  instruction  and  inspiration.  Epic 
criticism  renewed  its  interest  in  Homer,  and  not  seldom  is  the 
Greek  poet,  contrary  to  the  taste  of  the  previous  century,  valued 
above  Virgil.  New  interest  also  is  shown  in  Dante.  The  details 
of  criticism  concern  epic  technique  in  general ;  the  construction 
of  the  '  fable '  and  the  probability  of  action  are  especially  favored 
themes.  The  propriety  of  introducing  gods  and  the  marvellous  is 
also  debated,  —  a  question  mooted  from  Scaliger  to  Perrault. 
The  greater  part  of  this  criticism  is  Aristotelian  in  derivation 
and  tendency,  though  the  student  will  find  some  critical  inde- 
pendence and  even  anti-Aristotelian  assertion.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  statement  of  the  Homeric  question  by  Vico,  the  antiquarianism 
of  Muratori,  and  the  prodigious  historical  performances  of  Tira- 
boschi  and  Quadrio  are  harbingers  of  modern  critical  method. 
Finally,  with  the  rise  of  the  '  natural '  school,  the  enthusiasm  for 
early  popular  poetry,  and  the  romantic  interest  in  Ossian  we  find 
ourselves  in  an  era  of  more  sympathetic  historical  perception  and 
deeper  philosophical  appreciation  of  the  nature  of  the  epos.  As 
a  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  the  epic  criticism  of  the  century  was 
purified  by  a  truer  classicism,  strengthened  by  an  historical  method, 
and  made  vital  by  romantic  appreciation. 

As  illustrative  of  these  tendencies  the  more  important  critics 
of  the  period  may  be  commented  upon  briefly.  The  works  of 
Crescimbeni  and  Baretti  —  concerned  with  the  Arcadians  —  have 
been  sufficiently  noted  above  (§  3,  in,  c).  They  are  more  impor- 
tant for  lyric  than  for  epic  criticism.  L.  A.  Muratori,  in  his 
Delia  perfetta  poesia  italiana,  etc.  (Modena:  1706),  bases  his 
epic  criticism  upon  the  poet's  office  in  presenting  a  poetic  or 
inner  reality  by  means  of  possible  and  probable  materials.  His 
adverse  criticism  of  Homer,  whom  nevertheless  he  admires,  and 
of  Ariosto  and  the  romantic  epic,  is  based  upon  their  use  of  the 


V,  C]  ITALIAN  531 

supernatural.  Tasso  is  the  greatest  epic  poet.  Dante  he  praises, 
but,  as  was  the  fashion,  blames  for  scholastic  pedantry  and 
obscurity.  G.  Gravina's  Delia  ragion  poetica  (Roma:  1708) 
is  noteworthy  for  its  protest  against  false  Aristotelianism  and 
its  critical  enthusiasm  for  the  older  poets.  "  Homer  he  places 
above  all  other  poets,  and  his  admiration  for  Dante,  to  whom  he 
devotes  several  chapters,  is  genuine.  But  the  cloven  hoof  appears 
in  his  strange  enthusiasm  for  Trissino."  Ariosto  is  rated  above 
Tasso.  Scaliger's  criticism  of  Homer  is  rejected.  Is  Gravina's 
contention  that  Aristotle's  rules  are  not  universally  valid  appli- 
cable to  Aristotle's  criticism  of  the  epic?  Consider  the  nature  of 
Gravina's  fundamental  poetic  principle  —  ragion,,  or  imitative  in- 
vention —  and  his  statement  that  Homer  is  the  greatest  poet 
because  he  is  most  natural  in  his  inventions.  Among  the  critical 
distinctions  for  which  Gravina  is  more  or  less  famous  may  be 
mentioned  his  assertion,  directed  against  former  critics,  that  the 
heroes  of  the  epic  should  be  neither  perfect  nor  thoroughly  bad, 
since  characters  are  naturally  neither.  In  his  insistence  upon  the 
moral  function  of  poetry  Gravina  is  not  at  his  best.  For  an 
interesting  comparison  of  Homer  and  Virgil  and  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  genius,  see  the  author's  De  Disciplina  Poetarum 
(1712).  Vico  (cf.  below,  §  n),  the  earliest  of  the  'higher 
critics'  of  Homer,  emphasized  the  historical  and  philosophical 
character  of  the  poet,  and  interpreted  myth  as  a  poetic  trans- 
formation of  history  by  religious  ideas.  In  the  Iliad  he  saw  an 
illustration  of  this  process.  He  detected  signs  that  led  him  to 
believe  that  the  Homeric  poems  belonged  to  different  ages,  and 
he  proceeded  to  question  the  traditional  authorship  of  the  poems. 
He  broached  the  highly  doubtful  theory  of  folk  authorship  of 
the  Homeric  epics.  But,  at  any  rate,  he  ^w  them  as  great 
social  poems,  summing  up  the  actual  ideals  of  the  heroic  age. 
And  in  this  idea  Vico  anticipated  the  central  conception  of 
modern  criticism  of  the  epos.  Vice's  utterances  are  scattered 
through  his  various  works.  Professor  Saintsbury  gives  the  chief 
loci  (Hist.  Crit,  3:  152-157;  see  especially  the  references  to 


532  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

the  De  Constantia  Jurisprudentis  (1721),  and  the  first  (1725) 
and  second  (1730)  editions  of  the  Scienza  nuova;  cf.  Flint's 
Vico,  Edinb.:  1884;  cf.  also  D'Aubignac  as  noted  below).  G.  C. 
Becelli's  work  (Delia  novella  poesia,  etc.,  Verona:  1732  ;  "for  the 
epic  see  Lib.  II,  Dante)  as  a  whole  is  an  exposition  of  the  nature 
of  original  Italian  poetry  as  distinguished  from  Italian  imitations 
of  the  classics.  The  romanzt,  thus  differentiated  from  the  Greek 
epos,  he  defends. 

Like  Gravina,  he  admired  Dante,  but  he  considered  him  to  be  far 
from  perfect,  and  hoped  that  Italian  poetry  would  ultimately  advance 
far  beyond  him.  This  growing  interest  in  the  great  Tuscan,  for  all  its 
limitations,  is  one  of  the  most  hopeful  signs  of  the  coming  revival. 
Appreciation  of  Dante  in  Italy,  like  that  of  Shakespeare  in  England, 
is  the  surest  test  of  the  healthiness  of  the  taste  of  the  day  (Collison- 
Morley,  p.  74). 

Scipione  Maffei  (Delle  traduzioni  italiane,  1736)  rates  Homer 
and  Virgil  as  the  great  masters  of  the  epic,  with  special  prefer- 
ence for  the  former ;  in  classical  hexameters,  free  of  rhyme,  he 
sees  a  natural,  vital  instrument  of  epic  expression.  For  Quadrio's 
great  literary  encyclopedia  (1739)  see  above,  §§  2,  8.  For  another 
defense  of  Homer  see  A.  M.  Ricci's  Dissertationes  Homericae 
(1740).  Among  the  papers  of  Antonio  Conti  (printed  in  1756) 
is  an  essay  De'fantasmi  poetici,  in  which  occur  some  acute  re- 
flections upon  the  proper  handling  of  the  marvellous.  S.  Betti- 
nelli's  forgotten  attack  upon  Dante  for  non-observance  of  epical 
'  rules,'  and  his  strange  preference  for  Pope's  Essay  on  Man  to 
the  Divina  Commedia,  are  in  the  once  famous  Lettere  dieci  di 
Virgilio  agli  Arcadi  (1757).  See  also  the  same  author's  Lettere 
inglesi,  which  contain  a  reply  to  Gasparo  Gozzi's  defense  of 
Dante,  Giudizio  dfgli  antichi  poeti  sopra  la  modema  censura  di 
Dante  (1758;  ed.  A.  Galassini,  Modena:  1893).  Though  Gozzi's 
defense  took  the  mistaken  course  of  defending  the  '  correctness ' 
of  Dante,  yet  it  marked  "  the  turning  of  the  tide,  and  henceforth 
Dante*  begins  to  take  his  proper  place  in  Italian  literature" 
(Collison-Morley,  79).  In  the  works  of  Melchior  Cesarotti 


V,  C]  ITALIAN  533 

some  surprisingly  good  criticism  exists  side  by  side  with  sur- 
prisingly blind  conclusions.  His  epic  criticism  suffers  primarily 
from  the  lack  of  clear  realization  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  epic 
age.  In  the  preface  to  his  translation  of  Ossian  (ist  ed.  1763; 
cf.  the  zd  ed.  1772^0  which  are  added  translations  of  Macpherson 
and  Blair  on  Ossian)  Fingal  and  Homer  are  compared,  and  to 
the  former  is  attributed  supremacy  in  sublimity,  tenderness,  imagi- 
nation, characterization.  Hence  Homer  cannot  serve  as  the  sole 
basis  for  epic  '  rules.'  Cesarotti's  vast  learning  is  apparent  in 
his  Homeric  studies,  consisting  of  prose  and  verse  translations 
of  the  Iliad  together  with  introductions  and  notes.  His  Storia 
della  riputazione  d'  Omero  is  valuable  for  purposes  of  research 
because  of  its  extensive  citation  of  ancient  and  modern  notices 
of  Homer.  Ifi  a  Storia  della  persona  e  delle  opere  d'  Omero  he 
rejects  Vico's  conception  of  folk  composition  and  D'Aubignac's 
theory  of  poetic  aggregation  on  grounds  of  aesthetic  unity  and 
effect,  using  arguments  similar  to  those  later  advanced  by  Andrew 
Lang  against  the  modern  German  school  of  Homeric  criticism. 
He  notices  Wood's  theory  (see  below,  §  12)  and  argues  against 
it  He  disagrees  with  Blackwell's  suggestion  that  Homer's  su- 
premacy was  due  to  a  favorable  environment,  holding  that  this 
supremacy  has  not  been  proved  and  that  other  and  far  different 
environments  have  produced  equally  great  epic  poets,  —  Ariosto, 
Tasso,  Voltaire,  and  Ossian.  Thus,  any  age  may  bring  forth  a 
Homer.  The  old  respect  for  Homer  as  the  source  of  the  arts 
and  of  ethics  is  ridiculed,  and  his  claim  to  distinction  is  based, 
rather,  on  his  position  as  father  of  the  epic.  In  Tiraboschi's 
great  Storia  della  letteratura  italiana  (13  vols.  Modena :  1771-82  ; 
2d  ed.  enlarged,  16  vols.,  1787-94)  is  much  material  a  propos  of 
the  Italian  epics.  Pietro  Metastasio's  Estratto  dell'  Arte  Poetica 
d'Aristotele  (1784;  written  earlier)  is  memorable  for  a  passage 
on  the  unity  of  the  Iliad  to  the  effect  that  after  all  there  are  no 
universally  applicable  rules  for  poetry,  but  that  experience  and 
sober  good-sense  must  often-  point  the  way.  In  another  of  the 
encyclopedic  works  of  the  age  —  Giovanni  Andres'  Dell'origine, 


534  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

progress!  e  stato  attuale  d'ogni  letteratura  (1785-1822)  —  the 
student  will  find  much  upon  the  epic  from  Homer  to  Klopstock. 
Here  again  Virgil  is  given  first  place ;  the  notices  of  Homer, 
Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  Virgil,  Ariosto,  Tasso,  et  al.  are  after 
the  usual  fashion  of  contemporary  criticism. 

D.  Nineteenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  in,  D.  There  is  no  satisfactory  guide 
to  the  epic  criticism  of  the  century.  Mazzoni,  Flamini,  and  Collison- 
Morley  are  most  helpful.  Finsler  mentions  only  Monti  and  Foscolo. 
In  Mazzoni  see  Chapters  HI,  VI,  VIII,  and  the  corresponding  biblio- 
graphical sections. 

The  criticism  of  this  century  is  primarily,  and  especially  from 
1860  on,  historical  and  psychological  in  character.  To  gain  an 
idea  of  the  definitions  of  the  epic,  of  the  function  and  technique 
of  the  epic  as  conceived  by  the  critics  of  the  period,  it  is  necessary 
to  glean  in  works  of  historical  criticism  (such  as  those  by  Pio 
Rajna,  Comparetti,  Bartoli,  D'  Ancona,  and  the  volumes  of  the 
Storia  letteraria  d'  Italia  scritta  da  una  societa  di  professori), 
and  in  the  numerous  collections  t>f  historical  and  appreciative 
essays,  great  in  number  and  very  varied  in  subject  (see  essays 
by  Mazzinj,  Tommaseo  (see  especially  his  Dell'epopea,  in  In- 
spirazione  e  arte,'  Firenze:  1858,  pp.  85-108),  Settembrini,  I)e 
Sanctis,  Monaci,  D'  Ovidio,  D'  Ancona,  Carducci,  Zumbini,  Arturo 
(Iraf,  et  <?/.).  Articles  on  Homer  by  Foscolo  and  Monti  may  be 
found  in  the  former's  Esperimento  di  traduzione  della  Iliade  di 
Omero  (1807).  —  Special  attention  must  of  course  be  paid  to  the 
great  Dante  literature  of  the  iQth  century.  The  multiplication 
of  editions,  commentaries,  and  dissertations  constitutes  the  main 
body  of  Italian  epic  criticism  —  historical  and  literary  —  of  the  j 
period.  Foscolo's  Discorso  sul  testo  della  Divina  Cornmedia 
(published  1842  by  Mazzini)  is  spoken  of  as  inaugurating  a  criti- 
cism "  at  last  worthy  of  the  thought  and  the  name  of  Dante." 
Foscolo  "  is  the  first  Italian,"  according  to  Collison-Morley,  "  to 
carry  out  Vice's  theory,  to  consider -a  work  of  art  as  a  psycho- 
logical phenomenon  and  look  for  its  motive  in  the  author's  mind 


VI,  A]  FRENCH  535 

and  surroundings"  (Mod.  Ital.  Lit.,  p.  172).  —  The  heterogeneous 
mass  of  criticism  in  the  literary  periodicals  (see  Appendix  for  a 
list)  must  also  be  sifted. 

Most  of  this  material,  because  of  its  predominantly  historical 
character,  is  noted  below,  §§  n,  12;  and  to  those  sections  the 
student  who  is  in  search  of  the  critical  opinion  of  this  age  must  turn. 

VI.  French. 

A.   To  the  Close  of  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

For  general  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  iv,  A,  B.  The  most  helpful 
accounts  of  epic  criticism  will  be  found  in  Spingarn,  Lit.  Crit.  in 
Renaissance,  ist  ed.,  pp.  210-213;  Finsler,  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit, 
pp.  119-138;  and  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit,  vol.  II,  Book  IV,  Chap.  IV. 
Quadrio  and  Blankenburg  offer  much  bibliographical  material. 

If  Scaliger's  work  belongs  to  Italian  rather  than  French  criticism, 
it  may  be  said  that  no  full,  detailed,  systematic  French  treatment 
•of  the  epic  is  to  be  found  previous  to  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  French  idea  of  the  epic,  even  as  late  as  Boileau,  is  vague 
and  general,  —  a  long  narrative,  upon  a  great,  poetic  scale,  of 
significant  events.  —  The  beginnings  of  Gallic  criticism  — formal 
observations  upon  versification,  known  as  the  Seconde  Rhetorique 
—  have  already  been  noted  (see  above,  §  3,  iv,  A).  For  the  epic 
attitude  of  the  school  immediately  preceding  the  Pleiade  see 
pp.  Ivii-lxix  of  Pellissier's  introduction  to  his  edition  of  Vauquelin 
de  la  Fresnaye's  Art  Poetique  (Paris  :  1885). 

Not  until  the  classical  renaissance  of  the  Pleiade  (cf.  above, 
§  6,  vii,  G)  do  we  come  upon  significant  notices  of  the  epic.  Part 
of  the  object  of  this  school  was  the  imitation  of  the  classical- 
genres,  and  nothing  was  more  coveted  by  its  adherents  than  a 
French  poem  built  upon  the  classical  epic  model.  Joachim  Du 
Bellay  in  his  La  deffence  et  illustration  de  la  langue  fran9oyse 
(1549,  Bk.  II,  Chap.  V,  Du  long  poeme  francoys;  critical  ed. 
by  H.  Chamard,  Paris:  1904;  cf.  the  CEuvres  completes,  ed. 
Leon  Seche',  2  vols.,  Paris:  1903-07,  vol.  I,  p.  53  ff.),  which 
was  the  manifesto  of  the  school,  desiderates  a  French  Iliad  and 
Aeneid  of  the  deeds  of  Lancelot,  Tristan,  and  other  heroes  of 


536  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

romance.  His  conception  of  Homer,  however,  is  quite  uncritical 
and  unhistorical.  There  is  nothing  of  value  in  the  fipistre  au 
Seigneur  Jean  de  Morel  (1552)  placed  at  the  head  of  Du  Bellay's 
translation  of  two  books  of  the  Aeneid ;  it  may  be  found  in  the 
CEuvres  choisies,  ed.  L.  Seche,  Paris:  1894.  Jacques  Pelletier 
du  Mans,  in  a  vague  chapter  on  the  epic,  which  should  be  com- 
pared with  Vida's  utterances,  ranks  this  as  the  greatest  of  literary 
kinds,  as  the  ocean  in  comparison  to  which  other  types  are  rivers. 
Note  also  his  adverse  criticism  of  Ariosto,  and  a  comparison  of 
Homer  and  Virgil  which  follows  the  general  line  of  Italian  Virgil- 
worship  and  depreciation  of  Homer.  See  the  second  book  of 
Pelletier 's  Art  Poetique  (1555),  in  the  GEuvres  poetiques  de 
Pelletier,  ed.  Leon  Seche  (Paris:  1904).  Riicktaschl  summa- 
rizes Pelletier  upon  the  epic,  p.  18  of  his  Einige  Arts  poe- 
tiques, etc.  (Leipz. :  1889).  See  also  the  preface,  Au  Tres 
Chrestien  Roy,  etc.,  to  Pelletier's  translations  from  the  Odyssey- 
(1547)  ;  cf.  the  Homeric  translations  of  Hugues  Salel  (1545)  and 
Amadis  Jamyn  (1574),  for  which  see  Finsler.  In  good  time 
Ronsard  wrote  the  epic  desired  by  his  '  Brigade,'  and  it  was 
hailed  as  a  masterpiece.  But  the  chief  of  the  Pleiade  had  no 
reasoned  theory  of  the  epic.  He  conceived  it  as  a  long,  martial 
poem  narrating  renowned  events  of  a  somewhat  remote  past, 
with  an  action  lasting  not  more  than  one  year.  In  the  prefaces 
to  his  epic,  La  Franciade,  1572,  1587  (see,  for  the  second  preface, 
vol.  Ill,  pp.  7-39,  of  the  CEuvres  Completes,  ed.  P.  Blanchemain, 
8  vols.,  Paris:  1857-67),  he  discusses  for  the  most  part  minor 
points  of  diction,  metre,  style,  and  subject,  everywhere  avowing 
himself  an  imitator  of  Virgil.  Compare  the  praise  of  Homer  in 
the  earlier  preface.  See  especially  pp.  19,  20-21,  23,  27,  ed. 
cited,  for  his  broader  ideas.  For  full  justice  to  the  prefaces  see 
Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit,  2:  122-125;  on  Ronsard's  work,  Brune- 
tiere,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  classique,  I,  2d  part  (Paris:  1905),  and 
references  above,  §6,  vn,  G.  In  1573  'divine'  Du  Bartas 
published  his  Judith,  an  epical  version  of  the  Apocryphal  story, 
with  a  preface  in  which  he  proclaims  his  desire  to  imitate  Virgil 


VI,  A]  FRENCH  537 

and  Homer.  In  1578  appeared  his  La  Sepmaine  ou  Creation 
du  Monde,  which  became  extremeh/  popular  (for  influence  upon 
English  letters,  see  A.'  H.  Upham,  French  Influence  in  English 
Literature,  Chap.  IV).  In  1583  appeared  a  portion  of  another 
Sepmaine.  Du  Bartas  was- a  follower  of  the  Ple'iade  in  matters 
of  style  and  in  the  general  aim  of  importing  the  classical  types 
into  French  literature,  but  he  was  dissatisfied  with  the  pagan 
subjects  of  ancient  epic.  His  utterances  to  this  effect  and  his 
remarks  upon  the  machinery  of  a  Christian  epic  (see  the  prefaces) 
constitute  a  slight  variation  from  the  general  run  of  the  Brigade's 
epic  notices.  Study  of  the  enthusiastic  reception  of  Du  Bartas' 
work  and  of  the  later  reaction  against  it,  when  it  came  to  be 
regarded,  because  of  its  stylistic  excesses,  as  a  typical  product 
of  the  exaggerated  taste  of  the  Pleiade,  will  help  to  render  vivid 
and  realistic  the  criticism  of  this  century.  For  an  interesting 
eulogy  from  Spontanus,  the  commentator  on  Homer,  see  Finsler, 
p.  131  ;  further  guidance  may  be  found  in  Petit  de  Julleville, 
Tilley's  Lit.  of  .the  French  Renaissance,  and  G.  Pellissier's  La 
vie  et  les  ceuvres  de  Du  Bartas  (1883).  Vauquelin  de  la 
Fresnaye  (L'Art  Poetique,  begun  in  1574,  but  not  published 
until  1605)  glorifies  Homer  and  Virgil  (I,  u,  413  ff.),  giving 
Virgil  first  place  (II,  297)  as  was  the  habit  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  remarks  upon  the  inclusiveness  of  epic  subject-matter, 
goes  into  details  like  Ronsard,  labors  under  the  usual  moral 
misconception  (II,  465.  Cf.  Horace,  Ep.  I,  ii),  believes  epic 
covers  all  other  kinds,  comments  upon  the  supernatural,  and 
concludes  with  some  saws  upon  epic  metre.  See  also  II,  87  ff. 
(cf.  Horace,  136-142;  Vida,  II,  30  ff.;  Boileau,  III,  268  ff.), 
253  (unity  of  time  as  one  year,  cf.  Ronsard,  Aristotle,  v,  3,  and 
Voltaire  as  cited  above,  under  §  8),  and  289  ff.  Rucktaschl 
gives  (p.  29)  the  substance  of  Pierre  de  Laudun  on  the  epic 
(from  L'Art  poetique  frangais,  1598).  On  Scaliger,  who  intro- 
duced the  Aristotelian  conception  of  the  epic  into  French  criticism, 
and  whose  Poetics  (1561)  was  published  in  France,  see  above,  v, 
under  Italian  criticism  of  the  epic ;  also  above,  §  8. 


538  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

B.   The  Seventeenth  Century. 

For  references  on  the  trend  of  poetics  in  this  period,  including  the 
"  Ancient  and  Modern  Quarrel,"  see  above,  §  3,  iv,  c.  Vial  and  Denise 
are  of  particular  aid  in  tracing  epic  criticism,  but  Finsler  (pp.  1 49-2 1 2) 
and  Blankenburg  offer  the  most  comprehensive  assistance.  On  the  mania 
for  epic  writing  that  distinguished  the  century,  and  for  critical  material 
contained  in  the  prefaces  to  these  epics,  see  J.  Duchesne,  Histoire  des 
poemes  e*piques  frangais  du  I7e  siecle  (Paris  :  1870  ;  noted  below,  §  1 1), 

and  below,  §  1 2,  v,  E. 

• 

Since  French  writers  of  this  century  were  devoted  to  the 
manufacture  of  epic  poems  (see  below,  §  12,  v,  E),  they  were 
naturally  curious  concerning  the  '  rules '  of  epic  composition. 
Needless  to  say  the  pseudo-classicism  of  the  period  conceived 
the  nature  of  the  epic  in  a  formal,  conventional,  and  thoroughly 
unhistorical  spirit.  The  peculiar  social  and  national  relations  or 
functions  of  the  epic,  its  expressiveness  of  a  certain  stage  of 
civilization,  and  its  unique  methods  of  growth  were  not  recognized 
as  differentiating  it  from  other  narrative  poems.,  It  was  still  re- 
garded as  a  long  dignified  verse  narrative,  dealing  largely  with  the 
marvellous,  and  deriving  its  subject  from  remote  antiquity,  or  from 
more  modern  history  mixed  with  fiction.  Critics  still  commonly 
believed,  following  or  at  least  misinterpreting  a  suggestion  in 
Horace,  that  the  ancient  epics  were  undertaken  as  a.  means  of 
moral  and  patriotic  teaching,  and  that  the  fictions  of  the  gods 
were  intended  as  allegories  for  the  pleasanter  conveyance  of  this 
teaching.  Under  the  influence  of  these  conceptions,  Chapelain, 
Scudery,  Desmarets,  Le  Moyne,  and  Perrault  concocted  in  the 
library  monotonous,  stilted,  highly  artificial,  and  prolix  poems  with 
which  they  vainly  and  naively  hoped  to  rival  the  Iliad. 

In  these  umbratic  endeavors  academic  talent  welcomed  the  aid 
of  specific  rules  and  recipes.  French  criticism  now  profited  not 
only  from  its  acquaintance  with  Horace  and  a  fairly  intimate 
knowledge  of  Aristotle,  but  also  from  extensive  study  of  the 
Italian  critics  of  the  previous  century.  Scaliger's  Poetics  exerted 
a  definite,  direct,  and  commanding  influence.  And  hence  it  is  that 


VI,  B]  FRENCH  539 

the  French  epic  criticism  of  the  ijth  century  is  more  concerned 
with  large  questions  of  style,  subject,  plot,  unities,  character, 
decorum,  and  machinery  than  was  the  previous  century.  Here 
as  elsewhere  the  propriety  of  employing  Christian  marvels  was 
debated.  And  pagan  marvels  —  gods  and  their  miracles  —  should 
they  be  used  in  Christian  epics  ?  To  such  discussions  the  Ancient 
and  Modern  Quarrel  added  the  question  of  the  possibility  of  tran- 
scending in  modern  times  the  achievements  of  Homer  and  Virgil. 

This  formal  criticism  appears  at  its  best  in  Boileau,  and  in  its 
extreme  (not  seldom  of  absurdity)  in  Le  Bossu.  Their  work  stands 
at  the  height  of  the  French  '  classical '  theory  of  the  epic.  Boileau's 
attempt  to  ground  the  rule  and  recipe,  drawn  from  the  practice 
of  the  ancients,  in  reason  and  in  the  very  nature  of  poetry,  as  well 
as  his  caustic  denunciation  of  the  contemporary  epics,  especially 
that  of  Chapelain,  is,  indeed,  of  high  importance.  To  be  sure  his 
objection  to  contemporary  epics  grew  largely  from  his  objection  to 
the  use  of  Christian  machinery  (God,  Satan,  archangels,  demons, 
etc.) ;  nevertheless,  here,  as  in  all  his  criticism,  Boileau  displayed 
a  balance  of  judgment  and  a  measure  of  common  sense  that  were 
liberative  if  not  inspiring. 

The  formalism  of  the  age  utters  itself  (cf.  the  previous  century 
and  the  corresponding  period  in  Italian  criticism)  most  blatantly 
in  frequent  objections  to  the  barbarism  and  indecorum  of  Homer. 
Some  believed  that  Homer's  culinary  realism  and  his  vulgar  refer- 
ences to  the  lower  animals  were  to  be  attributed  in  part  to  the 
roughness  of  his  age.  Bayle  and  Saint-fivremond  thought  that 
had  Homer  lived  in  a  more  refined  society — such  as  their  own  — 
he  would  have  produced  a  '  far  more  perfect '  poem  1  Boileau, 
however,  and  others,  including  Mercier  at  the  end  of  the  next 
century,  averred  that  French  critics  failed  to  appreciate  Homer 
because  they  read  him  in  very  poor  translations. 

Perhaps  the  most  original  criticism  was  that  which  aimed  to 
distinguish  the  epic  from  the  novel  (romari)  —  see  Scudery  and 
Huet.  And,  whatever  suggestions  he  may  have  received  from 
the  Italians,  Chapelain's  clear  doctrine  of  the  limits  of  Aristotle's 


540  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

epic  criticism  was  both  sane  and  progressive.  Here,  as  in  Italy 
and  England,  the  theory  of  the  epic  begins  to  be  original  when 
a  critic  attempts  to  compare  classical  '  rules '  with  the  practice 
of  the  new  narrative  types  of  romance  and  novel. 

The  critical  work  of  Le  Bossu  and  the  '  epic '  poem  of  Chapelain 
may  be  said  to  mark  the  high  tide  of  pseudo-classical  epic  theory. 
The  next  century  witnessed  the  ebb  of  that  tide.  But  coincident 
with  the  climax  of  this  formalism  arose  a  new  method  of  criticism. 
This,  the  historical,  took  the  form  of  questioning  the  validity  of 
the  tradition  of  Homeric  authorship  and  of  attempting  to  frame 
hypotheses  of  multiple  authorship,  bardic  invention,  oral  trans- 
mission, later  reduction  to  written  form,  collection  of  separate 
lays  into  epic  aggregates,  etc.  While  the  historical  methods  of 
Bacon  and  Descartes  were  making  their  way  and  substituting 
for  the  old  theological  dogma  of  original  perfection  the  new 
idea  of  progress  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  the  less  to 
the  more  perfect,  literary  criticism  was  beginning  to  turn  from 
the  dogmatic  formality  of  pseudo-classicism  to  revolutionary 
speculations  about  literary  growth,  epic  development,  variety  of 
authorship.  To  be  sure  the  new  critical  activity  had  its  inception 
in  a  specific  query  about  Homer,  and  was  not  generalized  into 
a  theory  of  epic  evolution  until  later.  But  the  utterances  of 
Rapin,  Perrault,  and  Boileau  upon  the  Homeric  question,  and  the 
famous  Conjectures  of  D'Aubignac  (written  by  1664;  published 
1715)  were  the  forerunners  of  modern  historical  criticism.  And 
perhaps  it  may  be  maintained  that  in  a  way  the  quarrel  of  the 
Ancients  and  Moderns  was  a  medium  by  which  the  new  philos- 
ophy of  progress  and  the  new  spirit  of  historical,  inductive  inquiry 
found  their  way  into  poetic  criticism.  For  it  was  in  support  of  the 
Moderns'  attempt  to  show  the  progress  of  modern  beyond  ancient 
art  that  D'Aubignac  wrote  and  that  Perrault  in  his  Parallele  attacked 
the  Homeric  tradition,  suggesting  that  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were 
but  a  heap  of  smaller  poems  put  together  at  a  late  period.  In 
such  polemic  the  newer  criticism  was  born.  While  formalism  ebbed 
historical  criticism  set  toward  its  far  later  flood-tide. 


VI,  B]  FRENCH  541 

The  references  on  the  Homeric  question  have  been  placed 
below,  §  12,  under  the  historical  treatment  of  the  epic.  At  this 
point  we  may  add  references  to  some  of  the  more  important 
works  of  formal  criticism  that  appeared  during  the  century. 

For  indiscriminate  praise  of  Ronsard  and  the  Franciade,  see  Book  VIII 
( 1 61 1  ?),  Chaps.  VI I,  XI,  of  Etienne  Pasquier's  Les  recherches  de  la  France 
(Paris:  1560  +  ).  Antoine  Godeau,  in  a  Discours  de  la  poesie  chres- 
tienne  (1635),  urges  the  use  of  scriptural  themes.  Pierre  Mambrun's 
De  Poemate  Epico  (Dissertatio  Peripatetica  de  Epico  Carmine),  published 
in  1652,  is  a  quaint,  typical  expression  of  pseudo-classical  naiVete"  and 
Aristotelianism.  For  a  summary  of  Mambrun's  delectations  see  Saints- 
bury,  Hist.  Crit,  2 :  266-268 ;  cf.  Irving  Babbitt,  The  New  Laokoon 
(N.Y. :  1910),  pp.  3,  21,  74  ff.  On  Le  Pere  Le  Moyne's  Traite  du 
poeme  hero'ique,  prefixed  to  his  Saint-Louis  (1653),  see  Sulzer,  op.  cit. 
§  8,  vol.  II,  pp.  505-507.  M.  A.  de  Saint-Amant  in  the  preface  to 
the  Moyse  sauve*  (1653)  differentiates  his  poem,  which  he  modestly  calls  an 
heroic  idyl,  from  the  epic  as  regards  subject  and  unity.  G.  de  Scudery's 
preface  to  Alaric  (1654)  is  one  of  the  most  orderly  and  readable  of  the 
notices  of  the  time.  The  critic  relies,  as  he  tells  us,  on  Aristotle  and 
Horace,  and  after  them  on  Macrobius,  Scaliger,  Tasso,  Castelvetro, 
Piccolomini,  Vida,  Vossius,  Pazzi,  Riccoboni,  Robortelli,  Paolo  Beni, 
Mambrun,  et  al.,  as  well  as  upon  all  the  great  epics  themselves  as 
models.  See  also  the  preface  to  Ibrahim,  ou  1'illustre  Bassa  (1641), 
written  by  Mile.  Scudery,  but  published  under  the  name  of  her  brother. 
In  this  preface  there  is  a  hint  of  such  a  differentiation  of  the  unity  of 
the  novel  (romari)  and  the  epic  as  is  found  in  Kurd's  Letters  on  Chivalry 
and  Romance  (see  below,  vn,  c).  Compare  Huet,  below.  H.  Racan's 
Lettre  a  Chapelain  touchant  la  poesie  hdro'ique,  Oct.  25,  1654,  gives  a 
touch  of  the  more  intimate  criticism  of  the  time.  Cf.  L.  Arnould,  Racan 
(Paris:  1896).  The  criticism  of  Jean  Chapelain  is  of  considerable 
importance.  In  the  preface  to  La  Pucelle  (1656)  the  departure  from 
precedent  in  choosing  a  heroine  as  the  subject  of  an  epic  poem  is 
defended  at  some  length  (cf .  Le  Moyne  on  this  point) ;  in  briefer  form 
the  author  treats  of  his  avoidance  of  the  magical  elements  in  the  old 
romantic  forms  of  the  story,  and  of  his  attempt  to  follow  Virgil's  clear- 
ness and  sanity  of  judgment  in  style  and  general  treatment.  Boileau's 
criticism  of  La  Pucelle,  in  the  burlesque  Chapelain  ddcoiffe",  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  added  to  the  theory  of  the  epic.  The  student  should 
also  consult  the  preface  to  Les  douze  derniers  chants  du  poeme  de 
La  Pucelle  (Ed.,  H.  Herluison  and  R.  Kerviler.  Orleans:  1882).  In 


542  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

La  lecture  des  vieux  romans  (Ed.,  A.  Feillet.  Paris:  1870),  Chapelain 
shows  to  most  advantage.  He  observes  that  Aristotle's  Poetics  is  in 
many  ways  foreign  to  the  manners  and  ideas  of  the  age  of  the  romances, 
and  that  therefore  an  accommodation  of  the  one  to  the  other  is  necessary. 
A  hint  of  the  same  idea  occurs  in  the  preface  to  La  Pucelle.  In  this 
way  Chapelain's  knowledge  of  the  old  French  romances  —  a  knowledge 
very  rare  for  his  age  —  resulted  in  a  recognition  of  those  limits  to 
Aristotle's  criticism  that  Castelvetro  and  Cintio  (see  above,  §  8,  under 
Pigna)  had  already  observed.  One  must  remember,  however,  that 
Chapelain  was  well  acquainted  with  his  Castelvetro,  and  with  Italian 
criticism  in  general,  and  that  he  well  may  have  got  his  ideas  from  them, 
rather  than  from  the  romances  themselves.  At  any  rate,  his  copious 
reading  of  the  romances  must  have  made  him  aware  of  the  justness 
of  the  Italian's  observation.  Indeed,  he  goes  so  far  as  to  aver  that  the 
chief  difference  between  Homer  and  the  Lancelot  is  one  of  expression 
and  style  only.  His  treatment  of  the  marvellous  is  also  worthy  of  notice. 
For  the  rest  of  Chapelain's  criticism  of  the  epic  see  the  Discours  sur 
le  poeme  epique,  which  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  1623  edition 
of  Marini's  Adone  (Ed.,  Bovet,  in  Aus  roman.  Sprachen  und  Lit., 
Festgabe  f.  H.  Morf.  Halle:  1905),  and  which  maintained  that  Marini 
had  discovered  a  new  type  of  epic,  —  the  epic  of  a  peaceful  age  (for 
summary  see  Finsler,  155-157).  Chapelain's  Lettres  (Ed.,  Tamizey  de 
Lorroque.  Paris :  1 880-83)  may  be  consulted  for  a  general  view  of  the 
criticism  of  the  time,  as  may  also  the  letters  of  J.  Guez  de  Balzac 
(CEuvres,  1665).  Compare  Bourgoin,  as  above,  and  Saintsbury,  Hist. 
Grit,  2:  257-261.  The  critical  works  of  J.  Desmarets  de  Saint-Sorlin 
to  be  considered  are:  the  Avis  to  Clovis  (1657);  Esther,  Epitre  au 
Roi  ( 1 670) ;  La  comparaison  de  la  langue  et  de  la  poe'sie  f ranc,aise  avec 
la  grecque  et  la  latine,  et  des  poetes  grecs,  latins  et  fran$ais  (1670); 
Disc,  pour  prouver  que  les  sujets  chre'tiens  sont  les  seuls  propres  a  la 
poe'sie  hdroique  (1673);  La  defense  du  poeme  hdroique  (1674).  In  the 
Avis  to  Clovis,  the  roman  and  the  epic  are  differentiated  according  to 
their  employment  of  the  marvellous,  and  it  is  pointed  out  that  though 
the  subject  of  the  epic  may  be  taken  from  history,  the  poet  is  not  an 
historian,  but  the  master  of  time  rather  than  its  scribe.  The  Defense 
and  the  Epitre  agree  with  Scuddry  and  Ch.  Perrault  in  defending  the 
use  of  Christian  marvels.  See  Boileau  to  the  contrary.  The  defense  of 
the  Christian  epic  is  conducted  at  length  in  the  Traite"  pour  juger  des 
poetes  grecs,  latins  et  franc,ais4(a  revision  of  the  Comparaison  of 
1670),  which  may  be  found  appended  to  the  3d  ed.  of  the  Clovis. 
See  especially  §§  xi,  xii,  xvi-xviii,  xxii,  xxix,  xxx,  xxxiii.  Desmarets' 


VI,  B]  FRENCH  543 

espousal  of  the  cause  of  the  Moderns  and  his  fault-finding  with  the 
Ancients  (see  §§  xi  and  xii  of  the  last  reference),  his  strong  advocacy 
of  Christian  subjects  against  the  pagan  '  matters '  (cf.  Tasso),  and  his 
actual  performance  in  the  epic,  make  him  one  of  the  most  important 
contributors  to  the  epic  criticism  of  the  time.  With  Desmarets'  slash- 
ing of  Homer  and  Virgil  compare  Tassoni,  Beni,  and  Rapin.  M.  de 
Marolles,  Traite  du  poeme  epique  (1662),  —  unattainable  by  the  authors. 
In  1 662  Racine  wrote  certain  Remarques  sur  1'Odyssde  d'Homere,  which 
were  not  published  until  1825  (see  the  GEuvres,  Paris:  1888,  VI,  56). 
For  an  excellent  appraisal  of  Racine's  appreciation  of  Homer  —  re- 
garded by  many  as  the  truest  appreciation  of  the  century  -*-  see  Finsler, 
pp.  152-154.  Note  particularly  Racine's  love  of  Homer's  simplicity  and 
his  defense  of  the  "  vulgar  and  common  "  in  the  Odyssey,  —  a  defense 
based  on  false  grounds  to  be  sure,  but  nevertheless  in  striking  and  re- 
freshing contrast  to  that  narrow  prudery  of  the  period  which  repeatedly 
accused  Homer  of  coarseness  and  lack  of  decorum  (cf.  Desmarets, 
Perrault,  Lamotte,  et  al.).  From  J.  R.  de  Segrais'  preface  to  his 
Traduction  de  1'findide  (1668)  Dryden  borrowed  in  writing  his  Dedica- 
tion of  the  Aeneis  (1697).  P.  D.  Huet,  in  the  first  part  of  his  De 
1'origine  des  romans  (prefixed  to  the  'Zayde  of  de  Segrais  and  the 
Comtesse  de  Lafayette,  1670),  distinguished  the  epic  from  the  romance 
as  regards  subject  and  manner  of  treatment.  Clara  Reeve  has  expressed 
her  opinion  of  the  treatise  in  these  words  of  Shakespeare  :  "  His  remarks 
are  two  grains  of  wheat  in  two  bushels  of  chaff,  you  shall  search  for 
them  a  whole  day,  and  when  you  have  found  them  they  are  not  worth 
your  labor  "  (Progress  of  Romance,  p.  91).  For  N.  Boileau-Despre"aux, 
his  L'Art  poe"tique  (1674),  and  his  other  critical  works  —  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  period  —  see  above,  §  8.  Cf.  V.  Delaporte,  L'art 
poe'tique  de  Boileau  comment^  par  ses  contemporains  (Lille:  1888). 
R.  Rapin  (1674):  see  above,  §8,  and  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  433. 
R.  P.  Le  Bossu  (1675):  see  above,  §  8.  C.  de  La  Rue  put  out  an 
annotated  edition  of  Virgil  in  1675,  etc.;  this  is  the  Ruaeus  whom 
Dryden  accused  of  using  Pontanus  without  proper  acknowledgment. 
A.  Dacier's  Remarques  critiques  sur  les  CEuvres  d'Horace,  avec  une 
nouvelle  traduction  (7  vols.  Paris:  1683-1697)  may  be  searched  for 
remarks  upon  epic  poetry  as  well  as  other  types.  Bernard  de 
Fontenelle  (Dialogues  des  morts  anciens,  1683,  Dialogue  V,  Homere, 
fisope)  ridicules  the  mystical  and  allegorical  interpretation  of  Homer, — 
a  sane  utterance  in  the  midst  of  a  mania.  In  his  -  Digression  sur  les 
Anciens  et  les  Modernes  (1688),  Fontenelle,  as  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the 
Moderns,  contends  that  in  the  ordonnance  of  the  epic  poem  the  Moderns 


544  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

may  yet  surpass  Virgil ;  "  and  our  romances,  which  are  poems  in  prose, 
already  make  us  aware  of  the  possibility."  Again,  repeating  a  common 
idea  of  the  Moderns,  he  observes  that  modern  poets  have  an  advantage 
over  Homer  because  they  can  profit  by  the  rules  of  the  epic  laid  down 
since  his  performance,  and  because  the  licenses  of  the  poet  have  been 
much  restricted  in  the  interests  of  a  purer  taste.  See  the  CRuvres 
Diverses,  3  vols.,  1728,  vol.  II,  pp.  132,  135.  For  the  relation  of  the 
roman  to  the  epic,  see  the  Description  de  1'empire  de  la  poesie,  1678, 
vol.  IX,  p.  269,  of  the  12-vol.  ed.  of  the  CEuvres,  Amsterdam:  1764. 
On  Fontenelle  see  L.  Maigron,  Fontenelle  (Paris:  1906),  pp.  180-213. 
A.  Baillet's  Jugements  des  savants  sur  les  principaux  ouvrages  des 
auteurs  (1685-86)  is  an  interesting  compilation,  including  critical 
opinions  of  various  epics.  The  Abbe  Dominique  Bouhours,  in  his 
La  maniere  de  bien  penser  dans  les  ouvrages  d'esprit  (1687-88 ;  ist  ed. 
1 683  ?),  contributes  nothing  to  the  criticism  of  literary  kinds,  but  may 
be  consulted  for  short  general  criticisms  of  Homer,  Virgil,  Tasso,  and 
Ariosto  (see  Index).  In  the  first  dialogue  the  relations  of  truth  and  fiction, 
especially  in  the  epic,  are  briefly  discussed  (pp.  10-12;  cf.  also  pp.  138, 
184,  185.  Refs.  to  the  second  ed.,  1688).  One  may  compare  G.  G.  Orsi, 
Considerazioni  sopra  La  Maniera  di  ben  pensare  nei  componimenti  gia 
pubblicata  dal  P.  Bouhours  (Modena:  1745);  G.  Doncieux,  Un  je'suite 
homme  de  lettres:  le  Pere  Bouhours  (Paris:  1886).  An  English  trans- 
lation of  Bouhours'  work  (The  Art  of  Criticism,  etc.,  "  by  a  person  of 
quality  ")  appeared  in  London,  1 705.  Bossuet's  utterances  upon  the 
epic  —  his  keen  appreciation  of  Homer,  his  realization  that  the  Homeric 
gods  were  religious  realities  rather  than  allegorical  figures,  his  statement 
that  Homer's  poetry  was  to  Greece  what  the  stories  of  Jehovah  and  his 
angels  were  to  the  Hebrews,  his  opposition  to  the  employment  of  pagan 
deities  in  modern  epics,  and  his  adumbration  of  a  glorious  Christian  epic 
—  may  be  traced  by  means  of  the  references  collected  by  J.  Duchesne, 
Hist,  des  poemes  e"piques  frangais  du  17°  siecle  (Paris:  1870),  p.  305. 
Perrault's  Saint-Paulin  is  a  painful  anti-climax  to  the  great  sen- 
tences in  which  Bossuet  sketches  the  epic  glories  of  the  Christian 
faith.  Charles  Perrault,  the  other  chief  of  the  Moderns,  argues  for  the 
supremacy  of  modern  poetry  and  defends  the  use  of  Christian  marvels. 
See  his  famous  Paralleles  des  Anciens  et  des  Modernes  (1688-98) 
and  the  Epitre  dddicatoire  a  Bossuet  of  his  Saint-Paulin  (1686).  On 
Perrault  and  others  in  the  Ancient  and  Modern  battle  see  the  references 
given  at  the  head  of  this  division.  The  list  of  pamphlets  is  long,  the 
results  of  research  meagre.  In  Jean  Le  Clerc's  Parrhasiana  (1699) 
is  a  reply  to  Le  Bossu  and  others  who  maintained  the  didactic  aim  of 


VI,  C]  FRENCH  545 

the  epic.  Le  Clerc,  like  Plato,  objected  to  the  moral  improprieties 
of  Homer,  and  asserted  that  the  epic  poets  made  a  practice  of  teaching 
morality  only  so  far  as  it  might  serve  as  poetic  embellishment.  The 
work  of  Saint-Evremond  is  noted  above,  §  8. 

C.   The  Eighteenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  on  the  general  trend  of  criticism  see  above,  §  3,  iv,  D. 
Blankenburg  and  Vial-Denise  are  of  particular  aid  in  tracing  criticism 
of  the  epic ;  Finsler  is  still  the  chief  guide  for  Homeric  criticism.  On 
the  Ancient  and  Modern  Quarrel  see  above,  §  3,  iv,  c. 

In  the  eighteenth  century  the  student  will  observe  the  further 
ebb  of  pseudo-classic  formalism,  and  the  gradual  rise,  under  the 
influence  of  historical  criticism  and  Rousseau's  return-to-nature 
movement,  of  a  more  natural*  and  unaffected  appreciation  of.  the 
national  epics  of  antiquity,  especially  of  the  simplicity  of  Homer 
(cf.  Finsler,  p.  241).  Epic  criticism  is  ushered  in  by  a  recrudes- 
cence of  the  Ancient  and  Modern-  Quarrel,  —  the  Lamotte-Dacier 
controversy  on  the  merits  of  the  classical  ideal  as  represented  by 
Homer.  The  old  charges  of  barbarism,  lack  of  decorum  and 
propriety,  inconsequence  of  plot,  monotony  of  style,  etc.,  are 
reiterated,  and  repelled  with  much  abuse  of  the  allegers  (see 
Mme.  Dacier).  The  defense  involves,  to  be  sure,  not  only  the 
old  allegorical  explaining-away  of  defects,  but  even  stranger 
interpretations,  such  as  those  of  Pere  Hardouin  —  which  we 
shall  meet  later.  It  is,  however,  replete  with  sincere,  passionate 
enjoyment  of  Homeric  poetry:  the  very  abandon  is  a  sign  of 
critical  change.  There  developed  from  the  quarrel  a  conviction 
that  the  nature  of  the  epic  must  vary  with  changes  in  social 
and  national  conditions,  and  that,  therefore,  the  formal  '  rules ' 
must  give  way  to  new  principles  born  of  new  times.  Declarations 
of  aesthetic  independence  of  the  Regelzwang  began  to  be  plentiful, 
and  there  was  almost  a  tendency  to  make  mere  expressiveness  the 
test  of  poetic  excellence  (see"  Boivin,  Dubos,  and  others).  With 
Voltaire,  Dubos,  and  Marmontel  the  break  with  Le  Bossu  and 
the  pseudo-classic  conception  of  the  epic  widened..  They  haled 
artificial  formalism  to  the  pillory  of  common  sense.  Voltaire 


546  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

himself  reached  ap  extreme  in  maintaining  that  the  only  sine 
qua  f{on  of  an  epic  was  that  it  should  narrate ,  in  verse  heroic 
adventures. 

Of  the  old  moot  questions  of  epic  theory,  that  of  the  employ- 
ment of  Christian  and  pagan  marvels  showed  some  vitality.  A 
representative  list  of  the  various  decisions  may  be  found  in  .Vial 
et  Denise,  pp.  299-300,  et  seq.  Other  stock  problems  still  walked, 
and  may  be  met  in  most  of  the  critical  works  from  Mme.  Dacier 
to  La  Hafpe.  But  with  the  turn  to  historical  criticism  —  to  the 
attempt  to  conceive  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  as  their  original  audience 
understood  them,  and  to  the  arguments  against  unity  of  authorship 
(see  D'Aubignac,  Dubos,  Mercier,  and  others)  —  many  ghosts 
began  to  be  '  laid.'  Historical  inquiry  and  aesthetic  independence 
developed  side  by  side  in  preparation  for  the  kdaircissement  of 
the  next  century. 

In  1700  Regnier-Desmarais  published  a  translation  of  the  first 
book  of  the  Iliad,  to  which  he  prefixed  a  Dissertation  sur  quel- 
ques,  endroits  d'Homere.  For  A.  Houdar  de  Lamotte,  see 
P.  Dupont,  Un  poete-philosophe  au  commencement  du  dix- 
huitieme  siecle  (Paris:  1898),  pp.  117-301,  —  a  rather  one-sided 
affair ;  B.  Jullien,  Les  paradoxes  litteraires  de  Lamotte,  etc.  (Paris : 
1859),  pp.  181-424.  See  Lamotte's  verse  translation  and  abbrevi- 
ation of  the  Iliad  (1714),  that  "  etrange  entreprise,"  as  Voltaire 
called  it  (Diet.  Philos.,  Art.  Epopee),  "  de  de'grader  Homere,  et 
de  le  traduire."  Lamotte  endeavored  to  correct  the  '  barbaric ' 
Homer  according  to  French,  or  rather  his  own,  taste.  In  a 
Discours  sur  Homere,  prefixed  to  the  translation,  Lamotte  laid 
bare  the  indecorums  of  Homer.  "  I  have  taken  the  fiberty,"  he 
says,  "  to  change  what  I  thought  disagreeable  in  it  [the  Iliad]." 
At  the  same  time  he  inveighs  against  many  of  the  '  rules,'  includ- 
ing Aristotle's  remarks  upon  unity  of  action.  To  please  is  the 
poet's  aim.  He  may  choose  any  method  that  does  please. 
Rules  shall  not  bind  him.  Lamotte  is  a  heretic  among  classicists 
(cf.  Fontenelle).  He  incurred  the  disapproval  of  the  learned 
Mme.  Dacier  (Des  causes  de  la  corruption  du  gofit,  1714),  to  whom 


VI,  C]  FRENCH  547 

he  replied  in  his  witty  Reflexions  sur  la  critique  (1715).  One  may 
also  consult  the  Discours  sur  la  poe'sie  (1707).  Mme.  Dacier's 
criticism,  to  which  reference  has  just  been  made,  was  undertaken 
in  a  spirit  of  horror  and  outrage  at  the  desecration  of  Homer,  and 
at  the  anarchy  of  the  desecrator.  She  idolized  Homer.  She  had 
assumed  the  mission  of  imprpving  the  French  understanding  of 
him  by  supplying  adequate  translations  of  his  poems.  In  prefaces 
she  had  expressed  her  devotion  and  called  the  French  nation  to 
worship.  And  she  had  adopted  with  the  rapt  spirit  of  an  initiate 
the  epic  dogmas  of  the  pseudo-classicists  (see  further,  above,  §  8). 
Her  bitter  polemic  against  Lamotte  is  the  Ancient  and  Modern 
Quarrel  revived.  Of  quaint  interest  is  Jean-Francois  de  Pens' 

Lettre  a  M ,  sur  1'Iliade  de  M.  de  la  Motte  (1714).     See 

also  the  Dissertation  sur  le  poeme  epique,  contre  la  doctrine 
de  M.  D — -. —  [Dacier],  and  the  Observations  sur  divers  points 
concernant  la  traduction  d'Homere :  both  in  the  CEuvres  (1738). 
In  the  Lettre  the  Abbe  defends  the  views  of  Lamotte  on  the 
barbarism  of  Homer,  and  asserts  that  Lamotte,  by  the  publication 
of  such  views,  has  done  for  literature  what  Descartes  had  done 
for  philosophy.  Fenelon's  scattered  remarks  upon  the  epic  may 
be  found  in  the  Lettre  a  M.  Dacier  .  .  .  sur  les  occupations  de 
1' Academic,  1714,  §  v,  Projet  de  poetique,  and  §  x,  Sur  les  Anciens 
et  les  Modernes ;  in  the  literary  correspondence  with  Houdar  de 
Lamotte ;  and  in  the  Dialogues  des  morts,  IV-VI.  All  these 
are  contained  in  the  2d  vol.  of  the  CEuvres  Choisies  de  Fenelon 
(Paris:  1890).  Important  is  1'Abbe  Jean  Terrasson's  Disser- 
tation critique  sur  1'Iliade  d'Homere,  etc.  (2  vols.,  1715.  English 
translation  by  F.  Brerewood,  A  Critical  Diss.  upon  Homer's  Iliad, 
2  vols,,  Lond. :  1722;  also  a  translation  by  the  same,  of •  the 
Preface,  1716,  A  Discourse  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Learning, 
etc.).  Terrasson,  a  partisan  of  Lamotte,  does  not  agree  with 
Le  Bossu's  statement  that  the  moral  of  the  epic  must  be  de- 
termined before  the  subject  is  chosen,  but  would  have  the  poet 
choose  for  his  subject,  without  regard  to  the  moral,  the  execution 
of  a  great  design.  He  condemns  the  Iliad  for  its  lack  of  action. 


548  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

The  Abbe's  chief  intent  is  the  application  of  reason,  rather  than 
the  authority  of  tradition,  to  the  discussion  of  literary  subjects. 
The  work  is  really  an  elaboration  of  Lamotte's  Discours :  he  has 
such  aversion  for  Homer  that  he  can  scarcely  say  one  compli- 
mentary thing  about  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey.  His  support  of  the 
cause  of  Lamotte  and  the  Moderns  he  bases  upon  a  theory  of 
the  progress  of  the  human  spirit,  derived  from  Descartes  ;  compare 
Terrasson's  La  philosophic  applicable  a  tous  les  objets  de  1'esprit 
et  de  la  raison,  published  1754,  after  his  death.  Replies  to 
Lamotte  were  issued  by  Gacon  (Homere  venge,  published  anony- 
mously, 1715)  and  Jean  Boivin  (Apologie  d'Homere,  1715). 
Boivin's  work  is  a  sane,  discriminating  exposition  of  the  beauties 
of  Homer,  with  due  acknowledgment  of  the  truth  in  some  of 
Lamotte's  revolutionary  statements.  Particularly  noticeable  is  the 
assertion  that  the  most  effective  part  of  a  poem  is  not  its  basic 
idea  or  its  didactic  purpose,  but  the  beauty  and  euphony  of  its 
verses,  —  another  revolutionary  remark.  Cf .  Mem.  de  Litt.  de 
F Academic  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres,  1736,  i:  176. 
For  Saint-Hyacinthe's  satirical  contributions  to  the  quarrel  and 
Fourniont's  "Pacific  Examination,"  see  Finsler,  pp.  229-230. 
Pere  C.  Buffier's  Homere  en  arbitrage  (1715)  attempts  a  recon- 
ciliation between  Mme.  Dacier  and  Lamotte  by  pointing  out 
that  after  all  they  concur  in  discussing  Homer  as  one  of  the 
greatest  of  poets  and  the  Iliad  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  poems. 
D'Aubignac's  epochal  work  on  the  authorship  of  the  Homeric 
poems  was  published  in  1715,  but  was  written  as  early  as  1664. 
Its  relation  to  the  quarrels  of  ancients  and  moderns  has  been  noted 
under  the  i7th  century,  but  its  vital  influence  as  a  pioneer  in  the 
new  field  of  historical  epic  criticism  belongs  to  this  and  the  next 
century.  The  now  famous  Conjectures  academiques  ou  disser- 
tation sur  1'Iliade  was-  published  anonymously,  and  had  little 
immediate  recognition.  In  it  D'Aubignac  would  explain  all  the 
imperfections  of  the  Homeric  poems,  as  they  had  been  stated 
by  a  long  line  of  critics,  as  due  to  multiple  authorship  and  con- 
flicting aims.  Too  many  poets  spoiled  the  broth  I  There  was 


VI,  CJ  FRENCH  549 

no  Homer,  no  one  poet  to  give  to  these  poems  unity  and  the 
impress  of  one  commanding  genius.  Instead  the  poems  originated 
in  separate  rhapsodies  in  praise  of  gods,  heroes,  and  royal  families. 
Finally  these  lays  were  stitched  together  with  appropriate  transi- 
tions. Thus  was  produced  the  Iliad,  bearing  in  itself  evidences 
of  its  haphazard  and  various  authorship,  which  have  erroneously 
been  interpreted  as  the  shortcomings  of  one.  poet.  The  develop- 
ment of  this  theory  by  German  critics  —  Herder,  Heyne,  F.  A. 
Wolf,  Welcker,  and  others  —  has  given  to  the  world  what  is 
known  as  the  Homeric  Question  (cf.  below,  §12).  In  1716 
F.  Catrou  published  an  annotated  translation  of  Virgil  (in  6  vols., 
Paris),  references  to  which  are  found  in  many  of  the  English 
and  French  epic  criticisms  of  the  i8th  century.  Pere  Hardouin, 
in  his  strange  and  often  ridiculous  Apologie  d'Homere,  oil  1'on 
explique  le  ve'ritable  dessein  de  son  Iliade  et  sa  theomythologie 
(Paris:  1716),  discovers  that  the  real  subject  of  the  Iliad  is 
the  fall  of  the  house  of  Priam  and  that  the  gods  represent 
human  virtues  in  conflict.  Only  understand  this,  says  Hardouin, 
and  Homer  becomes  at  once  clear  and  great.  The  comparison 
of  the  manners  in  the  Greek  epic  with  the  manners  of  the  Old 
Testament,  although  undertaken  with  a  view  to  throwing  an  air 
of  dignity  if  not  sanctity  about  Homeric  characters  and  customs, 
is  nevertheless  an  anticipation  of  historical,  comparative  criticism. 
Mme.  Dacier  was  scandalized  at  the  nature  of  the  Apologie,  and 
refuted  Hardouin's  '  discoveries '  in  a  Homere  defendu  contre 
1'Apologie  du  R.  P.  Hardouin  (Paris  :  1716).  Andrew  Michael 
Ramsay's  Discours  sur  la  poesie  epique,  et  1'excellence  du  poeme 
de  Telemaque  (i7i7(?),  prefixed  to  Ramsay's  ed.  of  the  Tele- 
maque ;  may  be  found  in  the  CEuvres  de  Fenelon,  9  vols.,  Paris : 
1787-92,  vol.  V,  pp.  i-xxiv;  and  in  English  in  many  of  the  early 
translations  of  the  poem,  such  as  that  of  Littlebury  and  Boyer, 
Lond. :  1728)  is  a  panegyric  on  the  Telemaque,  treating  the 
poem  under  the  three  main  heads  of  Action,  Moral,  and  Poetry, 
following  Le  Bossu  in  theory,  exalting  the  Christian  philosophy 
of  Fenelon  and  his  reticence  in  dealing  with  the  marvellous, 


550  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

and  comparing  the  French  poem  favorably  with  the  epics  of 
Virgil  and  Homer.  The  Reflexions  critiques  sur  la  poesie 
et  sur  la  peinture,  by  Abbe'  Jean  Baptiste  Dubos,  which  followed 
in  1719,  is  a  work  of  historical  and  critical  acumen.  In  some 
respects  Dubos  might  almost  be  called  a  forerunner  of  Croce  and 
the  expressionist  school  of  criticism.  He  holds  a  brief  against 
the  legislative  critic  .who  subordinates  creative  genius  to  rule  and 
'  reason.'  Expressiveness  of  phrase  he  exalts  above  unity  of 
construction,  and  therefore  prefers  Ariosto  to  Tasso.  He  avers, 
too,  that  the  judgment  of  the  public  is  superior  to  that  of  the 
critics.  Dubos  is  possessed  of  the  historical  spirit.  He  notes 
that  the  employment  of  the  marvellous  should  not  hinge  upon 
the  aesthetic  arbitrium  of  a  group  of  critics,  but  upon  the  his- 
torical question,  Did  the  age  represented  in  the  poem  concern 
itself  with  these  marvels  ?  To  the  mysterious  gift  of  the  poet 
belongs  the  power  of  rendering  the  marvellous  probable,  but" 
always  we  should  contemplate  a  poem  such  as  the  Iliad  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  age  of  which  it  is  the  expression.  Its 
materials  and  aesthetic  form  are  alike  conditioned  by  its  environ- 
ment, or  milieu ;  therefore  absolute  rules  should  not  be  made  the 
measure  of  the  poem,  but  rather  its  expressiveness,  the  degree 
inm  which  it  moves  and  pleases  us.  The  relation  of  these  views 
to  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Quarrel  should  be  noted.  For  specific 
remarks  upon  the  epic  see  vol.  I,  pp.  176-179  of  the  4th  ed. 
(3  vols.,  Paris:  1740),  Quelques  remarques  sur  le  poeme  epique: 
Observations  touchant  le  lieu  et  le  temps  oil  il  faut  prendre  son 
sujet.  An  English  translation  of  Dubos  was  made  by  T.  Nugent, 
Critical  Reflections  on  Poetry,  Painting,  and  Music  (Lond. :  1748). 
The  study  of  Dubos  as  an  initiator  of  modern  thought  and  of  his 
relations  to  Descartes,  Locke,  Dryden,  and  other  previous  critics 
and  philosophers,  is  as  important  as  it  is  interesting.'  See 
M.  Braunschvig,  L'Abbe'  Dubos  (Diss.  Paris,  Toulouse:  1904); 
P.  Peteut,  J.  B.  Dubos  (Diss.  Berne,  1902);  A.  Lombard,  L'Abbe' 
Dubos  (Diss.  Paris,  1913),  which  contains  full  bibliography. 
Charles  Rollin,  in  his  Traitd  des  Etudes  (4  vols.,  1720-31, 


VI,  C]  FRENCH  551 

Liv.  Ill,  Chap.  I,  art.  iv),  declaims  pedagogically  against  pagan 
marvels  in  modern  epics.  .Montesquieu's  critical  heresies  are 
found  chiefly  in  the  youthful  Lettres  persanes  (1721),  the  Essai 
sur  le  gout,  published  in  the  Encyclopedic,  and  the  Pensees  et 
fragments  ine'dits  in  the  Collection  Bordelaise  (2  vols.,  Bordeaux : 
1899-1901).  A  very  convenient  guide  through  this  mass  of 
material  is  furnished  by  E.  P.  Dargan's  The  Aesthetic  Doctrine 
of  Montesquieu  (Baltimore:  1907).  Montesquieu  knows  little 
about  the  epic  and  seems  to  believe  that  the  Iliad  and  the 
Aeneid  (?)  are  the  only  true  epics,  and  that  it  is  impossible  to 
produce  new  ones ;  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  he  thinks  very 
highly  ;  upon  the  quarrel  with  the  ancients  he  throws  ridicule ; 
and  against  the  romances  he  is  exceedingly  bitter  (see  Dargan, 
pp.  107,  in,  124-129,  134-135,  138).  For  Voltaire's  Essai 
sur  la  poesie  e'pique  (1728;  first  written  in  English,  1726),  see 
above,  §  8.  In  1729  and  1731  appeared  two  works  on  Paradise 
Lost,  C.  F.  Constantin  de  Magny's  Dissertation  critique  sur  le 
Paradis  Perdu,  and  Bernard  Routh's  Lettres  critiques  sur  le  P.  P. 
For  other  references  to  Milton,  of  this  and  the  earlier  years  of 
the  next  century,  see  J.  M.  Telleen,  Milton  dans  la  litt.  franchise 
(Paris:  1904).  Abbe  Trublet's  Essais  sur  divers  sujets  de 
litterature  et  de  morale  (3  vols.  1735-60)  contains  matter  on 
the  epic.  From  Marmontel,  with  his  faint  praise  of  Boileau 
and  his  spiritual  communion  with  Rousseau  and  Diderot,  might 
be  expected  some  original  treatment  of  the  epic,  and  if  the  expec- 
tation is  not  well  borne  out  by  the  performance  in  the  article  on 
the  fipopee,  1755  (in  Elements  de  litte'rature,  6  vols.,  1787, — 
a  collection  of  articles  originally  contributed  to  Diderot's  Encyclo- 
pddie),  there  is  at  least  a  clear,  undeflected  following  of  the 
Aristotelian  principles,  with  criticism  meted  out  by  the  way, 
and  in  justice  and  reason,  to  Le  Bossu,  Terrasson,  and  Lamotte. 
On  the  choice  of  subject  Marmontel's  observations  are  still  of  the 
'  rules '  order,  but  he  is  not  without  the  grace  of  occasional  doubt. 
His  differentiation  of  the  unity  of  the  epic  and  the  drama  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  '  opposition '  in  the  two  kinds  is  worthy 


552  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

of  notice;  so,  too,  his  statement  that  the  subject  of  the  Odyssey 
is  more  universal  in  character  than .  that  of  the  Aeneid,  —  an  idea 
that  would  have  inflamed  mightily  the  Scaligers  of  the  past.  See 
also  his  criticism  of  the  Henriade  as  lacking  situations  and  scenes, 
and  the  various  comparisons  of  epic  and  tragedy  that  fall  under 
the  discussion  of  the  composition  of  the  epic.  In  the  article  on  the 
marvellous,  also  contributed  to  the  Encyclopedic,  vol.  X,  1765, 
Marmontel  declares  for  the  admission  of  pagan  marvels  into 
modern  epics  dealing  with  ancient  subjects  because  of  the  poetic 
beauty  of  the  ancient  myths.  He  pronounces  the  Christian  marvels 
cold  and  without  poetic  value.  See  also  the  discussion  of  the 
marvellous  (a  philosophical  background  is  added  to  Dubos'  his- 
torical arguments),  of  the  pity-and-fear  effect  of  the  epic,  of 
the  moral  but  not  allegorical  character  of  the  fable,  of  plot 
construction,  etc.,  etc.,  in  the  Poetique  franchise  (1763).  Denis 
Diderot  would  admit  neither  pagan  nor  Christian  marvels  into 
the  modern  epic,  because  neither  sort  is  believable.  See  his 
Dorval  et  moi,  3e  Entretien  (1757).  For  his  utterances  on 
Homer  see  Finsler,  243-245.  On  Diderot  see  further  J.  Rocafort, 
Des  doctrines  litteraires  de  PEncyclopedie  (Paris:  1890).  In 
the  Me'm.  de  Litt.  de  1'Academie  des  Inscriptions  et  Belles  Lettres, 
under  the  year  1760  (30:  539),  is  a  Dissertation  sur  Homere 
considere'  comme  poete  tragique,  by  Chabanon.  The  paper  is 
a  brief  note  on  the  dramatic  qualities  of  Homer,  set  off  by 
contrast  with  Virgil,  and  carried  to  the  extreme  of  confusing 
the  epic  and  tragic  genres.  P.  J.  Bitaube"s  Reflexions  sur  la 
traduction  des  poetes  (1764),  prefixed  to  his  prose  translation 
of  the  Odyssey,  criticizes  Mme.  Dacier's  canon  of  translation. 
Les  quatre  Poetiques  d'Aristote,  d'Horace,  de  Vida,  et  de 
Despreaux,  by  Abbe'  Charles  Batteux  (2  vols.,  Paris:  1771), 
may  profitably  be  consulted  to  the  following  extent:  vol.  I, 
Remarques  sur  Aristote,  pp.  199-310  —  on  Chaps.  XXIII-XXVI 
of  Aristotle's  Poetics;  vol.  II,  Remarques  sur  Vida,  especially 
pp.  216-237,  on  h's  Poeticorum  Lib.  II.  See  also  the  same 
author's  Cours  de  belles-lettres  ou  principes  de  la  litte'rature 


VI,  C]  FRENCH  553 

(1753  ;  compiled  from  Les  beaux-arts  reduits  a  un  meme  principe, 
1745,  and  the  Cours  de  belles-lettres,  1750),  vol.  II,  art.  iii, 
L'Fjpopee :  Batteux  remarks  upon  the  sublimity  and  poetic  value 
of  Christian  wonders,  defends  Homer  against  the  strictest  of  the 
decorous  critics  and  rates  him  above  Virgil  in  creative  power, 
management  of  the  marvellous,  and  characterization.  For  Batteux's 
definition  of  the  epic  see  above,  §  8.  On  his  influence  as  a  critic 
see  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit,  and  M.  Schenker,  Charles  Batteux 
und  seine  Nachahmungstheorie  in  Deutschland  (Leipz. :  1909;  in 
Untersuch,  zur  neueren  Sprach-  und  Litgesch.,  ed.  O.  Walzel,  N.F., 
2.  Heft).  G.  B.  de  Rochefort,  in  his  Discours  sur  Homere 
(prefixed  to  his  translation  of  the  Iliad,  new  ed.  Paris:  1772), 
attempts  to  expound  the  Homeric  poems,  especially  with  reference 
to  the  marvellous,  from  an  historical  consideration  of  their  environ- 
ment (cf.  Blackwell),  and  maintains  the  superiority  of  Homer's 
vital  and  originar  handling  of  the  myths  to  Virgil's  conventional 
and  ornamental  methods.  J.  M.  B.  Clement,  in  his  nine  Lettres 
a*M.  de  Voltaire  (4  vols.  La  Haye:  1773-76),  comments  upon 
the  general  character  and  influence  of  Voltaire's  literary  criticism 
and  (Letters  VII-IX)  discusses  the  virtues  of  epic  poetry  and 
the  faults  of  the  Henriade.  The  preface  to  C.  F.  Lebrun's 
"improved"  Iliad,  which  pretends  to  be  an  ancient  Greek  work, 
represents  Homer  as  defending  his  poems  "  with  the  arguments 
of  Le  Bossu  and  Mme.  Dacier"  (Finsler,  249).  Louis  Mercier, 
in  his  Centre  Homere  traduit  en  frangais  (in  Mon  bonnet  de  nuit, 
1784),  not  only  reiterates  Boileau's  complaint  that  the  French 
translations  do  not  do  justice  to  the  Homeric  poems,  but  goes 
on  to  argue  that  the  poems  are  not  the  production  of  one  poet. 
Rather  they  are,  in  their  present  form,  redactions  of  earlier  poems 
descending  from  the  rhapsodes  (cf. .  Vico,  D'Aubignac,  Wood, 
Blackwell,  F.  A.  Wolf,  et  a/.;  cf.  below,  §  12).  Madame  de 
Stael,  in  her  Essai  sur  les  fictions,  holds  a  tentative  brief  against 
the  use  of  marvellous  and  allegorical  fictions  in  the  epic,  and 
defends  the  use  of  "  natural  fictions "  in  the  novel.  The  essay 
was  first  published  in  the  Recueil  de  morceaux  detaches,  1795: 


554  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

see  the  (Euvres,  17  vols.,  1820-21,  II,  175  ff.  The  same  author's 
De  la  litterature  considered  dans  ses  rapports  avec  les  institutions 
sociales  (1800)  misses  the  opportunity,  suggested  by  the  main 
thesis  of  the  work,  of  differentiating  the  epic  on  the  basis  of  its 
social  content.  See  also  the  article  on  Camoens  in  the  Biographic 
Universelle  (vol.  XVII  of  the  QEuvres).  La  Harpe  defends 
Christian  wonders,  in  vol.  I,  Chap.  IV,  of  his  Lyce'e  (1797-98). 
La  Harpe  is  a  classicist  of  the  type  prevalent  in  the  early  part 
of  the  century.  A.  Chenier's  Hermes  and  his  L'Invention 
afford  interesting  documents  in  the  study  of  classical  revivals ; 
cf.  IL  Faguet,  Andre  Che'nier  (Paris:  1902),  pp.  loi-m. 

D.   The  Nineteenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  iv,  E.  We  know  of  no  specific  guide 
to  the  theoretic  epic  criticism  of  this  century. 

What  is  said  elsewhere  of  the  general  tendencies  —  appreciative, 
philosophical,  historical,  scientific  —  of  the  criticism  of  the  igth 
century  need  not  be  repeated  here  (see  above,  §  3,  iv,  E  ;  behAv, 
vii,  D).  The  philosophical  and  historical  study  of  poetry  has  so 
fundamentally  affected  the  conception  of  the  epic  that  the  pseudo- 
classic  formal  regard  of  the  type  has  been  entirely  displaced  as 
confusing  and  ridiculous.  The  rise  of  the  new  epic  criticism  in 
the  previous  century  —  from  D'Aubignac  to  Mercier  —  we  have 
already  noted;  its  continuation  in  this  period  demands  treatment 
under  our  historical  section  (see  below,  §  12).  To  be  sure  his- 
torical research  not  seldom  indulges  in  appreciative  and  speculative 
asides,  or  in  judgments  of  form  and  technique,  that  belong  by 
nature  and  descent  to  the  criticism  we  have  been  tracing  in  this 
section ;  but  these  asides  are  scattered  and  unsystematic.  Their 
collection  is  as  laborious  as  their  character  is  individual  and  various. 
Likewise  generally  lacking  in  method  are  the  historical  notices  of 
epic  poems  and  poets  to  be  found  in  the  more  purely  appreciative 
and  aesthetic  essays  of  the  century.  Lists  of  such  essays  may  be 
compiled  from  the  bibliographical  aids  mentioned  above,  §  3,  iv,  E. 
Babbitt's  Masters  of  Modern  French  Criticism  affords  assistance. 


VII,  A]  ENGLISH  555 

The  present  authors  suggest  to  the  student  of  this  field  that  his 
first  task  be  the  collection  of  scattered  references  which  they  have 
not  supplied,  but  would  welcome. 

VII.  English. 

Apparatus  for  the  general  history  of  English  criticism  is  cited  above, 
§  3,  v.  G.  Finsler's  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit  (Berlin  :  191 2),  pp.  264-376, 
is  especially  and  directly  helpful  in  tracing  the  development  of  epic  criti- 
cism from  Ascham  to  Cowper.  For  a  very  brief  treatment  of  English 
epic  criticism  (see  Irene  Myers'  A  Study  in  Epic  Development, 
pp.  24-27  (Yale  Studies  in  English,  XI.  1901). 

A.  Sixteenth  Century. 

See  the  apparatus  given  above,  §  3,  v,  A.  The  chief  aids  are  Finsler, 
Spingarn  (pp.  293-295),  and  Blankenburg  (Art.  Heldengedicht) ;  in 
G.  G.  Smith's  Eliz.  Crit.  Essays,  see  vol.  I,  pp.  14-15,  136-141,  179, 
255-262;  vol.  II,  26,  40-44,  216,  297-307. 

Until  the  appearance  of  Dryden's  essays  on  epic  poetry  (1674, 
1687  ;  see  above,  §  8)  English  criticism  of  the  epic  is,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  original  contribution  and  advance  beyond  conti- 
nental sources,  well-nigh  negligible.  Moreover,  no  references 
of  any  importance  occur  before  the  last  two  decades  of  the 
1 6th  century.  Until  1580  English  criticism  is  represented  by 
the  early  Rhetorics  (see  Gayley  and.  Scott,  p.  386):  naturally, 
they  contain  no  criticism  of  the  epic,  though  in  treating  of 
archaisms  of  language  or  matter  they  occasionally  animadvert 
on  Chaucer  or  the  Arthurian  legends.  Roger  Ascham,  in  the 
first  book  of  the  Schoolmaster  (1570),  takes  a  fling  at  the  Morte 
Arthur.  In  the  second  book,  §  5,  indiscriminate  imitation  of 
Chaucer  is  censured,  and  Virgil's  imitation  of  Homer  is  cited 
as  an  example  of  what  imitation  should  be.  Another  early 
epic  locus  may  be  found  in  Thomas  Phaer's  translation  (1558, 
the  year  following  Surrey's  translations)  of  the  first  seven  books 
of  the  Aeneid,  to  which,  in  1562,  he  added  two  other  books.  The 
translation  was  completed  in  1583  by  Thomas  Twyne. 

After  1580  English  criticism  is  concerned  primarily  with  ques- 
tions of  prosody  and  with  a  defense  of  poetry  against  the  Puritan 


556  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

charges  of  immorality.  Neither  subject  was  of  a  nature  to  develop 
a  critical  notice  of  the  epic,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the 
defense  had  to  be  carried  on  in  favor  of  the  drama  rather  than 
the  other  types.  The  meagre  notices  of  the  last  twenty  years  of 
the  century,  in  most  of  which  foreign  influence  (Horace  and 
French  and  Italian  critics)  is  traceable,  may  be  indicated  under 
four  heads.  —  (a)  Recognition  of  the  epic,  several  times,  as  the 
highest  and  noblest  form  of  poetry :  this  is  in  sequence  with 
the  classical  view  of  the  epic  metre  as  the  weightiest  and  gravest 
of  metres  (cf.  Aristotle,  Poetics  xxiv,  5).  (fr)  Brief,  '  roll-call ' 
criticisms  of  the  poets,  in  which  a  short  critical  tag  was  appended 
to  each  name  in  a  list  of  the  poets' :  an  ancient  device  favored  by 
the  naive  criticism  of  the  time  (see  below,  Meres  and  Bolton). 
The  citation  is  indiscriminate,  as  though  the  poets  Homer,  Virgil, 
Chaucer,  Spenser,  Langland,  Warner,  et  al.  were  of  the  same 
nature  and  worth.  The  conception  is  a  propaedeutic  to  the  later 
definition,  imported  from  abroad,  of  the  epic  as  merely  a  long 
poem,  of  heroic  subject  and  sublime  style.  (<r)  Praise  of  the 
epic  as  historical  poetry  representing  great  deeds  of  the  past. 
The  epic,  with  its  high  seriousness  and  its  aloofness  from  the 
vices  of  the  times,  offered  to  those  defending  poetry  a  ready 
illustration  of  poetic  values.  Thus  was  intensified  ^the  moral 
prepossession  for  the  epic  as  a  valuable  medium  of  moral  and 
allegorical  instruction,  (d}  The  first  distinct  reference  in  English 
(1591)  to  the  Aristotelian  canons  of  the  epic  (see  Harington). 

In  1582  appeared  a  translation  of  the  Aeneid  by  Richard 
Stanyhurst  (printed  at  Leyden).  In  the  Dedication  and  the 
Preface  Stanyhurst  praises  the  '  decorum '  of  Virgil,  especially 
the  "  rare  points  of  hidden  secrets  sealed  up "  in  the  twelve 
books  of  the  Aeneid.  He  also  discusses  Phaer's  version  at 
some  length.  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  in  his  Defense  of  Poesie 
(written  between  1581  and  1585;  published  1595),  recognizes 
the  epic  as  the  noblest  form  of  poetry  (cf.  Gayley  and  Scott, 
p.  391).  William  Webbe,  A  Discourse  of  English  Poetrie  (1586), 
has  no  idea  of  the  epic  beyond  this,  —  that  it  is  the  highest  and 


VII,  B]  ENGLISH  557 

best  sort  of  poetry,  wherein  are  displayed  the  great  deeds  and 
characters  of  the  past.  He  seems  to  like  especially  its  "  braue 
warlike  phrase  and  bygge  sounding  kynd  of  thundring  speech." 
George  Puttenham's  conception  (The  Arte  of  English  Poesie. 
1589)  is  similarly  nai've;  he  has  some  four  pages  of  encomium 
upon  historical  poetry.  For  a  censure  of  Phaer's  translation 
of  Virgil,  see  Thomas  Nash's  Preface  to  Greene's  Menaphon 
(1589  ;  in  G.  G.  Smith,  Eliz.  Crit.  Essays,  I,  307  ff.).  Sir  John 
Harington,  in  his  Brief  Apology  for  Poetrie  (1591),  undertakes 
a  defense  of  the  Orlando  Furioso,  in  the  course  of  which  he  briefly 
refers  to  the  Aristotelian  canons  (in  Smith,  II,  216).  Spingarn 
(Lit.  Crit.  in  the  Ren.,  pp.  293-294)  asserts  that  this  is  the  first 
appearance  in  English  criticism  of  the  Aristotelian  theory  of  the 
epic.  See  also  Bishop  Joseph  Hall,  Virgidemiarum  :  Six  Books 
...  of  Toothless  Satires  (and)  .  .  .  Biting  Satires  (1597-98.  Ed. 
by  S.  W.  Singer,  Lond.:  1824.  See  Bk.  I,  No.  IV;  VI,  No.  I; 
cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  392);  George  Chapman,  Prefaces  (1598. 
See  below,  under  B).  Francis  Meres,  in  his  quaint  literary 
comparisons  (Palladis  Tamia :  Comparative  Discourse  of  our 
English  Poets,  etc.,  1598.  —  Haslewood,  vol.  II,  pp.  147-158), 
regards  Chaucer,  Langland,  Spenser,  and  Warner  as  the  English 
equivalents  of  Homer  and  Virgil. 

B.  Seventeenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  v,  B.  The  chief  aids  are  Finsler, 
Spingarn  (Crit.  Essays  of  I7th  Cent.),  and  Blankenburg.  See  also 
G.  M.  Miller,  The  Historical  Point  of  View  in  English  Literary  Criti- 
cism, 1570-1770  (in  Anglistische  Forschungen,  vol.  XXXV.  1913). 
Texts  may  be  found  in  Spingarn,  as  just  noted. 

In  general,  English  epic  criticism  of  the  i7th  century  is  marked 
by  a  rather  gradual  development,  largely  under  the  influence  of 
continental  critics,  from  the  nai've  notices  of  the  previous  cen- 
tury, to  a  fuller  and  more  sophisticated  criticism  of  a  thoroughly 
formal  and  conventional  kind.  Like  the  estimates  of  the  earlier 
period,  this  fuller  criticism  is  entirely  of  moral  function  and 
literary  technique,  without  any  basis  in  historical  induction,  and 


558  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  .      [§9 

without  any  perception  of  the  peculiar  social  significance  and  re- 
lationship of  the  different  sorts  of  epic  or  various  periods  of  epic 
development.  Formal  rules  are  multiplied  and  these  rules  are 
glossed  with  great  industry.  The  prevailing  conception  of  the 
epic  is  that  of  the  literary  sciolist  who  believes  that  all  that 
is  needed  for  the  production  of  epics  is  genius  and  a  book  of 
rules :  the  age  in  which  the  genius  may  fall  is  not  conceived 
to  have  any  primary  importance,  —  is  not  realized  as  having  a 
determining  influence  upon  the  inner  nature  of  the  epic  poem. 

Almost  all  the  tendencies  of  the  criticism  of  the  period  come 
to  their  head  and  fullest  expression  in  Dryden's  work  (see  above, 
§  8),  especially  in  his  Discourse  on  Epic  Poetry  (1697).  In  fact, 
if  one  desires  to  suggest  the  logical  units,  or  epochs,  of  the  de- 
velopment of  epic  criticism  in  England,  rather  than  the  arbitrary 
time  divisions  according  to  centuries,  the  first  major  period  will 
probably  extend  from  the  beginning,  about  1580,  of  conventional 
literary  criticism,  to  Dryden's  Discourse,  with  a  possible  sub- 
division at  Rymer's  translation  of  Rapin  (1674).  A  more  detailed 
summary  of  the  criticism  of  the  century  under  the  following  heads 
will  serve  to  indicate  the  relative  position  of  Dryden. 

(a)  The  general  encomiums  of  the  last  two  decades  continue, 
as  in  Chapman,  Peacham,  and  Drayton ;  but  they  increase  in 
length  and  discrimination,  until  they  reach  their  height  in  both 
respects  in  Dryden's  defense  of  Virgil.  (^)  Early  in  the  century 
the  influence  of  continental  critics  is  felt.  In  the  i6th  century 
ideas  had  been  pilfered  from  abroad  with  little  citation  or 
acknowledgment  (see  G.  G.  Smith,  Eliz.  Ess.,  I,  Ixxvii  ff.). 
But  now  Scaliger  is  cited  as  well  as  followed :  formal  criticism 
is  carried  on  under  such  heads  as  Prudence,  Efficacy,  Variety, 
and  Sweetness.  Horace  also  is  quoted,  and  Heinsius,  and  much 
use  is  made  of  the  old  Horatian  term  '  Decorum,'  which  had  also 
appeared  in  the  earlier  treatises  (see  Puttenham's  definition  of 
the  term  in  his  Arte  of  English  Poesie,  Chap.  XXIII).  In  the 
last  quarter  of  the  century  Rapin,  Boileau,  Le  Bossu,  and  Segrais 
become  the  chief  influences  in  English  critical  doctrine.  'On  the 


VII,  B]  ENGLISH  559 

importance  of  Rapin,  see  Gay  ley  and  Scott,  p.  433.  Dryden,  per- 
haps, shows  the  Reliance  on  foreign  sources  more  singularly  than 
any  of  the  previous  writers  on  the  epic.  His  work  is  a  surprising 
cento  of  conventional  opinions  and  authorities,  all  expressed  and 
illustrated  with  that  peculiar  power  of  making  the  possessions  of 
others  his  own  that  marks  the  work  of  this  first  of  the  great 
English  critics.  In  him  the  talent  of  industrious  assimilation, 
which  was  indeed  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  critics  of  the 
i  yth  century,  rises  to  genius.  (V)  Aristotelian  criticism  receives 
recognition  in  three  important  works.  First,  Goulston's  edition 
of  the  Poetics  (1623),  of  which  Professor  Bywater  has  written: 

Goulston's  paraphrase,  with  the  marginal  commentary  which  accom- 
panies it,  is  in  a  sense  the  most  helpful  of  the  earlier  versions,  since 
it  is  a  definite  attempt  to  explain  the  logical  sequence  of  Aristotle's 
ideas,  and  thus  to  deal  with  difficulties  of  a  kind  of  which  the  sixteenth- 
century  interpreters  would  seem  to  have  been  unconscious  (I.  Bywater, 
Aristotle  on  the  Art  of  Poetry.  Oxford  :  1909 ;  p.  x). 

The  second  recognition  appears  in  Jonson's  citation  of  Aristotelian 
dogmas  in  his  Timber  (1626);  the  third  is  manifest  in  Dryden's 
use  of  the  Poetics  for  his  Discourse.  (V/)  The  conception  of  the 
epic  as  embodying  a  moral  philosophy.  This  is  signally  exempli- 
fied in  Milton's  high  estimate  of  the  nature  of  poetry :  not  only 
the  execution  of  his  epics,  but  his  choice  of  subject,  reveals  the 
idealism.  Dryden,  also,  in  his  dissertation,  emphasizes  the  quality 
of  epical  excellence  by  rating  heroic  poetry  above  the  drama, 
thus  opposing  Aristotle's  dictum,  (e)  The  notice  accorded  to 
Milton's  performance,  including  his  use  of  blank  verse,  —  though 
scant  at  first,  yet  favorable.  Dryden,  however,  in  the  Essay  on 
Heroic  Plays,  argues  against  blank  verse.  (/)  The  recommenda- 
tion by  Davenant,  in  1650,  and  Cowley,  in  1656,  of  Christian 
subjects  to  the  epic  poet.  They  are  following  Tasso's  poetics 
and  discourses  upon  heroic  poetry  (1587-1594),  which  were 
translated  into  French  by  Jean  Baudoin,  1638  (for  the  refer- 
ences see  the  Discorsi,  noted  above,  §  8).  In  this  recommendation 
Davenant  and  Cowley  are  anticipating  the  Frenchman  Desmarets 


560  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

de  Saint-Sorlin  by  several  years  (see  above,  under  French  criti- 
cism). So  also  is  Milton  in  the  conception  and  completion  of 
his  epics. 

These  points  may  be  studied  in  the  following  references :  William 
Vaughan  (The  Golden  Grove,  1600;  Bk.  Ill,  Chap.  42  Of  Poetry  and 
the  Excellency  thereof)  cites  Homer  in  his  defense  of  poetry.  Thomas 
Campion,  Observations  in  the  Art  of  English  Poesie(i6o2.  Chap.  IV): 
the  subject  of  epic  and  tragedy  is  "  all  one,"  and  the  two  sorts  of  poems 
differ  only  in  "  the  kind  of  their  numbers.".  Edward  Bolton,  Hyper- 
critica  (1 722.  Written  in  part,  probably,  between  1 600  and  1 603 ;  accord- 
ing to  Arber,  1620;  cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  393.  See  Address  IV, 
Sec.  iii.  In  Haslewood,  II,  220-254):  a  brief  and  adverse  notice 
of  the  English  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser.  For  other  '  roll-calls '  of 
the  poets,  see  Spingarn,  Crit.  Ess.,'  I,  xx.  Sir  Francis  Bacon, 
Advancement  of  Learning  (1605.  Bk.  II,  Sec.  iv).  Bacon  does  not 
use  the  term  epic,  but  substitutes  the  wider  category  of  "  poesy 
narrative  "  as  one  of  the  three  chief  divisions  of  poetry.  This  narra- 
tive is  defined  as  "  a  mere  imitation  of  history,  with  the  excesses  before 
remembered  (i.  e.,  with  a  more  ample  greatness,  a  more  exact  goodness, 
and  a  more  absolute  variety  than  can  be  found  in  the  nature  of  things), 
choosing  for  subject  commonly  wars  and  love,  rarely  state,  and  some- 
times pleasure  or  mirth."  Cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20,  and  add  to  the 
references  cited  there  the  following :  E.  Fliigel,  Bacon's  Historia  Lite- 
raria  (in  Anglia,  1899,  vol.  XXII);  P.  Jacquinet,  Francisci  Baconi  de 
Re  Litteraria  Judicia  (Paris:  1863).  George  Chapman,  Prefaces  to 
his  translations  of  Homer  (1598-1614  or  1616).  The  earlier  Prefaces 
(see  G.  G.  Smith,  Eliz.  Ess.,  II,  295  ff.)  contain  a  note  "  on  good 
authoritie  "  that  the  books  of  the  Iliad  were  not  set  together  by  Homer 
himself,  and  a  defense  of  Homer  in  which  the  Greek  poet  is  ranked 
far  above  Virgil  and  Scaliger  is  roundly  taken  to  task  for  preferring 
the  latter.  In  the  later  Prefaces  (i6io-i6i6(?).  See  Spingarn,  Crit. 
Ess.,  67  ff.)  is  a  defense  and  eulogy  of  poetry  in  general  and  of  Homer 
in  particular.  Of  the  Conversations  of  Ben  Jonson  and  William 
Drummond  of  Hawthornden  (1619.  See  Spingarn,  Crit.  Ess.,  I, 
21  o  ff.)  note  especially  No.  X,  in  which  Jonson  is  said  to  have  asserted 
that  "  for  a  heroic  poem  there  was  no  such  ground  as  King  Arthur's 
fiction."  H.  Peacham,  The  Compleat  Gentleman  (1622.  Chap.  X 
Of  Poetrie) :  the  longest  appreciation  of  a  single  poem  is  that  of  the 
Aeneid.  Peacham  summarizes  Scaliger  (Poetice,  III,  24-27),  following 
Scaliger's  enumeration  of  the  poet's  excellences  under  the  four  heads 


VII,  B]  ENGLISH  561 

of  prudence,  efficacy,  variety,  and  sweetness.  T.  Goulston,  Aristotelis 
de  Poetica  Liber,  Latine  Con  versus  et  Illustratus  (1623):  see  above. 
Ben  Jonson,  Timber  (in  course  of  composition  as  early  as  1626,  but 
not  printed  until  1641.  Ed.,  F.  E.  Schelling.  Boston:  1892;  critical 
ed.  of  the  text  by  Maurice  Castelain.  Paris:  1907).  Jonson  deals  in 
a  strictly  Aristotelian  fashion  with  the  relative  magnitudes  of  epic  and 
dramatic  plots.  Compare  H.  Grossmann,  Ben  Jonson  als  Kritiker 
(Berlin:  1898);  H.  Reinsch,  Ben  Jonsons  Poetik  und  seine  Bezie- 
hungen  zu  Horaz  (Erlangen  u.  Leipz. :  1899.  In  Miinchener  Beitrdge 
z.  roman.  u.  engl.  Philol.,  1 6) ;  J.  E.  Spingarn,  The  Sources  of  Jonson's 
'Discoveries'  (in  Modern  Philology,  April,  1905),  which  shows  his 
borrowings  from  Heinsius  and  other  continental  critics.  M.  Drayton, 
in  his  Epistle  to  Henry  Reynolds,  Esq.,  of  Poet  and  Poesie  (1627), 
praises  Chaucer  and  Spenser,  ranking  the  latter  next  to  Homer.  Henry 
Reynolds  (Mythomystes,  Wherein  a  Short  Survey  is  taken  of  the  Nature 
and  Value  of  true  Poesy  and  Depth  of  the  Ancients  above  our  Modern 
Poets.  i633(?))  follows  Pico  della  Mirandola  (Opera  Omnia.  Basle: 
1572)  in  interpreting  the  'fables'  of  Homer  as  mystical  allegories  of 
divine  wisdom.  The  same  tendency  is  seen  in  Bacon's  Wisdom  of 
the  Ancients.  Compare  Spectator,  No.  221.  In  his  Jeremiad  over 
the  poets  of  the  moderns,  Reynolds  excepts,  among  others,  Tasso, 
Ariosto,  and  Spenser,  because  of  their  "  moral  philosophy."  Sir 
William  Alexander's  Anacrisis,  or  a  Censure  of  some  Poets  Ancient 
and  Modern  (i634(?).  Cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  .p.  395)  is  in  advance  of 
the  usual  poets'  muster  found  in  Meres,  Bolton,  Peacham,  Drayton, 
et  al.  Sir  William  dares  to  disagree  with  Scaliger,  and  to  criticize 
Virgil  for  picturing  Turnus  as  a  coward ;  finds  but  one  blemish  in 
Tasso ;  realizes  that  to  the  ancients  their  myths  were  truths,  —  not 
fictions ;  and  "  allows  that  an  epic  poem  should  consist  altogether  of 
a  fiction,"  but  that  it  "is  more  agreeable  with  the  gravity  of  a  tragedy 
that  it  be  grounded  upon  a  true  history."  A  list  of  the  "  chief  critical 
loci  in  Milton"  will  be  found  in  Saintsbury's  Hist.  Crit.  (II,  366,  Note), 
and  a  reprint  of  the  same  in  Spingarn 's  Crit.  Ess.  (I,  I94ff.).  Notice 
Milton's  high  and  serious  conception  of  poetry  —  for  the  greater  glQry 
of  God  and  the  education  of  man  —  and  his  obiter  dictum  against 
rhyme  in  the  epic  (cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  395-396).  In  the  Reason 
of»Church  Government  (1641)  is  a  passage  contrasting  the  "diffuse" 
epic  of  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Tasso  with  the  "  brief "  epic,  such  as  the 
Book  of  Job.  For  Sir  William  Davenant  and  Thomas  Hobbes  (1650), 
see  above,  §  8.  Hobbes  holds  that  epic  and  tragedy  are  the  poetry 
of  the  court,  comedy  of  the  city,  pastoral  comedy  and  bucolics  of 


562  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

the  country.  Abraham  Cowley  (Preface  to  Poems,  1656)  would 
baptize  the  epic  in  Jordan,  —  substitute  Biblical  subjects  for  classical. 
See  also  Cowley's  notes  on  the  Davideis  (cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  397). 
Thomas  Sprat's  Account  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Mr.  Abraham 
Cowley  (in  the  Works  of  Cowley.  1668)  contains  a  brief  eulogy  of 
the  Davideis  and  a  defense  of  Cowley's  use  of  Biblical  phrases  and 
figures.  T.  Rymer's  Preface  to  his  translation  of  Rapin  (vol.  II, 
1 674 ;  see  above,  §  8)  contains  some  criticism  of  Spenser,  Davenant, 
Cowley,  Tasso,  Chapelain,  Le  Moyne,  and  others.  The  Preface  to 
Edward  Phillips'  Theatrum  Poetarum  (1675)  contains  a  definition  of 
the  epic,  and  a  short  notice  of  its  proper  subject-matter  and  its 
'  decorum.'  See  also  Phillips'  Compendious  Enumeration  of  the  Poets 
(1669)  for  praise  of  Paradise  Lost  (cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  398,  401; 
Spingarn,  Crit.  Ess.,  II,  350).  The  Essay  on  Poetry  (1682)  of 
J.  Sheffield,  Earl  of  Mulgrave,  Duke  of  Buckingham  (Works.  2  vols. 
Lond. :  1723;  wherein  see  vol.  I,  p.  146),  is  a  labored  imitation  of 
Horace  and  Boileau.  It  is  mentioned  by  Dryden  (and  Gildon,  Garth, 
and  Pope)  with  high  praise,  for  policy's  sake  (cf.  Spectator,  No.  253), 
but  is  more  truly  estimated  by  Warton,  who  says  that  Mulgrave  dis- 
coursed upon  the  different  species  of  poetry  "  to  no  other  purpose 
than  to  manifest  his  own  inferiority."  See  also  the  Essay  on  Trans- 
lated Verse  by  the  Earl  of  Roscommon,  i.e.,  W.  Dillon  (1684.  The 
imitation  of  Milton  in  blank  verse  was  added  to  the  second  ed.,  1685. 
Cf.  Spingarn,  Crit.  Ess.,  II,  356).  For  Sir  William  Temple's  brief 
notices  of  the  epic  (1690)  see  vol.  Ill  of  his  Works  (4  vols.  Lond.: 
1814,  pp.  313-319  Of  Heroic  Virtue;  pp.  415-417,  423  Of  Poetry). 
T.  P.  Blount,  De  Re  Poetica :  or,  Remarks  upon  Poetry,  etc.  ( 1 694, 
pp.  58-62):  a  mere  cento  of  Rapin,  Mulgrave,  and  Temple.  Vindi- 
cation of  Paradise  Lost  (ed.  by  Charles  Gildon,  1694.  See  Spingarn, 
Crit.  Ess.,  Ill,  198;  and  cf,  pp.  321-322  for  references  to  other  early 
notices  of  Milton,  previous  to  the  papers  in  the  Spectator} :  compare 
E.  N.  S.  Thompson,  Essays  on  Milton  (Yale  Univ.  Press,  1914),  and 
R.  D.  Havens,  Seventeenth  Century  Notices  of  Milton  (in  Eng.  Studies, 
4Q:  175,  187.  1909).  William  Wotton,  Reflections  upon  Ancient 
and  Modern  Learning  (1694):  "That  though  a  very  great  deal  is  to 
be  given  to  the  genius  and  judgment  of  the  poet,  which  are  both 
absolutely  necessary  to  make  a  good  poem,  what  tongue  soever  the 
poet  writes  in;  yet  the  language  itself  has  so  great  an  influence,  that 
if  Homer  and  Virgil  had  been  Polanders,  or  High-Dutch-Men,  they; 
would  never,  in  all  probability,  have  thought  it  worth  their  while  to 
attempt  the  writing  of  heroick  poems"  (Chap.  Ill,  pp.  34-35.  See 


VII,  C]  ENGLISH  563 

also  the  defense  of  Virgil  in  Chap.  IV).  R.  Blackmore,  Preface  to 
Prince  Arthur  (1695):  "An  epic  poem  is  a  feigned  or  devised  story 
of  an  illustrious  action,  related  in  verse,  in  an  allegorical,  probable, 
delightful,  and  admirable  manner,  to  cultivate  the  mind  with  instruc- 
tions of  virtue"  (cf.  Le  Bossu,  I,  3).  J.  Dennis,  Remarks  on  a 
Book,  entituled  Prince  Arthur,  an  Heroick  Poem  (1696):  this,  "doubt- 
less the  earliest  ^example  of  the  complete  application  of  Le  Bossu's 
Aristotelianism  to  the  study  of  an  English  epic,  forestalls  by  many 
years  Addison's  similar  treatment  of  Paradise  Lost "  (Spingarn,  Crit. 
Ess.,  I,  ciii).  For.  Dryden's  criticism  of  the  epic,  see  above,  §  8. 
As  aids  to  the  study  of  Dryden,  the  student  should  consult  Gayley 
and  Scott,  §§20,  21;  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Crit.,  2:  371-389;  W.  E. 
Bonn,  The  Development  of  John  Dryden's  Literary  Criticism  (re- 
printed from  the  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.  of  America,  XXII,  Hi.  1907); 
P.  Hamelius,  Die  Kritik  in  der  englischen  Lit.  d.  17.  u.  1 8.  Jahrhs. 
(Leipz. :  1897);  W.  P.  Ker,  Essays  of  John  Dryden  (Oxford:  1900); 
Rigault  (cited  above,  §8),  p.  310  ff.;  C.  A.  F.  Weselmann,  Dryden 
als  Kritiker  (Gottingen :  1893.  Diss.);  L.  J.  Wylie,  Studies  in  the 
Evolution  of  English  Criticism  (Boston :  1 894.  Chap.  I).  Charles 
Boyle,  Dr.  Bentley's  Dissertations  on  the  Epistles  of  Phalaris,  etc. 
(1698):  Boyle's  view  of  the  claim  of  Empedocles'  poem  to  the  title 
of  epic  is  more  in  accord  with  Aristotle  and  the  modern  view  than 
are  the  arguments  of  Bentley  (see  below).  For  Boyle's  views,  see 
the  4th  ed.  (1745),  pp.  45,  195.  Richard  Bentley,  Dissertations  upon 
the  Epistles  of  Phalaris  (1699.  First  ed.  published  as  an  appendix 
to  the  second  ed.  of  Wotton's  Reflections  upon  Ancient  and  Modern 
Learning.  See  the  Works  of  Bentley,  ed.  by  Alexander  Dyce,  3  vols., 
Lond. :  1836-38,  vol.  I,  pp.  418-420):  a  table  of  the  great  variety  of 
poems  termed  epics  by  the  ancients,  —  cited  in  justification  of  calling 
Empedocles'  Epicharmoi  an  epic. 

C.  Eighteenth  Century. 

.  For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  v,  c.  The  chief  aid,  bearing  directly 
upon  criticism  of  the  epic,  is  in  Finsler  and  Blankenburg ;  see  also 
Irene  Myers,  op.  cit.,  pp.  24-27. 

The  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  marks  no  logical  division 
in  the  history  of  English  criticism  of  the  epic.  The  pseudo- 
classicism  of  the  previous  century  extends  to  the  middle  of 
this  century,  if  not  further.  Addison's  is  the  first  name  of  im- 
portance (see  above,  §  8).  For  the  admirably  critical  qualities 


564  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

of  his  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination  see  Gayley  and  Scott,  p.  407. 
His  criticisms  of  Paradise  Lost  (1711-12)  and  Chevy  Chase 
belong,  however,  in  general  method,  if  not  altogether  in  subject, 
to  the  formalism  of  the  previous  century.  As  Professor  Saints- 
bury  says,  his  criticism  of  Milton  "  is  actually  more  antiquated 
than  Dryden's,  in  assuming  that  the  question  whether  Milton 
wrote  according  to  Aristotle  is  coextensive  with  the  question 
whether  he  wrote  good  poetry  "  (Hist.  Crit.,  2  :  443).  Addison's 
chief  contributions  to  epic  criticism  were  not  so  much  new  develop- 
ments as  new  applications  of  theory  :  they  consisted  in  popularizing 
old  theory  and  applying  it  to  the  ballad.  Conventional  criticism 
ripened  in  the  hands  of  Dryden  and  Addison ;  it  fell  dry  among 
their  followers. 

During  the  century  epic  criticism  assumed  two  new  aspects. 
The  first,  which  was  purely  academic,  had  been  stimulated  by 
the  Wotton- Boyle- Bentley  '  ancient  and  modern '  controversy 
at  the  end  of  the  previous  century,  and  was  now  carried  on 
by  Trapp,  Spence,  Warton,  Warburton,  and  others.  In  their 
epic  criticism  these  men  relied  in  part  upon  the  cpntinental 
critics;  but  the  growth  of  research,  to  which  Bentley's  philo- 
logical and  historical  method  had  given  an  impetus,  meant,  in 
the  long  run,  a  gradual  liberation  from  false  views  and  artificial 
rules.  English  scholarship  afforded  a  conservative  but  supporting 
background  to  the  second  and  more  radical  of  the  new  aspects 
of  epic  criticism,  —  the  romantic. 

The  romantic  opinions  of  Young  and  Warton  were  only  pre- 
paratory to  those  of  Hurd,  Percy,  and  Clara  Reeve.  For  Warton, 
forty  years  after  the  ridicule  of  '  rules '  in  Pope's  Recipe,  Le 
Bossu  is  still  an  accredited  lawgiver,  and  Young  does  not  inveigh 
against  rules,  as  such,  to  the  extent  often  supposed.  At  first 
romantic  opinion  held  that  within  the  scope  of  '  rules '  the  human 
spirit  might  dare  to  do  as  greatly  as  the  ancients.  "  Our  ignorance 
of  the  possible  dimensions  of  the  mind  of  man  "  supplied  Young 
with  the  hope  that  genius  by  its  own  tour  de  force  might  win 
unforeseen  triumphs. 


VII,  C]  ENGLISH  565 

It  remained  for  later  essays  to  throw  off  the  old  '  rules '  of 
pseudo-classicism,  and  to  begin  the  modern,  historical  —  or  kul- 
turhistorisch  —  account  of  the  epic.  Two  events  of  promise  fur- 
thered this  new  development :  first,  the  recognition,  by  Hurd 
(1762),  of  the  similarities  of  the  manners  of  the  medieval  ro- 
mances and  the  Homeric  epics ;  second,  the  discovery,  by  Percy 
(1765)  and  Clara  Reeve  (1785),  of  the  literary  similarities  of 
these  poems  (compare  below,  §12,  Wood  on  Homer,  1769; 
also  below,  §11,  Blackwell,  2d  ed.  1736).  From  such  compari- 
sons followed  naturally  an  estimate  of  the  epic  in  terms  of  its 
peculiar  relations  to  periods  and  social  conditions  rather  than 
to  the  '  rules '  of  literary  critics.  The  early  appearance  of  these 
views  in  England  shows  clearly  how  generally  diffused,  how 
European,  was  the  historical  sentiment  out  of  which  grew,  in 
1795,  in  Germany,  Wolf's  epoch-making  Prolegomena  (see 
below,  §  n). 

The  following  references  may  be  suggested :  Addison's  criticism 
of  the  epic:  see  above,  §8;  Gayley  and  Scott,  §21;  A.  Hansen, 
Addison  som  litteraer  Kritiker  (Kopenhagen :  1883);  K.  Kabelmann, 
J.  Addisons  lit.  Kritik  "im  Spectator  (Rostock:  1900.  Diss.);  Saints- 
bury,  Hist.  Grit,  2:  432  ff.,  437-448,  et  passim;  W.  J.  Courthope, 
Addison  (Lond. :  1884);  E.  Saude",  Die  Grundlagen  der  -  literarischen 
Kritik  bei  J.  Addison  (Berlin:  1906).  Jonathan  Swift,  The  Battle 
of  the  Books  (1710):  see  the  descriptions  of  Homer  and  Virgil, 
and  of  Virgil's  meeting  with  Dryden.  See,  also,  in  A  Letter  of 
Advice  to  a  Young  Poet  (1721),  the  satirical  reference  to  the  young 
Dublin  poet  who  was  bent  on  "  bestowing  rhyme  upon  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost."  In  his  Characteristics  (1711),  Lord  Shaftesbury 
pays  more  attention  to  comedy  and  tragedy  than  to  the  epic.  But  in 
a  note  to  §  III  of  the  discourse  on  the  Freedom  of  Wit  and  Humour, 
Le  Bossu  is  praised  as  one  who  "  in  that  admirable  comment  and 
explanation  of  Aristotle  (Du  Poeme  Epique),  has  perhaps  not  only 
shown  himself  the  greatest  of  the  French  critics,  but  presented  the 
world  with  a  view  of  ancient  literature  and  just  writing  beyond  any 
other  modern  of  whatever  nation."  In  the  Advice  to  an  Author,  the 
blank  verse  of  Milton  is  praised  and  Paradise  Lost  is  said  to  lack 
softness  of  language  and  the  fashionable  turn  of  wit;  the  absence 
of  the  personal  note  of  the  author  in  the  epic  is  noted,  and  the  epic 


566  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

is  confused  with  the  drama  in  the  statement,  based  on  Aristotle,  that 
the  tragic  poet  need  only  erect  a  stage  and  draw  the  dialogues  and 
characters  of  Homer  into  scenes  in  order  to  make  a  tragedy  out  of 
the  Iliad.  The  Christian  religion  is  held  to  be  no  fit  subject  for  poetic 
exploitation.  Alexander  Pope  (Essay  on  Criticism.  Written  about 
1709;  printed  1711)  pictures  Virgil  "with  a  sort  of  ciphering  book 
before  him,  '  totting  up '  Homer,  Nature,  and  the  Stagirite,  and  finding 
thern  all  exactly  equivalent."  Compare  Spectator,  No.  253.  The  cele- 
brated Receipt  to  Make  an  Epic  Poem,  ridiculing  Le  Bossu  and 
Mambrun,  appeared  in  the  Giiardian  (No.  78,  June  10,  1713),  and 
was  afterward  incorporated  in  The  Art  of  Sinking  in  Poetry,  Chap.  XV, 
on  which  see  Warton's  note.  The  Preface  to  the  Iliad  (1714-1720)  is 
a  conventional  seventeenth-eighteenth  century  discussion  of  Homer's 
supremacy  in  '  Invention '  as  shown  in  his  copious  fables  (which  are 
subdivided  into  probable,  allegorical,  and  marvellous  fables),  his  lively 
manners,  his  affecting  speeches,  his  sublime  sentiments,  his  animated 
images  and  descriptions,  his  elevated  and  daring  expression,  and  his 
rapid  and  various  numbers.  Virgil  excels  in  judgment.  See  also  the 
General  View  of  the  Epic  Poem  .  .  .  Extracted  from  Le  Bossu,  which 
was  prefixed  to  the  Odyssey  by  Broome ;  also  the  Postscript  to  the 
Odyssey.  Pope's  Plan  of  an  Epic  Poem  may  be  found  in  the  Works 
(ed.  by  William  Roscoe,  vol.  V,  398).  For  Pope's  fling  at  Milton's 
quibbling  archangels  and  pedagogue  of  a  god,  see  Imitations  of  Horace, 
Epistles  II,  i,  99;  cf.  Coleridge's  defense,  Table  Talk,  Sept.  4,  1833. 
R.  Blackmore,  Essays  upon  Several  Subjects  (1716).  J.  Trapp,  Prae- 
lectiones  Poeticae  (1716.  See  3d  ed.,  2  vols.,  1736,  vol.  II,  pp.  277- 
328).  Trapp  also  translated  Virgil,  with  many  notes  which  may  be 
consulted.  Of  the  translation  Dr.  Evans'  words  hold  true :  "  Read 
the  commandments,  Trapp,  translate  no  further ;  For  't  is  written, 
Thou  shalt  do  no  murder."  Compare  Edward  Young's  satire,  To  His 
Grace  the  Duke  of  Dorset.  Charles  Gildon,  in  his  Complete  Art  of 
Poetry  (2  vols.  1718.  Vol.  I,  pp.  267-303),  depends  more  directly 
upon  Aristotle  than  upon' the  French  adaptations  of  Aristotle.  Com- 
pare Gildon's  Laws  of  Poetry  (1720).  See  the  remarks  upon  the 
epic  in  J.  Welwood's  Preface  (1718)  to  Rowe's  translation  of  Lucan's 
Pharsalia  (Chalmers,  Eng.  Poets).  Joseph  Spence,  Essay  on  Pope's 
Odyssey  (i  726);  cf.  Saintsbury,  Hist  Crit.,  2  :  454,  Note  i.  J.  Dennis' 
Remarks  upon  the  Rape  of  the  Lock  (1728)  contains  a  passage  on 
'machines.'  Cf.  Saintsbury,  2:  435  and  Note,  marking  especially  the 
reference  to  Dennis'  religious  conception  of  Paradise  Lost.  Richard 
Bentley,  Dr.  Bentley's  Emendations  on  the  Twelve  Books  of  Paradise 


VII,  C]  ENGLISH  567 

Lost  (1732.  Published  the  same  year  as  Bentley's  ed.  of  P.  L.):  for 
a  bibliography  of  the  controversy  growing  out  of  Bentley's  emendations, 
see  A.  T.  Bartholomew  and  J.  W.  Clark,  Richard  Bentley,  D.D.,  A 
Bibliography,  etc.  (Cambridge:  1908.  Pp.  77-79).  J.  Richardson, 
Explanatory  Notes  and  Remarks  on  Paradise  Lost  ( 1 734).  An  Essay 
on  the  epic,  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  1735  (pp.  356-360). 
On  H.  Pemberton's  Observations  on  Poetry,  especially  the  Epic; 
occasioned  by  the  Poem  upon  Leonidas  [by  R.  D.  Glover]  (1738),  see 
the  notice  in  Warton's  Virgil  (1753.  Vol.  IV,  p.  345)  and  cf.  Saints- 
bury,  3:  83,  Note  i.  J.  Peterson,  A  Complete  Commentary  on 
Paradise  Lost  (1744).  Joseph  Spence,  Polymetis:  'or,  an  Enquiry 
Concerning  the  Works  of  the  Roman  Poets,  and  the  Remains  of  the 
Ancient  Artists,  Being  an  Attempt  to  illustrate  them  mutually  from 
one  another  (1747.  See  Dialogue  XX):  Spence's  recognition  of 
Homer's  gods  as  natural  and  moral  causes  approximates  our  present 
view  of  Homer's  so-called  '  machines '  as  a  mythological  system  of 
physics  and  psychology.  Henry  Fielding  discusses  the  use  of  the 
/marvellous  (Tom  Jones,  Chap.  I,  Bk.  VIII,  1749),  an^  shows  his  igno- 
I  ranee  of  the  real  nature  of  Homer's  gods  by  inclining  to  the  opinion 
I  that  Homer  "  had  an  intent  to  burlesque  the  superstitious  faith  of  his 
own  age  and  country."  In  the  Preface  to  his  Epigoniad  (1753), 
W.  Wilkie  descants  upon  choice  of  subject,  machinery,  style,  etc. 
See  Chalmers'  English  Poets,  1 6 :  1 23  ff.  Joseph  Warton  (Works 
of  Virgil,  4  vols.  1753.  Vol.  II,  pp.  iii-xxiii  Dissertation  on  the 
Nature  and  Conduct  of  the  Aeneid)  confessedly  relies  on  Le  Bossu. 
The  purpose  of  the  epic  is  the  instruction  of  mankind  by  "  displaying 
the  beauty,  and  excellence  of  virtue,  its  desirable  fruits  and  happy  con- 
sequences." Admiration  and  love,  rather  than  pity  and  fear,  should 
be  excited  by  the  epic :  note  the  hint  of  an  epic  catharsis.  The  Notes 
to  the  Aeneid  should' also  be  consulted;  in  them  will  be  found  many 
quotations  from  Spence,  Pope,  Addison,  Hurd,  Trapp,  Segrais,  Catrou, 
Le  Bossu,  Dacier,  and  others,  touching  (often  with  much  unconscious 
humor)  upon  the  conduct  of  the  epic  in  both  its  larger  and  smaller 
aspects.  See  especially  vol.  II,  pp.  8,  22,  26,  30,  52,  73,  92-95,  298, 
346;  vol.  Ill,  78,  82,  132,  200,  218,  342,  368;  IV,  2,  48,  152,  186, 
198,  244,  248,  322,  342,  422,  428.  See  vol.  Ill,  pp.  1-76,  Warburton's 
Dissertation  on  the  Sixth  Book  of  Virgil's  Aeneis  (from  the  Divine 
Legation,  etc.,  Bk.  II,  §  4):  an  attempt  to  show  that  "  Aeneas's  adven- 
ture to  the  infernal  Shades,  is  no  other  than  a  figurative  description  of 
his  initiation  into  the  Mysteries."  See,  also,  vol.  IV,  pp.  433-448, 
Warton's  Postscript.  Warton's  three  essays  on  the  merits  of  the 


568  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

Odyssey  appeared  in  the  Adventurer,  Nos.  75,  80,  83  (1753).  Con- 
siderable originality  is  displayed  in  the  defense  of  the  poem  against 
the  traditional  view  of  its  inferiority  to  the  Iliad.  On  the  inferiority  of 
the  modern  epic,  especially  Milton's,  see  No.  127  of  the  Adventurer. 
D.  Hume,  in  his  Letter  to  the  editors  of  the  Critical  Review  concern- 
ing the  Epigoniad  of  Wilkie  (April,  1759)  overrates  to  an  astonishing 
degree  the  all-but-forgotten  Scotch  '  Homer '  —  a  proof  of  Hume's 
lack  of  poetic  insight  as  well  as  of  his  national  partiality.  Edward 
Young,  Letter  to  Samuel  Richardson  on  Original  Composition  (1759. 
In  Young's  Works,  Dodsley,  3  vols.,  1798,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  173-213): 
the  polemic  against  slavish  imitation  is,  of  course,  general  in  nature ; 
that  it  is  directed  against  epic  imitators  as  well  as  against  others  may 
be  seen  from  the  remark  on  Homer,  p.  190 :  "  If  a  sketch  of  the  divine 
Iliad  before  Homer  wrote,  had  been  given  to  mankind  by  some  superior 
being,  or  otherwise,  its  execution  would  probably  have  appeared  beyond 
the  power  of  man :  now,  to  surpass  it  we  think  it  impossible.  As  the 
first  of  these  opinions  would  evidently  have  been  a  mistake,  why  may 
not  the  second  be  so  too  ?  Both  are  founded  on  the  same  bottom ; 
on  our  ignorance  of  the  possible  dimensions  of  the  mind  of  man." 
See  also  p.  194  for  criticism  of  Pope's  Homer.  Thomas  Gray's 
critical  thought  is  not  of  importance  to  the  theory  of  the  epic 
(Works.  Ed.  by  E.  Gosse.  4  vols.  Lond. :  1884.  See  Index,  under 
Erse  Poems;  note  the  passage,  Letter  119,  1756,  on  epic  and  lyric 
style).  J.  Newberry,  The  Art  of  Poetry  on  a  New  Plan  (2  vols. 
Lond.:  1761-62):  weak,  intended  for  the  young.  W.  Massey,  Re- 
marks upon  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  (1761).  H.  Home,  Lord  Kames, 
Elements  of  Criticism  (3  vols.  Edinburgh:  1762.  See  vol.  Ill, 
Chap.  XXII).  Bishop  Hurd,  in  the  light  of  his  analysis  of  the  simi- 
larity of  Gothic  and  Homeric  civilizations,  applauds  the  epic  character 
of  the  great  poems  of  chivalry  (Ariosto,  Tasso,  'Spenser),  and,  noting 
the  differences  in  the  two  civilizations,  deduces  therefrom  a  difference 
in  epic  unity,  —  a  Gothic  unity  of  'design'  as  distinguished  from  the 
classical  unity  of  action.  This,  together  with  Hurd's  support  of  Gothic 
marvels,  was  a  part  of  the  new  kulturhistorisch  view  of  the  epic  that 
was  making  its  way  into  favor  at  this  late  day  —  two  hundred  years 
after  similar  views  had  been  announced  by  the  Italians,  Cintio,  Pigna, 
Castelvetro,  and  Patrizzi  (see  above,  §  8,  under  Pigna).  For  Hurd's 
views,  see  Letters  on  Chivalry  and  Romance  ( 1 762.  Cf .  Saintsbury, 
Hist.  Crit.,  3 :  75-78).  Brief  references  to  the  theory  of  the  epic  will 
also  be  found  in  the  essay  On  the  Idea  of  Universal  Poetry  (that  verse 
is  essential  to  a  perfect  epic  and  that  the  literary  type  must  not  be 


VII,  C]  ENGLISH  569 

modified  at  pleasure),  and  in  the  Discourse  on  Poetical  Imitation  (epic 
vs.  history,  quoting  Bacon ;  strictures  upon  Gondibert).  For  these 
references,  see  the  Works  (8  vols.,  Lond.:  1811),  vol.  II,  pp.  19-20, 
179-181.  For  a  reply  to  the  criticism  of  Gondibert  see  J.  Aikin,  An 
Essay  upon  the  Heroic  Poem  of  Gondibert  (reprinted  in  vol.  II  of  Lucy 
Aikin's  Memoir  of  J.  Aikin,  etc.,  2  vols.  Lond.:  1823).  T.  Warton 
acknowledges  (Observations  on  the  Fairy  Queen  of  Spenser.  Lond. : 
1762)  that  it  is  absurd  to  judge  Ariosto  or  Spenser  by  precepts  to 
which  they  did  not  attend.  "  Spenser's  beauties  are  like  the  flowers 
in  Paradise,"  —  the  product  of  nature  rather  than  of  art.  E.  Gibbon, 
An  Inquiry  whether  a  Catalogue  of  the  Armies  sent  into  the  Field  is 
an  essential  part  of  an  Epic  Poem  (Dec.  23,  1 763) :  see  Miscellaneous 
Works  (3  vols.  Dublin:  1796.  Vol.  Ill,  p.  75).  In  his  essay  On  the' 
Ancient  Metrical  Romances  (1765)  Bishop  Percy  says:  "Should  the 
public  encourage  the  revival  of  some  of  those  ancient  epic  songs  of 
chivalry,  they  would  frequently  see  the  rich  ore  of  an  Ariosto  or  a 
Tasso,  though  buried,  it  may  be,  among  the  rubbish  and  dross  of 
barbarous  times."  Percy  recognized  the  epic  power  of  the  old  bards, 
but  did  not  generalize  his  notion  to  include  the  bardic  forebears  of 
Homer.  That  was  done  by  Mrs.  Clara  Reeve  (see  below),  who  quotes 
the  above  passage  from  Percy  on  p.  18  of  vol.  I  of  her  Progress  of 
Romance.  Percy  also  maintained  that  the  romance  Libius  Disconius 
has  all  the  qualities  mentioned  in  Fe"nelon's  definition  of  the  epic. 
"  Nature  and  common  sense  had  supplied  to  these  old  simple  bards 
the  want 'of  critical  art,  and  taught  them  some  of  the  most  essential 
rules  of  epic  poetry."  The  Libius  "  is  as  regular  in  its  conduct  [of 
the  fable]  as  any  of  the  finest  poems  of  classical  antiquity.  If  the 
execution,  particularly  as  to  the  diction  and  sentiments,  were  but  equal 
to  the  plan,  it  would  be  a  capital  performance ;  but  this  is  such  as 
might  be  expected  in  rude  and  ignorant  times,  and  in  a  barbarous, 
unpolished  language."  The  essay  on  Minstrelsy  should  not  be  over- 
looked. See  the  Bohn  ed.  of  the  Reliques  of  Ancient  Eng.  Poetry 
(2  vols.  1900),  vol.  II,  pp.  89-90,  92,  95.  For  Robert  Wood's 
Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  of  Homer  (1769),  see  below,  §  n.  / 
J.  Ogilvie,  Philosophical  and  Critical  Observations  on  the  Nature, 
Character,  and  Various  Species  of  Composition  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1774). 
V.  Knox,  Essays,  Moral  and  Literary  (1777.  See  I7th  ed.  3  vols. 
Lond.:  1815,  vol.  II,  pp.  12-15,  and  III,  259).  For  Dr.  Johnson's 
criticism  of  the  epic  (Life  of  Milton,  1 779-81 ),  see  above,  §  8.  See  the 
Preface  to  Fawkes'  translation  of  the  Argonautica  (1780.  In  Chalmers' 
Eng.  Poets,  20 :  245  ff.).  Mrs.  Clara  Reeve  (Progress  of  Romance, 


570  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

2  vols.  Colchester:  1785),  in  attempting  to  support  the  thesis  that  the 
romance  is  a  prose  epic,  anticipates  the  historical  method  of  criticism 
when  she  argues  that  romance  and  epic  have  grown  out  of  the  same 
conditions.  Epic  and  romance  "  spring  from  the  same  root,  —  they 
describe  the  same  actions  and  circumstances,  —  they  produce  the  same 
effects,  and  they  are  continually  mistaken  for  each  other  "  (vol.  I,  p.  16). 
In  vol.  IV  of  his  Historical  View  of  the  English  Government  (4th  ed. 
4  vols.  Lond. :  1818,  pp.  319-335.  ist  ed.  1787)  John  Millar  dis- 
cusses the  difference  between  epic  and  drama  as  regards  imagery  and 
the  subjective  attitude  of  the  poet.  After  considering  what  age  is 
best  suited  to  epic  poetry,  he  concludes  that  the  epic  is  an  obsolete 
form  and  that  the  novel  has  displaced  it.  A  straightforward  but  not 
thoroughly  convincing  line  of  argument.  Belsham's  Essays  (1791) 
have  been  commented  upon  above,  §  .8.  John  Hawkesworth's  Preface 
to  his  translation  of  the  Tele"maque  (2  vols.  Edinburgh :  1 792.  i  st  ed. 
1 768)  is  drawn  mostly,  and  without  acknowledgment,  from  the  Chevalier 
Ramsay's  Discours  prefixed  to  the  French  edition  of  the  Te'le'maque 
and  does  not  agree  with  the  view  (Voltaire)  that  the  French  have  no 
"  tete  tpique"  See  also  the  Adventurer,  No.  4  (1752),  for  Hawkes- 
worth's brief  suggestions  as  to  the  relations  of  history,  epic,  and  ro- 
mance. H.  J.  Pye's  A  Commentary  Illustrating  the  Poetic  of  Aristotle, 
etc.  (Lond. :  1 792),  contains  many  references  to  earlier  critics.  Hugh 
Blair  treats  Ossian  as  Addison  treated  Paradise  Lost  (Dissertation  on 
Ossiari.  In  the  Poems  of  Ossian.  2  vols.  Lond. :  1 796).  See  also 
the  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres  (1783). 

Notice  should  be  taken  of  the  numerous  periodicals  of  this  age. 
Some  of  these  have  been  mentioned  above,  §  3,  v,  c. 

D.  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  v,  D. 

The  general  characteristics  of  the  English  criticism  of  this 
period  are  noted  above  (§  3,  v,  D).  Here  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  suggest  the  broadest  divisions  of  criticism  as  applied  to  epic 
poetry. 

First  it  must  be  remembered  that  from  the  time  of  Wolf's 
Prolegomena  (1795;  see  below,  §  u)  the  pseudo-classical  con- 
ception of  the  epic  declined.  The  reason  for  this  is  obvious. 
The  result  of  the  work  of  Wolf  and  his  followers,  whatever  of 
exaggeration  and  vagary  may  have  attended  the  task,  had  been 


VII,  D]  ENGLISH  571 

to  establish  two  conceptions:  (i)  that  of  a  national  epopee  which 
is  the  final  product  of  a  long  process  of  communal  and  anonymous 
individual  composition,  and  presents  the  traditions  and  ideals  of 
a  whole  people  rather  than  'the  individual  thought  and  feelings 
of  a  particular  author ;  (2)  the  conception  of  the  imitative  epopee, 
often  national  in  its  traditional  materials,  but  peculiarly  the  product 
of  the  feelings  and  ideals  of  a  single,  known  poet,  who  works 
after  the  pattern  of  the  former,  or  original,  epopee.  But  the 
pseudo-classical  recipes  for  epic  composition  were  based  upon 
a  tacit  assumption  that  the  original  epopee,  such  as  the  Iliad, 
was  written  in  the  same  way  as  the  Aeneid  or  the  Henriade  or 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  and  that  therefore  any  poet  of  promise 
could  in  any  age  produce  an  Iliad  provided  he  observed  the 
formal  proprieties.  The  newer  criticism  differentiated  two  methods 
of  composition ;  the  older  knew  only  one,  based  its  criteria  thereon, 
and  necessarily  declined  when  the  error  in  its  assumption  became 
evident. 

Moreover  it  is  natural  that  the  new  way  of  regarding  such 
poems  as  the  Iliad,  the  Roland,  the  Beowulf,  the  Nibelungenlied, 
and  the  Cid,  should  direct  more  attention  to  the  cultural  con- 
ditions of  their  growth  than  to  their  formal  -poetic  qualities. 
More  and  more,  criticism  of  the  epic  has  come  to  consist  in  the 
investigation  of  the  conditions  of  commuhal  authorship  and  of 
minstrelsy,  of  stages  of  culture  peculiar  to  group  authorship,  of 
conditions  under  which  group  authorship  yielded  to  individual 
redaction  or  creation.  It  has  devoted  itself  also  to  textual  analysis 
with  a  view  to  showing  combinations  of  sources  and  determining 
strata  of  composition ;  and  to  other  allied  questions.  Not  that 
those  who  are  interested  in  these  problems  are  blind  to  poetic 
qualities  or  have  neglected  to  speculate  upon  the  philosophical 
meaning  of  the  epic  ;  but  the  new  study  is  primarily  historical  in 
character,  and  its  speculation  is  based  upon  the  significant  rela- 
tions of  the  epic  to  certain  cultural  conditions  rather  than  to  a 
universal  aesthetic  taste.  All  such  studies  have  therefore  been 
classed  in  this  work  under  an  historical  heading  (see  below, 


5/2  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

§§  10-12),  and  the  student  should  by  no  means  neglect  to  ex- 
plore such  works  for  all  that  they  contain  of  historical-economic- 
philosophical  speculation  on  the  nature  and  function  of  the  epic, 
including  incidental  references  to  aesthetic  criteria. 

What  then  is  the  general  character  of  the  modern  English 
works  upon  the  epic  which  remain  to  be  noted  at  this  place? 
Are  they  mere  left-overs  from  the  pseudo-classical  method  ?  or 
do  they  develop  those  principles  of  the  classical  doctrine  which 
remain  universally  true  (such  as  the  necessity  of  plot,  character, 
action  in  a  narrative  poem ;  the  necessity  of  consistency,  proba- 
bility, significance,  etc.)?  or  do  they  discover  new  aesthetic 
criteria?  All  this  and  much  else  the  student  will  find  in  these 
essays.  Comparative  treatment  of  technique  and  other  aesthetic 
details,  attempts  to  see  the  author  in  his  work  or  the  general 
spirit  of  an  age  in  the  poem,  interpretation  and  appreciation, 
psychology  and  philosophy,  —  all  these  may  be,  often  are,  united 
in  various  proportions  to  constitute  a  modern  essay  upon  the 
epic.  From  Coleridge  to  Arnold,  from  Macaulay  to  Professor 
Raleigh  the  contents  of  an  essay  upon  the  epic  vary  within  a 
certain  range  of  topics  that  are  adequately  enough  suggested 
by  the  titles  in.  §  8,  above.  Freed  from  the  kind-categories  of 
seventeenth-  and  eighteenth-century  criticism  the  modern  poetic 
censor  has  disported  in  fields  that  are  richer  and  wider,  though 
they  are  less  peculiarly  literary,  than  were  the  more  technical 
reaches  of  the  dictators  from  Horace  to  Dryden.  Therein,  by 
the  way,  lies  perchance  one  reason  for  the  absence  of  the  literary 
dictator  in  the  present  age.  But  perhaps  it  is  true  that  taken  as 
a  whole  the.  tendency  of  most  recent  criticism  that  is  not  purely 
historical  is  to  expound  and  appreciate  the  degree  of  poetic 
expressiveness  to  be  found  in  poems,  great  and  small.  True, 
epic  expressiveness,  as  distinct  from  lyric  or  dramatic  expressive- 
ness, may  at  times  engage  the  attention  of  the  critic;  but  we 
may  discern  a  tendency  to  regard  general  poetic  expressiveness 
rather  than  the  characteristics  of  a  type  (see  Spingarn,  The  New 
Criticism  (N.Y. :  1911)  and  cf.  Croce's  Aesthetics). 


VII,  D]  ENGLISH  573 

In  the  criticism  of  the  sort  suggested  here  the  student  must 
conduct  his  explorations  with  but  few  guides  and  directions.  His 
task  first  of  all  will  be  to  determine  by  such  analysis  as  is  possible 
the  variety  of  topics  discussed  and  the  degree  of  unanimity 
attained  in  the  discussion  of  each  topic.  The  search  for  ma- 
terials will  extend  through  many  essays  that  do  not  deal  primarily 
with  the  epic  as  well  as  through  those  devoted  to  the  subject. 
Here  we  can  note  only  a  few  typical  contributions.  Above,  in 
§  8,  many  important  critiques  have  already  been  annotated. 
Others  are  as  follows : 

W.  P.  Knight,  Principles  of  Taste  (2d  ed.  1805).  J.  Black,  Life 
of  Tasso  (2  vols.  1810).  W.  Hazlitt,  Lectures  on  the  English 
Poets  (1818).  See  especially  the  descriptions  (in  the  lecture  On 
Poetry  in  General)  of  Homer,  Dante,  and  Ossian :  "In  Homer, 
the  principle  of  action  or  life  is  predominant ;  in  the  Bible,  the 
principle  of  faith  and  the  idea  of  Providence ;  Dante  is  the  per- 
sonification of  blind  will ;  and  in  Ossian  we  see  the  decay  of 
life  and  the  lag  end  of  the  world."  See  also  the  essays  on  Spenser 
and  Milton.  Hazlitt's  description  of  Satan  is  noteworthy.  Thomas 
Campbell's  Essay  on  English  Poetry  (prefixed  to  Specimens  of  the 
British  Poets,  1819)  contributes  nothing  to  the  theory  of  the  poetic 
kinds,  but  we  may  note  the  contention  that  Hurd's  defense  of  the 
"  gothic "  unity  of  the  Faerie  Queene  does  not  persuade  us  that  the 
poem  is  not  too  intricate  and  diffuse.  Of  Milton's  union  of  pagan 
myth  and  Christian  story  Campbell  writes :  "  He  yoked  the  heathen 
mythology  in  triumph  to  his  subject,  and  clothed  himself  in  the  spoils 
of  superstition."  Henry  Neele,  in  the  second  of  his  lectures  on 
English  Poetry  (pp.  44-78,  Lond. :  1 830),  gives  a  spicy  characterization 
of  epic  and  narrative  poetry.  De  Quincey's  Brief  Appraisal  of  the 
Greek  Literature  (1838-39;  in  Taifs  Edinb.  Mag.*)  contains  the  asser- 
tions that  in  sublimity  Milton  far  transcends  Homer,  and  that  Chaucer 
is  superior  in  narrative  art,  characterization,  and  the  picturesque.  On 
Milton  as  the  greatest  and  almost  sole  example  of  sublimity,  compare 
the  essay  On  Milton  (1839;  in  Black-wood):  in  the  same  essay  see  a 
defense  of  Milton's  combination  of  the  Christian  and  pagan  pantheons. 
See  also  Milton  versus  Southey  and  Landor  (1847;  in  Taifs  Mag.). 
Note  De  Quincey's  preference  for  Christian  sublimities  over  those  of 
the  classical  epics  (Letters  to  a  Young  Man,  IV,  1823).  J.  A.  Froude, 
Homer  (in  Eraser's  Mag.,  1851 ;  and  Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects, 


574  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

ist  Series).  T.  Keightley,  An  Account  of  the  Life,  Opinions,  and 
Writings  of  John  Milton  (1855).  W.  Bagehot,  Literary  Studies 
(2  vols.  Lond. :  1879):  Milton  (1859),  I,  206 ff.;  cf.  II,  356:  the 
"  vicious  principle  "  in  Paradise  Lost.  J.  R.  Seeley,  Milton's  Poetry 
(in  Roman  Imperialism  and  Other  Lectures  and  Essays.  Boston: 
1871).  E.  H.  Bickersteth,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  (in  St.  James 
Lectures,  2d  Series.  1876).  Mark  Pattison,  Milton  (E.  M.  L.,  1879). 
Matthew  Arnold,  A  French  Critic  on  Milton  (in  Mixed  Essays,  1 880) ; 
for  Arnold  on  Homer,  see  above,  §  8.  For  a  discussion  of  the  literary 
epic  the  student  is  referred  to  the  comparison  between  Milton  and 
Virgil  by  G.  A.  Simcox,  vol.  II,  pp.  272-275,  of  his  History  of  Latin 
Literature  from  Ennius  to  Boethius  (2  vols.,  Lond.:  1883).  J.  A. 
Himes,  The  Plan  of  Paradise  Lost  (New  Englander,  42:  196-211. 
1883);  Study  of  Milton's  P.  L.  (1878).  Augustine  Birrell,  Milton, 
in  Obiter  Dicta,  2d  Series  (Lond.:  1887).  Aubrey  de  Vere,  Spenser, 
in  Essays,  Chiefly  on  Poetry  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1887).  E.  Dowden, 
Transcripts  and  Studies  (on  Milton  and  Spenser;  1888).  R.  Garnett, 
Life  of  John  Milton  (Great  Writers  Series,  1890).  Brother  Azarias, 
Spiritual  Sense  of  the  Divina  Commedia,  in  Phases  of  Thought  and 
Criticism  (Boston:  1893).  R.  Burton,  Nature  in  Old  English  Poetry 
(in  Atlantic  Mo.,  April,  1894).  F.  T.  Palgrave,  Landscape  in  Poetry 
from  Homer  to  Tennyson  (Lond. :  1897).  J.  M.  McBryde,  Jr.,  A 
Study  of  Cowley's  Davideis  (in  Jour.  Germ.  Philol.,  2:  454-527. 
1898).  Tyrrell,  Latin  Poetry:  Virgil  (1898).  J.  W.  Mackail,  Latin 
Literature:  Virgil  (3d  ed.  1899);  see  the  same  author's  Lectures  on 
Greek  Poetry  (1910)  and  Lectures  on  Poetry:  Virgil,  Dante  (1911). 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  his  work  on  Milton  (Lond.:  1900),  has  a 
clever  and  somewhat  paradoxical  discussion  of  the  poet  and  his  work. 
The  literary  influence  upon  Milton,  not  of  Spenser,  but  of  the  Eliza- 
bethan dramatists,  and  the  materialistic  nature  of  Milton's  genius,  are 
topics  of  interest.  Chap.  Ill  discusses  the  'scheme'  of  P.  L.,  and  has 
much  to  say  indirectly  upon  its  psychological  origin ;  in  Chap.  IV  the 
characters  and  epic  descriptions  are  treated  in  essay-fashion ;  Chaps.  V 
and  VI  are  devoted  to  Milton's  style  and  its  influence  upon  the  style 
of  English  poetry.  Great  promise  and  little  performance  characterize 
what  Dr.  H.  C.  Muller  has  .to  say  upon  the  epic  in  his  Lectures  on 
the  Science  of  Literature,  etc.,  ist  Series,  pp.  67-80  (Haarlem:  1904). 
W.  H.  Sheran,  A  Handbook  of  Literary  Criticism  (N.Y. :  1905), 
pp.  466-513.  S.  L.  Whitcomb,  The  Study  of  a  Novel,  p.  180:  the 
relation  of  novel  to  epic  (Boston :  1905).  Oliver  Elton,  Spenser,  in 
Modern  Studies  (Lond.:  1907).  In  the  Quarterly  Rev.  of  April, 


VIII,  A]  GERMAN  575 

1908,  vol.  208,  pp.  553-567,  is  an  article  by  W.  W.  Comfort  on  the 
Heroic  Ideal  of  the  French  Epic.  E.  G.  Sihler,  Testimonium 
Animae,  etc.  (N.Y. :  1908):  spiritual  elements  in  classical  civilization. 
H.  T.  Peck,  Studies  in  Several  Literatures  (N.Y.:  1909),  the  Odyssey. 
The  author  asserts  that  there  is  only  one  epic  (the  Odyssey)  that  has 
possessed  a  fascination  for  all  peoples  of  all  ages  since  its  completion, 
and  that  all  other  epics  "  survive  because  they  appeal  either  to  the 
pride  of  some  particular  race  or  nation,  or  because  they  are  made 
the  subject  of  special  study  by  highly  educated  persons."  A.  Austin, 
The  Bridling  of  Pegasus  (Lond. :  1910).  G.  Murray,  What  English 
Poetry  may  still  learn  from  the  Greek  (in  Atlantic  Mo.,  Nov.,  1912), 
—  an  admirable  essay.  E.  N.  S.  Thompson,  The  Theme  of  Paradise 
Lost  (Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  28:  106-120;  1913).  H.  E.  Cory, 
Edmund  Spenser,  a  Critical  Study  (Univ.  of  Calif .  Pubs.  Mod.  Philol., 
vol.  V.  Berkeley:  1917),  a  sympathetic  and  penetrative  study,  with  a 
review  of  the  critical  attitude,  1597  to  the  present,  toward  Spenser; 
should  be  consulted  for  valuable  suggestions  concerning  pastoral  and 
elegiac  poetry  as  well  as  the  romantic  epic. 

VIII.  German. 

Apparatus  for  the  general  history  of  German  criticism  is  cited  above, 
§  3,  vi.  The  most  helpful  guide  in  tracing  the  development  of  German 
theory  of  the  Homeric  poems,  and  so,  in  part,  of  general  epic  theory, 
is  G.  Finsler's  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit  (Berlin:  1912),  pp.  377-474  of 
which  carry  the  history  from  Erasmus  to  the  Schlegels.  A  very  brief 
rtsumt  is  contained  in  Irene  Myers'  Study  in  Epic  Development  (Yale 
Studies  in  English,  XI,  1901),  pp.  27-32. 

A.   To  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  vi,  A.  The  chief  aids  to  the  study  of 
epic  criticism  are  Borinski,  Finsler,  and  Blankenburg  (Art.  Helden- 
gedicht).  For  French  influence  upon  German  writings  on  epic  and 
romance  see  Borinski,  p.  347  ff.  See  also  J.  E.  Gillet,  Drama  urftl 
Epos  in  der  deutschen  Renaissance  (in  Jr.  of  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil., 
15:  35-  i9l6)- 

German  criticism  before  the  i8th  century  —  indeed,  until  the 
second  half  of  that  century  —  is  negligible.  What  there  is  relies 
naively  upon  Horace  and  Italian  and  French  poetics.  Finsler 
1  has  collected  references  to  show  a  Dutch,  German,  and  Swiss  know- 
ledge of  Homer  in  the  T6th  century  (see  his  notes,  pp.  377—387, 


576  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

on  Erasmus,  Jacobus  Latomus,  Johannes  Reuchlin,  Hutten, 
Melanchthon,  Luther,  Joachim  Camerarius,  Zwingli,  Rudolf  Collinus, 
Bullinger,  Eobanus  Hessus,  Simon  Lemnius,  Schaidenreisser,  and 
Hans  Sachs ;  for  titles  see  Finsler,  p.  489),  and  a  long  list,  of 
course,  could  be  made  up  of  those  acquainted  with  Virgil.  But 
this  knowledge  of  the  churchmen,  reformers,  philosophers,  and 
schoolmasters  involved  little  criticism :  Homer  was  praised,  in 
the  Horatian  way,  for  imparting  both  pleasure  and  instruction, 
and  in  the  earnest  way  of  Luther's  time  the  emphasis  was  laid 
upon  the  moral  teaching  hidden  in  his  fables ;  Hessus  supported 
Homer  against  Vida's  preference  for  Virgil,  and  occasionally  others 
refer  to  the  Homer-Virgil  comparison.  The  fathers  of  Germanic 
poetics  offer  but  little  more.  Fabricius  (De  Re  Poetica,  1565,  1584, 
1595)  relies  upon  Minturno,  Scaliger,  et  al.  Some  material 
may  be  found  in  the  third  book  of  the  Poetical  Institutions  of 
the  Dutch  savant  Voss  (De  Artis  Poeticae  Natura  ac  Constitutione, 
Amsterdam:  1647;  see  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Grit,  3:  359),  "all 
old  stuff  rehandled."  One  of  the  first  poetics  in  the  German 
tongue  is  the  Buch  von  der  deutschen  Poeterey  of  Martin  Opit2 
(Breslau :  1624;  in  Neudrucke  deutscher  Litteraturwerke  des 
1 6.  u.  17.  Jahrhs.,  i).  Nai've  and  superficial,  a  mere  copy 
of  ancient  and  Renaissance  critics',  relying  in  particular  upon 
Scaliger  (though  not  sharing  Scaliger's  Homeric  antipathies), 
Ronsard,  and  Heinsius,  this  rather  famous  little  work  has  only 
an  historical  importance.  On  pp.  19-22  of  the  edition  cited 
will  be  found  a  brief  account  of  some  parts  of  the  epic  and 
of  the  relations  of  epic  and  history.  Homer  is  mentioned,  but 
rft)t  as  by  one  who  had  read  him.  Awe,  or  wonder,  is  noted 
as  a  principal  ingredient  of  heroic  verse;  the  story  is  arranged 
"  in  such  order  as  if  one  thing  followed  the  other  and  came 
unsought  into  the  book  "  ;  the  epic  poem  is  long,  treats  of  great 
men  and  deeds,  and  begins  immediately  with  the  main  subject 
and  the  design  of  the  poet.  Caspar  Barth,  in  his  Adversariorum 
Commentariorum  Libri  60  (Frankfurt:  1624),  takes  Scaliger  to 
task  for  the  latter's  attacks  upon  Homer  (22  :  1479,  47  :  223°)- 


VIII,  B]  GERMAN  577 

Borinski  (pp.  120-121)  mentions  the  translation  of  the  Jerusalem 
Delivered  by  Dietrich  von  dem  Werder,  and  Augustine  Buchner's 
criticism  of  the  performance.  For  Sigmund  von  Birken  (1679), 
see  above,  §  6,  xm,  D,  and  cf.  Borinski,  p.  232.  D.  G.  Morhof, 
Unterricht  von  der  deutschen  Sprache  und  Poesie  (Kiel:  1682), 
Chap.  14.  Blankenburg  also  mentions,  without  date,  A.  C. 
Rothen's  Vollst.  deutscher  Poesie,  Pt.  3,  Chap.  6.  For  further 
notices  (Weckherlin,  Schdttel,  Zesen,  Weise,  Wernicke,  Werenfels, 
and  others)  see  Borinski,  as  noted  at  the  head  of  this  period. 
The  student  should  remember  that  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  be- 
ginning in  1618,  accounts  in  large  part  for  the  dearth  of  learned 
treatises  during  the  heart  of  the  German  iyth  century.  From 
the  close  of  that  war  French  influence  predominated  in  German 
literary  taste,  a  testimony  of  which,  so  far  as  the  epic  is  concerned, 
is  the  composition,  toward  the  close  of  the  century,  of  an  epic 
(Der  grosse  Wittekind,  by  C.  H.  Postel ;  published  posthumously, 
Hamburg:  1792)  on  the  model  of  Scude'ry's  Alaric  (see  Finsler, 
389-390). 

B.   Tfie  Eighteenth  Century. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  vi,  B.  The  chief  aids  are  Braitmaier, 
Finsler,  Neboliczka,  and  Blankenburg.  ,  For  theories  developed  at  the 
close  of  this  and  the  opening  of  the  next  century  see  K.  Fortmiiller, 
Die  Theorie  des  Epos  bei  den  Briidern  Schlegel,  den  Klassikern  und 
W.  von  Humboldt  (Progr^  Wien:  1903);  also  Harnack  and  Lotze, 
as  noted  above,  §  8. 

During  this  century  German  criticism  of  the  epic  advances  from 
the  negligible  quality  and  quantity  of  the  previous  century  to  a  fore- 
most position  in  the  European  study  of  the  epic.  The  history  of 
this  advance  may  be  conveniently  summarized  under  six  heads. 

Ii .  Pseudo-classicism  of  Gottsched  and  his  School.    In  our  review 
f  German   18th-century  criticism  of  the  lyric  we  have  already 
characterized  the  pseudo-classical  ideals,  under  French  influence, 
pf  J.  C.  Gottsched.    The  account  of  the  epic  given  in  this  author's 
arch-legislative  Versuch  einer  kritischen  Dichtkunst  (1730,  with 


578  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  l§  9 

later  enlarged  editions)  is  a  web  of  rules  from  within  outward. 
In  an  original  way  Gottsched  follows  Le  Bossu  and  Aristotle.  His 
opposition  to  the  marvellous,  the  enthusiastic,  and  the  romantic 
in  general  brought  him  into  the  famous  quarrel  with  the  Swiss 
School.  In  the  polemics  that  followed,  Gottsched  went  to  extremes 
of  classicism,  grudgingly  acknowledging  Homer,  scorning  Milton, 
ridiculing  Ariosto  and  Tasso  for  their  disordered  marvels.  Further 
samples  of  Gottschedian  criticism  may  be'  examined  in  the  numbers 
of  the  Beitrage  zur  kritischen  Historic  der  deutschen  Sprache, 
Poesie,  und  Beredsamkeit  (under  Gottsched's  direction,  1732-44). 
Finsler,  p.  394,  cites  a  typical  example  of  Gottsched's  use  of  the 
critical  yardstick,  —  his  criticism  of  Wolf  Helmhart  von  Hochberg's 
heroic  poem,  Der  habsburgische  Ottobert  (1664;  the  critique  is 
Stuck  8  of  the  Beitrage,  1734).  On  Gottsched  see  Braitmaier, 
op,  cit.\  E.  Reichel,  Gottsched  (2  vols.  Berlin:  1909-12);  also 
the  references  given  above,  §  6,  and  by  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20. 
For  later  examples  of  French  influence  see  J.  A.  SchlegeFs  trans- 
lation of  Batteux  (for  whom  see  §  8)  with  the  addition  of  com- 
mentaries in  which  the  poetic  kinds  are  duly  considered  and 
the  place  of  the  marvellous  duly  discussed  (1751  and  later) ; 
J.  F.  von  Bielfeld  (noted  above,  §  3,  vi,  B). 

2.  The  Swiss  School  and  the  Mi/tonic  Controversy.  In  1724, 
J.  J.  Bodmer,  a  Swiss,  translated  Paradise  Lost;  and  about  1740 
the  Swiss  defense  of  Milton's  blank  verse,  romantic  suggestiveness, 
and  use  of  the  supernatural  began.  In  the  Kritische  Abhandlung 
von  dem  Wunderbaren  in  der  Poesie  ...  in  einer  Vertheidigung 
des  Gedichtes  J.  Miltons,  etc.  (Zurich:  1740),  Bodmer  took  up  the 
cudgels  against  Voltaire  and  other  neo-classical  critics  of  Milton. 
For  his  views  reduced  to  practice  the  student  may  turn  to  his 
Noachide,  an  attempt  at  an  epic.  In  1740  J.  Breitinger,  Bodmer's 
brother  in  arms,  also  discoursed  upon  the  marvellous  in  a  Kritische 
Dichtkunst  (Zurich),  which  in  spite  of  some  naive  observations  on 
epic  and  Aesopic  fable  contributed  ideas  of  worth ;  but  even  they 
were  partly  borrowed.  In  a  comparison  of  Homer  and  Virgil 
he  recognized  the  Greek  as  the  greater  natural  genius,  the 


VIII,  B]  GERMAN  579 

Roman  as  the  greater  artist  (for  which  idea  see  Pope  and 
Addison).  Gottsched,  in  later  editions  of  his  Versuch  einer 
kritischen  Dichtkunst,  controverted  the  Swiss  heresies,  and  there 
ensued  a  very  wordy  war  conducted  largely  by  means  of  periodicals 
of  extraordinary  titles,  for  the  full  account  and  bibliography  of 
which  one  may  consult  Braitmaier.  Among  the  contemporary 
defenders  of  Milton  was  C.  F.  Nicolai ;  but  his  Briefe  iiber 
den  jetzigen  Zustand  der  schonen  Wissenschaften  in  Deutschland 
(1755)  displayed  antagonism  to  both  the^  Gottschedian  and  Swiss 
schools.  In  the  end  the  heretics  had  the  better  of  the  argument ; 
and,  what  was  essentially  valuable,  they  prepared  the  way  for 
the  appreciation  of  Milton  in  Germany.  The  elucidation  also 
of  the  Homeric  epics  and  their  liberation  from  pedantic,  neo- 
classical criticism  were  furthered  by  these  Swiss  critics.  Bodmer's 
Kritische  Betrachtungen  iiber  die  poetischen  Gemalde  der  Dichter 
(Zurich:  1741;  see  index  under  Episches,  Homerus,  Tasso,  Virgil, 
etc.)  and  Breitinger's  previous  Kritische  Abhandlung  von  der  Natur, 
den  Absichten  und  dem  Gebrauche  der  Gleichnisse  (1740)  con- 
tributed to  this  result  both  by  defending  Homer  against  French 
attacks  and  by  developing  the  appreciation  of  Homeric  description. 
(For  Bodmer's  minor  Homeric  essays  see  Finsler,  407-408.)  It 
should  be  remembered,  however,  that  for  practically  all  of  their 
work,  these  friends  borrowed  freely  from  the  French  and  English. 
Breitinger's  work  on  Homeric  comparison,  for  instance,  derives 
in  great  part,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  from  Mme.  Dacier, 
Lamotte,  Boileau,  Saint-Flvremond,  Pope,  Addison,  Spence,  and 
others.  Indeed  the  two  Swiss  critics  had  twenty  years  before 
been  much  on  a  level  with"  French  pseudo-classical  criticism,  and 
had  once  been  in  substantial  critical  agreement  with  Gottsched 
himself;  but  opposition  to  French  influence  in  German  poetry 
had  been  the  '  fruit-bringing '  factor  of  this  Gesellschaft.  The 
student  may  read  with  interest  Bodmer's  critical  weekly,  Diskurse 
der  Maler,  1721  ;  and  note  the  extent  to  which  Bodmer  and 
Breitinger  relied  upon  the  epigram  of  Simonides,  that  painting 
is  mute'  poetry,  poetry  a  speaking  picture. 


580  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

3.  Influence  of  the  New  School  of  Aesthetics.  "  But  while  on 
either  side  the  adherents  of  Bodmer  and  Gottsched  were 
exaltirfg  for  imitation  antagonistic  models  of  poetic  perfection, 
it  appeared  to  another  critic  that  both  parties  misunderstood 
the  nature  of  the  subject.  This  was  Baumgarten,  who,  by  his 
De  Nonnullis  ad  Poema  pertinentibus  (1735)  and  his  Aesthetics 
(2  Bde.,  1750-58),  exhibited  the  relation  of  poetics  to  aesthetics 
and  established  the  position  of  the  latter  as  an  independent  science  " 
(Gayley  and  Scott,  423-424).  The  influence  of  Baumgarten  is  well 
explained  in  J.  G.  Sulzer's  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schdnen  Kiinste, 
etc.,  1771,  noted  above,  §  8,  with  reference  to  its  valuable  bibliog- 
raphies. Sulzer's  articles  on  Held  and  Heldengedicht  marked  an 
advance  toward  a  new  cultural,  comparative,  aesthetic  view  of  the 
epic,  as  will  be  seen  in  his  treatment  of  the  following  topics  :  origin 
of  epic  material  (in  heroic  songs  sung  at  festivals  of  the  lower 
races),  character  of  the  epic  hero,  unity  and  simplicity  of  action, 
moral  significance  and  function  of  the  epic,  variety  of  epic 
subjects.  Further  theory  of  the  epic,  matured  under  the  new 
influence,  may  be  traced  in  the  works  of  Mendelssohn  and 
Engel,  as  noted  above,  §  2  ;  J.  A.  Eberhard,  Theorie  der  schonen 
Kiinste  und  Wissenschaften  (1783),  Handbuch  der  Aesthetik 
(4  vols.  1803-05);  Gellert,  Wie  weit  sich  der  Nutzen  der 
Regeln  in  d.  Beredsamkeit  und  Poesie  erstrecke  (Sammt.  Schr., 
Berlin:  1774-75,  7:  117-154).  In  every  field  of  literary  criti- 
cism the  importance  of  aesthetics  as  a  science  is  recognized: 
one  may  readily  apprehend  the  effect  in  the  works  of  Lessing, 
Nicolai,  Herder,  Goethe,  Schiller,  Richter,  and  the  rest  of  the 
great  German  writers  of  the  second  half  of  the  i8th  and  of 
the  i  Qth  century.  Specific  mention  as  of  typical  purport  may 
be  made  of  Nicolai's  Bibliothek  der  schonen  Wissenschaften 
(1757-60),  in  which  Mendelssohn  had  a  hand,  and  his  Briefe 
die  neueste  Literatur  betreffend  (1759-66),  in  which  both 
Mendelssohn  and  Lessing  aided ;  and  of  Lessing's  famous 
Laokoon  (1766).  By  way  of  illustrating  the  limits  of  poetry  and 
painting,  and  toning  down  the  Swiss  critics,  Lessing  expounds, 


VIII,  B]  GERMAN  581 

not  always  correctly,  but  in  the  broad  manner  of  the  new 
school,  Homer's  indirect  method  of  presenting  description 
through  action  or  through  effect  upon  the  beholder.  With 
regard  to  Lessing's  argument,  Finsler's  suggestion  (pp.  at.,  424) 
is  worthy  of  notice :  that  Homer's  purpose  in  such  '  indirect 
descriptions '  was  not  descriptive  at  all,  since  in  every  such  case 
the  object  was  so  well  known  to  the  audience  as  not  to  need 
describing;  that,  on  the  other  hand,  Homer  did  describe,  directly 
and  at  length,  what  was  not  known  to  his  audience. 

4.  Herder  and  the  Rise  of  the  Historical  School.  The  comparative 
view  of  aesthetics  suggested  an  historical  method,  but  to  Herder 
must  be  given  the  credit  for  so  conceiving  and  expressing  the 
high  significance  and  romantic  possibilities  of  this  method  as  to 
catch  the  imagination  of  men  and  develop  what  may  well  be  called 
the  new,  or  historical,  humanism.  Baumgarten  and  aesthetics, 
Herder  and  the  genetic  method  :  from  such  seed  German  criticism 
sprang ;  and  Lessing,  Goethe,  Schiller,  Richter,  and  the  Schlegels 
nurtured  the  plant  and  gave  it  European  preeminence.  Of  Herder 
we  shall  speak  in  §  n  ;  also  see  above,  §§  2,  8.  Suffice  it  here 
to  remind  the  student  that  to  his  revolt  against  the  unhistorical 
dicta  and  methods  of  neo-classicism,  and  to  his  vision  of  the 
evolution  of  culture,  modern  literary  study  owes  one  of  its  prime 
impulses.  Herder's  publications  began  in  1767.  Gerstenberg,  the 
year  before,  had  protested  in  his  Brief e  iiber  die  Merkwiirdigkeiten 
der  Literatur  with  true  romantic  vigor  against  the  neo-classical 
formalism,  especially  against  Thomas  Warton's  method  of  criti- 
cizing Spenser.  Not  to  rules  and  formulas,  said  Gerstenberg, 
but  to  the  natural  genius  of  the  poet  should  the  critic's  attention 
be  directed.  Virgil  and  Ben  Jonson  and  Corneille  were  great, 
but  they  lacked  poetic  genius;  Homer  and  Shakespeare  were 
possessed  of  it  (see  Briefe  i,  2,  3,  19,  20,  etc.).  Even  seven 
years  earlier,  J.  G.  Hamann  also,  whose  influence  upon  Herder 
was  great,  had  espoused  the  principle  of  literary  evolution,  had 
applied  it  to  the  Homeric  epic  and  the  earlier  periods  of  national 
literature,  and  had  protested,  pari  passu,  against  neo-classic 


582  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

misconceptions  of  epic  composition.  (Finsler,  who  gives  an  excellent 
account  of  Hamann,  pp.  428-429,  offers  the  following  references: 
Hamann's  Schriften,  ed.  F.  Roth,  Berlin:  1824-43.  i:  514; 
2  :  220,  257,  440  ;  3  :  6,  22,  431.  But  the  student  should  inquire 
further ;  he  should  also  compare  Hamann's  point  of  view  with 
that  of  Blackwell,  1736,  as  noted  in  §  n.)  Later  protests  may 
be  found  in  Goethe's  Schreiben  iiber  den  Homer  von  Seybold 
(Kleine  Schriften,  1772)  and  J.  B.  Merian's  Comment  les  sciences 
influent  dans  la  poe"sie  (Mem.  de  f  Acad.  Royale,  1773-74.  Berlin : 
1776,  p.  455).  Whatever  the  distant  origins  of  the  new  order,  the 
vision  was  Herder's  and  the  battle-cry. 

This  new  criticism  was  much  concerned  with  the  epic.  The 
Homeric  epic  became  the  chief  support  of  the  evolutionary  theory. 
The  probable  development  of  the  Iliad  from  'primitive'  poetic 
forms,  —  ballads  and  lays,  —  its  characteristic  connection  with 
certain  stages  of  social  evolution,  and  its  value  as  an  historical 
palimpsest  —  of  these  Herder  has  much  to  say ;  and  of  epic  in 
general:  of  its  relation  to  folk-poetry  and  national  consciousness, 
of  correspondences  in  stages  of  belief  and  stages  of  epic  develop- 
ment, of  the  living  traditions  involved  in  the  epos,  of  how  written 
history  supersedes  the  epos,  and  of  other  allied  topics.  Nor  does 
he  avoid  significant  questions  of  technical  theory,  such  as  the  use 
of  myth  in  Christian  epics,  the  comparative  excellence  of  epic 
and  tragedy,  or  the  function  of  description  in  the  epic  (for  a 
more  complete  statement  see  references  to  Herder  in  4§  8,  n). 
Especial  attention  may  be  directed  to  Herder's  Ossianic  studies 
and  to  the  influence  of  English  criticism  and  literature  upon 
his  theory  of  the  epic  (see  §  n). 

5.  The  Classicism  of  Go€tht,  Schiller,  and  von  Humboldt.  Most 
of  the  criticism  of  Goethe  and  Schiller  with  which  we  have  to 
do  belongs  not  to  their  Sturm  und  Drang  but  to  their  classi- 
cal period.  They  and  von  Humboldt,  though  fructified  by  the 
aesthetic  and  historical  methods,  cling  nevertheless  to  the  con- 
viction that  a  critic  should  sit  in  judgment  and  that  he  should 
judge  according  to  principles.  Accordingly  their  reflections,  letters, 


VIII,  B]  GERMAN  583 

reviews,  and  popular  aesthetics  develop  theories  of  literary  kinds 
and  merits,  always  with  a  wider  and  more  sympathetic  induction 
than  was  known  to  the  neo-classicists,  but  still  in  the  spirit  of  the 
theory  of  kind,  function,  and  technique.  Goethe's  scattered  refer- 
ences to  the  epic  may  be  gathered  from  his  letters  (Goethe  and 
Schiller),  book-reviews,  and  articles  on  German  and  foreign  litera- 
ture :  see  especially  Uber  epische  und  dramatische  Dichtung  (1797), 
noted  above,  §  8;  Shakespeare  und  kein  Ende  (1813-16);  notice 
of  Manzoni's  Adelchi  (1827),  of  Johanna  Schopenhauer's  Gabriele 
(1823);  Uber  den  sogenannten  Dilettantismus  (1799),  Maximen 
und  Reflexionen  (1821-26),  Wilhelm  Meister,  Dichtung  und 
Wahrheit,  etc.  The  chief  contribution  to  epic  theory,  is  contained 
in  the  division  of  poetry  into  lyric  and  pragmatic,  which  Goethe 
worked  out  in  company  with  Schiller.  Epigrammatic  utterances 
on  the  nature  of  the  epic  and  its  differentiation  from  novel  and 
drama  constitute  the  remainder  of  his  theory  so  far  as  it  here 
concerns  us.  A  convenient  summary  is  provided  in  O.  Walzel's 
introduction  to  vol.  36  of  the  Jubilaums  Ausgabe  of  Goethe's 
Werke.  Carriere  quotes  often  from  Goethe  in  his  Die  Poesie,  ihr 
Wesen  und  Formen  (see  pp.  205,  225,  of  the  2d  edition,  1884). 
Schiller  in  his  answer  (1797)  to  Goethe's  remarks  on  epic  and 
dramatic  poetry  (see  Letter  400  of  the  Correspondence,  noted 
above,  §  8)  refines  and  subtilizes  on  the  treatment  of  time  and 
reality,  reaching  the  conclusion  that  tragedy  at  its  highest  strives 
for  an  epic  characteristic,  and  epic  at  its  highest  for  a  dramatic. 
The  Essay  on  Simple  and  Sentimental  Poetry  (in  Die  Horen, 
1795-96)  is  noted  above,  §8:  the  differentiation  of  the  two 
sorts  of  poetry  is  conducted  largely  with  reference  to  Homer, 
and  the  suggestive  contrast  with  Ariosto  involves  wide  historical 
and  aesthetic  generalizations.  See  also  the  letters  of  Schiller  and 
von  Humboldt.  Of  the  admirable  essay  by  von  Humboldt  on 
Hermann  und  Dorothea  we  have  spoken  above,  §  8.  It  should 
be  noted  that  von  Humboldt's  real  quarrel  with  neo-classical 
standards  lies  not  so  much  in  the  method  of  their  conception 
as  in  the  narrowness  of  their  induction.  He  does  for  Hermann 


584  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  9 

und  Dorothea  much  what  Aristotle  did  for  Homer,  but  he  adds 
something  of  historical  and  aesthetic  method. 

6.    Wolf  and  the  Homeric   Question.     C.   G.   Heyne,   one  of 
F.  A.  Wolf's  teachers,  long  before  he  published  his  speculations 
as   a   series   of   annotations   and   commentaries   in   his   Homeri 
Carmina  (Leipz. :   1802),  had  meditated  and  taught  revolutionary 
ideas  concerning  the  composition  of  the  Homeric  poems.    The 
suggestions  of  D'Aubignac  (1664;  pub.  1715),  Blackwell  (1735), 
Hamann  (1759),   Herder  (1767),   and  Wood   (1769)  were   de- 
veloped  by   Heyne.     He   believed   that   the   mythic  manner  of 
narration  was  the  natural  expression  of  a  certain  stage  of  culture, 
that  this  sort  of  narration  was  in  common  use  before  Homer,  and 
that  Homer  in  composing  his  epics  employed  many  lays  from  this 
earlier  body  of  narrative,  putting  them  together,  however,  not  in 
the  loose  fashion  supposed  by  D'Aubignac,  but  under  the  domi- 
nance of  a  unifying  idea.    Other  aspects  of  the  general  question 
of  how  these  epics  were  composed  were  also  discussed  by  Heyne. 
In  1795  Wolf,  indebted  more  than  he  acknowledged  to  Heyne, 
and  to  Vico  as  well  (1722  ;  see  §  n),  and  to  the  men  mentioned 
above  and  to  others,  published  a  concatenated  lawyer's  argument 
to  show  that  the  so-called  '  Homeric  poems '  were  put  together 
from  previous  poems  (not  all  by  the  same  poet)  that  had  been 
handed  down  by  oral  tradition  (for  longer  notice  see  below,  §  n). 
The  hypothesis  came  at  a  time  when  the  decay  of  neo-classicism, 
the  development  of  the  return-to-nature  movement,  and  the  rise 
of  the  historical  school  of  Herder  assured  it  general  notice  if  not 
immediate  acceptance.    Many  did  accept  it  at  once ;  many  gazed 
with  profound  regret  at  a  disappearing  belief  in  the  old,  blind 
creator  of  epics.    Plentiful  discussion  and  argument  at  once  arose; 
gradually  the  new  theory  of  epic  composition  developed  and  was 
applied  to  the  Nibelungenlied  and  other  original,  national  epics. 
But  this  criticism,   whereby   German  savants  became  dominant 
in  the  field  of  a  '  higher '  epic  criticism,  carries  us  over  into  the 
historical  field.    The  development  of  historical  criticism  and  of 
Germany's  share  in  it  may  be  traced  below,  in  §§  10,  n,  12. 


VIII,  C]  GERMAN  585 

Thus  by  the  close  of  the  i8th  century  German  criticism  had 
achieved  a  foremost  position.  Lessing,  Goethe,*  Schiller,  vop 
Humboldt ;  Baumgarten,  Sulzer,  and  the  other  aestheticians ; 
Herder  and  his  school ;  Wolf  and  the  ever  increasing  number 
of  his  followers,  —  all  these  had  contributed  to  the  florescence 
of  German  critical  study.  The  Wolfian  hypothesis  was  concerned 
altogether  with  the  epic,  the  historical  school  largely  with  it; 
the  aestheticians  also  gave  it  detailed  consideration,  and  the 
great  classicists  by  no  means  neglected  to  speculate  upon  its 
function  and  technique.  New  dignity  had  been  given  to  specu- 
lation upon  technique ;  wider,  more  philosophical  attempts  at 
definition  had  been  made ;  historical  criticism  was  born. 

C.   The  Nineteenth  and  Twentieth  Centuries. 

For  apparatus  see  above,  §  3,  vi,  c ;  also,  J.  Korner,  Nibelungen- 
forschungen  der  deutschen  Romantik  (Wackenroder  to  Lachmann),  in 
Untersuch,  z.  neuren  Sprach.  und  Litgesch.,  N.  F.,  No.  9,  1911. 

In  the  critical  theory  of  this  period  several  tendencies  are 
apparent;  and  usually  individual  writers  were  influenced  by 
more  than  one.  Thinkers  have  played  the  part  of  bees,  carry- 
ing pollen  from  one  flower  to  another,  —  fructifying  deductive 
aesthetics,  for  instance,  which  had  long  ago  done  its  unassisted 
utmost,  with  spores  of  an  inductive  method  borrowed  from  the 
nascent  historico-scientific  school.  During  the  igth  century  the 
historico-scientific  tendency  received  a  new  impetus  from  the  evo- 
lutionary theory  of  the  biologists ;  and,  thus  reinforced,  it  has 
influenced  practically  all  the  critical  movements  of  the  age.  On 
the  one  hand,  such  poems  as  the  Nibelungenlied,  the  Roland, 
and  the  Beowulf  are  studied  in  order  to  support  the  Lieder- 
Tfieorie.  On  the  other  hand,  investigations,  general  and  special, 
are  made  that  have  for  their  aim  the  discovery  and  orderly 
arrangement  of  literary  events,  the  establishment  of  interrelations, 
and  the  determination  of  historical,  social,  and  literary  influences. 
Many  of  this  latter  sort  do  indeed  contain  passages  of  appreciation 
i  or  appraisal  illuminating  to  the  student  of  critical  art  and  theory 


586  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

(see,  e.g.,  K.  O.  Miiller,  Ulrici,  in  §  8,  above).  But  Lieder-Theorie 
separators  ana*  historical  investigators  will  receive  attention  else- 
where (§§  10,  n,  12). 

The  contribution  of  deductive  aesthetics,  in  continuation  from 
thje  1 8th  century,  is,  as  we  have  said,  more  or  less  affected  by  the 
method  of  the  historical  school ;  but  not  at  first  vitally.  Passing 
the  Vorschule  der  Aesthetik  (1804)  of  Richter  —  who  in  general 
poetic  spirit  has  much  in  common  with  the  old  Sturm  und  Drang 
but  whose  Aesthetik  is,  for  him,  strikingly  sane  and  conservative 
—  and  the  romantic  poetics  of  K,  W.  F.  Solger's  Vorlesung  iiber 
Aesthetik  (1829),  we  come  to  the  greatest  name  in  German  poetics, 
Hegel.  The  nature,  kinds,  and  conditions  of  poetry  Hegel  brought 
into  symmetrical  congruence  with  his  fundamental  philosophic  con- 
ceptions ;  and,  by  way  of  attractive  though  not  convincing  .proof, 
he  added  some  striking  generalizations  on  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  art.  His  utterances  upon  the  epic  have  already  been 
noted  (§7,  i,  c,  and  §  8).  He  devotes  himself  largely  to  ringing 
the  changes  upon  the  objectivity  of  the  type,  —  as  seen  in 
the  author's  general  attitude  toward  life  and  in  his  handling  of 
plot,  situation,  and  characters;  to  ringing  the  changes  upon 
its  historicity  and  social  function,  its  religious  derivation  and 
motivation,  its  treatment  of  will  and  destiny,  individual  freedom 
and  necessity,  its  significance  as  expressive  of  a  certain  sort  or 
stage  of  spiritual  development,  its  characteristic  effect  upon  the 
passions  and  soul.  Indeed,  guided  by  Hegel  and  other  German 
theoretic  aestheticians  upon  the  epic,  the  reader  is  almost  per- 
suaded that  he  himself  apprehends  the  pre-ordained  character 
of  the  epics  and  sees,  though  somewhat  darkly,  the  place  and 
service  of  those  great  social  poems  in  the  divine  scheme  of 
eternity  and  space,  matter  and  spirit.  Into  some  connection 
or  other  with  finite  and  infinite,  relative  and  absolute,  real 
and  ideal,  individual  and  universal,  practical  and  transcendental, 
the  Hegelian  speculators  upon  first  principles  and  ultimate  ends 
always  bring  the  traits  of  epic  literature  —  always  impressive 
though  not  always  familiar.  The  alluring  cosmic  generalizations 


VIII,  C]  GERMAN  587 

of  Hegel  and  his  disciples  (Carriere  and  Vischer,  in  particular), 
or  of  F.  W.  J.  von  Schelling,  Schopenhauer,  or  E.  von  Hartmann, 
may  be  followed  through  the  references  in  §  8,  above.  The  student 
who  attends  the  philosopher  in  his  deductive  passage  from  some 
conception  of  ultimate  reality  to  the  beautiful,  thence  to  the  arts 
in  general,  thence  to  poetry,  and,  finally,  to  the  epic,  will  ponder 
the  essence  and  function  of  the  epic  more  carefully  than  did 
the  critics  from  Aristotle  to  Boileau  and  Voltaire.  The  process 
may  be  somewhat  confusing  and  painful;  but  without  doubt  it 
is  profitable.  German  aesthetics  from  Hegel  to  von  Hartmann 
has  made  a  vital  contribution  to  epic  theory.  The  student  should 
not  forget  to  note  the  extent  to  which  these  bold  speculations 
were  stimulated  by  the  historical  conceptions  of  Herder  and 
his  followers. 

Of  inductive  aesthetics  and  poetics,  of  Scherer,  Bruchmann, 
Wackemagel,  and  Wolff,  and  their  attempts  to  correct  theory 
by  a  scientific  analysis  and  classification  of  literary  phenomena, 
influenced  as  they  were  by  modern  anthropological  methods,  we 
have  spoken  already  (§  3,  vr,  c),  and  the  last  three  are  mentioned  in 
§  8.  Here  we  need  only  note  that  in  proportion  to  the  thorough- 
ness of  the  induction  is  the  modesty  of  the  generalization,  a  fact 
which  is  not  particularly  encouraging  to  the  student  who  has 
surrendered  himself  to  the  empyreanism  of  speculative  aesthetics. 
Compensation,  however,  lies  in  the  light  which  the  anthropologist 
is  able  to  shed  upon  ideas  and  customs  of  the  epic  age.  The 
anthropological  elucidation  of  the  Homeric  poems  is  also  far 
more  trustworthy  and  informing  than  were  the  ingenious  eluci- 
dations of  the  neo-classical  apologists.  Higher  than  the  apologists, 
though  not  so  high  as  the  transcendentalists,  —  such  is  the  middle 
flight  of  the  anthropologist.  When,  as  is  the  case  with  Wackemagel, 
induction  and  deduction  supplement  each  other  in  ingenious  fashion, 
a  work  of  infinite  suggestion  and  great  practical  use  results. 

Germans  and  their  followers  have  been  most  methodical  in  the 
analysis  of  literary  qualities,  kinds  and  sub-kinds.  No  Werner 
(see  §  2),  to  be  sure,  has  invented  an  epic  permutation,  but 


588  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

indefatigable,  if  not  always  illuminating,  observation  has  charac- 
terized the  work  of  such  men  as  Fischer,  Steinthal,  Pliiss,  Heinze, 
and  Olrik  (all  noted  more  in  detail  in  §  8).  Typical  of  this  industry 
is  F.  X.  Kraus'  Dante,  sein  Leben  und  sein  Werk,  sein  Verhaltniss 
zur  Kunst  und  zur  Politik  (Berlin:  1897).  The  third  part,  or 
book,  discusses  at  length  the  content  and  purpose  of  the  Divine 
Comedy,  gives  the  history  of  its  interpretation,  discusses  the 
relation  of  the  poet  to  his  work  (Chap.  IV),  and  the  nature  and 
form  of  the  poem  (Chaps.  V  and  VI).  Kraus  maintains  that  Dante's 
character  was  such  that  the  mere  joy  of  artistic  creation  could  not 
have  been  with  him  the  only  aim  of  poetic  activity,  as  it  was  with 
Tasso  and  Ariosto  :  beyond  this  there  was  a  deeper  purpose,  "  die 
Vergottlichung  des  Menschen."  The  work  as  a  whole  is  very 
valuable  to  the  student  of  Dante,  but  it  is  curiously  lacking  in 
original  literary  criticism,  especially  of  the  comparative  sort.  On 
the  other  hand,  such  work  as  Panzer's  observations  upon  old  Ger- 
man folk-epic  (see  §§  8,  u)  is  enriched  with  valuable  suggestions 
and  conclusions. 

In  not  a  few  attempts  to  summarize  the  history  of  epic  studies 
like  industry  appears.  For  aid  of  this  kind  we  have  frequently 
been  grateful  during  the  cpmpilation  of  these  notes  to  Georg 
Finsler,  whose  extensive  work  on  modern  Homeric  scholarship 
satisfies  a  curiosity  many  a  student  of  history  has  experienced. 
It  supplies  one  basis  for  generalization  concerning  the  laws 
governing  the  development  of  criticism,  —  if  there  be  such  laws. 
Other  summaries  of  epic  theories  have  been  made  by  Adam, 
Braitmaier,  Harnack,  Hartung,  Hillebrand,  E.  Miiller,  and  others 
(for  whom  see  §  8).  Nor,  while  we  are  speaking  of  the  industry 
of  German  scholarship,  should  we  ignore  the  gleams  of  critical 
theory  discernible  in  the  encyclopedias  and  Griindrisse  of  the 
philologists,  —  for  instance,  those  of  Bernhardy,  Boeckh,  Paul, 
Grober,  Wiilker,  Korting,  Goedeke,  Ivan  Miiller,  and  Hinneberg 
(see  below,  §§  10,  u,  12). 

Last  of  all,  though  by  no  means  exhausting  the  tendencies  of 
German  epic  criticism  since  1800,  may  be  mentioned  the  myriad 


VIII,  C]  GERMAN  589 

short  essays  —  speculative,  interpretative,  appreciative,  critical- 
biographical,  critical-historical  —  which  have  ,  appeared  in  book, 
pamphlet,  and  periodical  form.  To  summarize  these,  including 
every  program,  inaugural  dissertation,  doctor's  thesis,  and  maga- 
zine article,  is  beyond  our  power.  In  the  learned  periodicals  and 
the  bibliographical  guides  mentioned  in  the  Appendix  the  student 
will  find  preliminary  charts  for  voyage  upon  that  sea. 

The  following  is  a  brief  list,  indeed  somewhat  haphazard,  of  further 
references.  Before  exploring  them,  however,  the  student  should  study 
the  more  important  works  which  have  been  listed  in  §  8.  J.  P.  Richter, 
Vorschule  der  Aesthetik  (1804;  cited  above,  §  2),  pp.  240-258 ;  K.  W.  F. 
Solger,  Vorlesungen  iiber  Aesthetik  (Leipz. :  1829),  p.  267  ff. ;  F.  Biese, 
Die  Philosophic  des  Aristoteles ( 1 842),  Bd.  II,  725-731,  epic  and  tragedy; 
H.  Wedewer,  Ueber  die  epische  Sagenpoesie  mit  besond.  Berucksichti- 
gung  ihrer  Wichtigkeit  u.  Bedeutung  in  stofflicher  Beziehung  (Progr. 
1857);  R.  Zimmermann,  Allgemeine  Aesthetik  (2  vols.  1858-65), 
§  592  ff. ;  E.  J.  Saupe,  Die  Gattungen  der  deutschen  Dichtkunst  (Leipz. : 
1 863),  —  a  brief  compilation  for  use  in  the  schools ;  C.  Lemcke,  Aesthetik 
(ist  ed.  1865;  6th  ed.  1890);  A.  Schopf,  Nationalepos  und  Balladen- 
dichtung:  eine  ethnographische  Studie  (Wien :  1882);  W.  Scherer, 
Poetik  (Berlin :  1 888),  p.  246  ff. ;  L.  Jacobowski,  Anfange  der  Poesie, 
etc.  (Dresden:  1891),  see  below,  §  n;  F.  Spielhagen,  Die  epische 
Dichtung  unter  den  wechselnden  Zeichen  des  Verkehrs  (in  Ziikunft, 
17:  153-174.  1896),  —  the  influence  of  means  of  communication  on 
technique  of  the  epic ;  C.  Beyer,  Deutsche  Poetik  (3d  ed.  Berlin  :  1900); 
R.  Kreller,  Die  Volkerwanderung  von  Hermann  Lingg  und  das  Gesetz 
der  epischen  Einheit  (Miinchen :  1900);  R.  Prolz  (1904.  Cited  above, 
§  3)i  §  77?  R-  Lehmann  (1908.  Cited  above,  §  3);  W.  Schwartzkopff, 
Rede  und  Redeszene  in  der  deutschen  Erzahlung  bis  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach  (in  Palaestra,  74);  E.  Weber,  Die  epische  Dichtung 
(Leipz.:  1909),  for  German  schools. 

IX.  For  Dutch  and  Spanish  criticism,  see  above,  §  3,  vn. 
Several  early  Dutch  critics  have  been  mentioned  above,  under 
German  epic  criticism ;  another  famous  early  Dutch  work,  of 
great  contemporary  influence,  was  Gerardus  Vossius'  De  Artis 
Poeticae  Natura  ac  Constitutione  Liber  (Amsterdam:  1647),  the 
third  book  of  which  deals  with  the  epic. 


590  THEORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§9 

X.  Sanskrit.  In  Sanskrit  critical  literature  the  student  finds 
the  extreme  development  of  rule,  recipe,  and  commentary.  Scores 
of  lengthy  and  minute  commentaries  on  the  texts  (Mallinatha, 
e.g.,  explains  every  word  of  Kalidasa's  Raghuvamc,a) ;  hundreds 
of  elaborate  rules  about  "  various  forms  of  alliteration  and  figures 
of  speech " ;  directions  that  the  subjects  for  an  epic  must  be 
derived  from  the  old  epics,  that  the  fable  should  be  extensive 
and  "  embellished  with  descriptions  of  cities,  seas,  mountains, 
seasons,  sunrise,  weddings,  battles  fought  by  the  hero,  and  so 
forth,"  —  all  this  and  much  more  to  the  same  effect  illustrates 
the  pseudo-classicism  of  the  artificial  (Kavya)  epic  and  epic  criti- 
cism of  the  Hindoos.  References  may  be  found  on  pp.  433-434 
of  A.  A.  Macdonell's  Hist,  of  Sanskrit  Literature  (N.Y. :  1900). 
Very  little  of  the  Sanskrit  poetics  is  available  in  translation ;  but 
the  student  may  consult  Dandin's  Kavyadarga  (Mirror  of  Poetry, 
end  of  6th  century),  ed.  with  trans,  by  Bohtlingk  (Leipz. :  1890). 


CHAPTER  IV 

HISTORICAL  DEVELOPMENT 

t 

SECTION  10.    STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS  ;  ANALYSIS 

For  general  methods  of  historical  study  see  the  introductory 
remarks  of  §  4,  above. 

No  theories  advanced  concerning  the  function  or  the  technique 
of  a  literary  species  are  trustworthy  unless  they  rest  upon  an 
historical  and  scientific  basis.  The  characteristics  of  the.  epic 
should  be  studied  not  as  static,  but  as  dynamic.  Acquaintance 
with  the  laws  of  growth  will  lead  to  the  appreciation  of  the 
necessity  and  fitness  of  typical  features  that  otherwise  might  ap- 
pear invented  or  arbitrary.  The  following  questions  are  suggested  : 

I.  What  is  the  Origin  of  the  Epic  ? 

A.  Psychological.  Under  this  head  may  be  considered  the  origin 
of  narrative  as  such,  irrespective  of  that  particular  narrative  form 
known  as  the  epic,  (i)  What  manner  of  thought  —  emotional, 
imaginative,  or  reflective  —  does  primitive  man  pursue  and  desire 
to  express  ?  Is  it  preponderantly  emotional,  and  the  purpose  of 
its  expression  merely  the  physical  discharge  of  feeling?  Or  is  it 
primarily  a  set  of  images  of  events,  which  are  expressed  for  self- 
gratulatory  and  commemorative  purposes?  or  a  combination  of 
images  and  strong  feelings  with  a  complex  purpose  of  expression, — 
emotional  discharge  plus  celebration  and  commemoration  ?  (2)  A 
priori,  what  species  of  poetry  would  naturally  correspond  to 
this  manner  of  thought  and  be  its  natural  vehicle  of  expression, 
—  lyric  or  narrative?  or  a  form  containing  lyric,  narrative,  and 
dramatic  elements  as  yet  undifferentiated  ?  Is  it  possible  that  the 
beginnings  of  the  lyric  and  of  rhythmic  narrative  are  simultaneous? 


592  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

Compare  above,  §  4,  i,  The  Beginnings  of  the  Lyric.  (3)  What 
evidence  is  there  that  original  lyrical,  allusive  celebration  of  an 
event  is  transformed  to  narrative  recital  when  the  event  has 
receded  so  far  into  the  past  that  the  lyrical  allusions  to  it  are 
vague  and  there  is  need  of  a  full  and  definite  account  of  the 
event  (retrospective  origin  of  narrative)  ?  See  Gummere.  (4)  Does 
narrative  originate  in  the  savage's  imaginative  answers  to  primitive 
questions  about  the  facts  of  physical  and  social  environment 
(aetio logical  origin  of  narrative),  the  answers  necessarily  involving 
narrative  because  primitive  man  thinks  in  terms  of  human  (ani- 
mistic) agency?  See  Kurtz,  Chap.  IV,  and  p.  175;  Waterman. 
Is  not  such  narrative  generally  in  prose,  as  distinct  from  rhythmic, 
form  ?  Does  it  antedate  rhythmic  narrative  of  actual  events  ? 
Has  .it  any  influence  upon  rhythmic  narrative  of  events  ?  Com- 
pare Beatty,  and  remarks  upon  Grosse.  Does  primitive  man 
distinguish  the  two  forms  ?  (5)  Behind  primitive  rhythmic  narra- 
tive is  there  an  individualistic  impulse,  or  only  a  communal 
'  feeling-storm  '  ?  In  other  words,  is  primitive  narrative  the  prod- 
uct of  a  poetizing  —  dancing,  singing,  extemporizing  —  crowd 
(communal  theory)?  See  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  266-274;  cf. 
Moulton,  Mod.  Study  of  Lit.,  on  '  floating '  vs.  '  fixed '  poetry. 
Are  both  sorts  of  narrative  (epical  and  aetiological)  the  product 
of  communal  authorship  ?  If  there  be  a  transition  from  communal 
song  to  narrative,  by  way  of  retrospection,  is  it  accomplished  by 
a  communal  song  that  "oscillates  between  production  and  repro- 
duction, that  is,  between  improvisation  and  memory "  ?  See 
Gummere.  Or  is  it  accomplished,  at  request,  by  older  individuals 
whose  memory  extends  back  to  the  original  events  ?  (6)  What 
justification  may  be  advanced  for  the  theory  of  those  who,  scout- 
ing the  theory  of  a  poetizing  crowd,  '  das  dichtende  Volk]  cling  to 
individual  authorship  and  an  historical  development  by  individual 
imitation,  combination,  invention  in  conformity  with  the  changing 
material  and  taste  of  successive  ages  ?  (7)  In  what  ways  — 
according  to  what  laws  of  development  —  are  mental  growth 
and  the  evolution  of  artistic  (narrative)  expression  associated  ? 


I,  A]  WHAT  IS  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  EPIC  593 

Do  the  "  deliberation  and  conscious  art "  which  differentiate 
artistic  from  natural  expression  wait  upon  higher  stages  of 
mental  development?  Are  they  subsequent  to  the  mental  stage 
that  expresses  itself  in  communal  narrative  ?  Or  is  the  "  old 
alliance  of  spontaneous  production  and  living  memory  "  not  yet 
broken  up,  —  the  fecund  environment  in  which  the  "  Homer, 
whoever  or  whatever  he  may  be,  can  work  out  the  perfect  union 
of  art  and  nature  "  ?  See  Gummere. 

The  answers  to  these  questions  are  to  be  sought  in  a  priori  psycho- 
logical speculation,  in  anthropological  accounts  of  the  customs,  beliefs, 
and  mental  habits  of  primitive  folk,  and  in  induction  from  such  primi- 
tive rhythmic  expression  as  we  possess.  A  priori  speculation  underlies 
all  attempts  at  depicting  the  mind  of  the  savage  and  at  explaining  his 
methods  of  expression ;  anthropology  and  the  critical  study  of  primitive 
'  texts  '  seek  to  check  and  corroborate  speculative  theory.  Of  anthropo- 
logical accounts  we  may  refer  to  E.  B.  Tylor,  Primitive  Culture ; 
J.  G.  Frazer,  Golden  Bough ;  A.  Lang,  Myth,  Ritual,  and  Religion ; 
W.  Wundt,  Volkerpsychologie ;  A.  Vierkandt,  Naturvolker  und  Kultur- 
volker;  J.  Dewey,  Interpretation  of  Savage  Mind  (Psychological  Re- 
view, vol.  IX,  No.  3);  Boas,  The  Mind  of  the  Savage.  Suggestive 
material  on  the  psychology  of  the  throng  may  be  found  in  Gustave 
Le  Bon's  The  Crowd,  E.  Ross'  Social  Psychology,  and  W.  McDougall's 
Introduction  to  Social  Psychology,  though  these  do  not  deal  with  primi- 
tives. For  literary  theory  see  in  §  1 1  the  works  of  the  following : 
Gummere,  Jacobowski,  Grosse,  Steinthal,  Posnett,  Hirn,  ten  Brink, 
Hegel,  Symonds,  Mure,  Jebb,  Loise,  Stedman  pp.  94-97,  Gayley  and 
Scott  pp.  266-274,  where  further  references  may  be  found.  For  studies 
of  primitive  texts :  Grosse,  Macculloch,  Mackenzie,  Kurtz.  For  criti- 
cism of  the  communal  theory :  Lang,  Wilamowitz,  Foulet,  Terret, 
Henderson.  Further  notice  of  the  two  chief  theories,  below,  under 
ix,  A,  Ballad. 

B.  Historical.  Here  may  be  considered  not  the  origin  of  the 
narrative  element  but  of  the  epic  as  such.  The  theories  of  origin 
have  reference  to  the  original  or  folk  epic  (Iliad,  Odyssey,  Beowulf, 
Nibelungenlied,  Roland,  Cid,  etc.)  as  distinguished  from  the  imi- 
tative or  art  epic  (Argonautica,  Aeneid,  Paradise  Lost,  etc.). 
But  the  student  should  always  remember  that  this  distinction  is 


594  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

itself  open  to  criticism  (see  under  C.  B.  Bradley,  §  8,  above), 
and  that  therefore  it  may  be  necessary  to  abandon  in  some  part 
the  evolutionary  or  progressive  theory  of  epic  origin. 

i.  The  Evolutionary  Theory.  The  evolutionary  theory  supposes 
in  general  that  the  folk  epic  is  the  product  not  of  an  individual 
author,  as  was  Paradise  Lost,  but  that  it  is  composed  of  many 
more  or  less  anonymous  parts  finally  arranged  by  some  bard 
or  editor  whose  task  was  one  of  compilation,  not  creation.  The 
theory  divides  into  various  schools  of  opinion  concerning  the 
nature  of  the  parts  and  the  method  of  their  compilation,  (a)  Some 
hold  the  Kleine  Lieder  theory,  that' the  epic  is  a  "collection  of 
short  lays  disposed  in  sequence  in  a  late  age  "  (Vico,  Blackwell, 
D'Aubignac,  C.  G.  Heyne,  F.  A.  Wolf,  Lachmann,  Murray,  and 
others).  (£)  Others  that  it  contains  "  an  ancient  original  '  kernel ' 
round  which  '  expansions,'  made  throughout  some  centuries  of 
changeful  life,  have  accrued,  and  have  at  last  been  arranged  by 
a  literary .  editor  or  redactor "  (Hermann,  Grote,  Jebb,  Leaf). 
(c)  Still  others  modify  and  harmonize  these  theories:  if  the  epic 
is  "  made  up  of  a  series  of  heroic  songs,  strung  together  with 
little  or  no  modification,  these  songs  must  have  been  something 
very  different "  in  degree  "  from  the  popular  ballad ;  they  must 
have  been  highly  developed  examples  of  the  poetry  of  art " 
(Hart).  Compare  Ker's  statement  that  Teutonic  poetry  shows 
that  the  epic  may  be  developed  out  of  short  lays  through  increase 
in  style-length  (Epic  and  Romance,  pp.  105  ff.,  168-169).  Of 
the  French  chansons  de  geste,  epical  songs  that  were  sung  by 
professional  jongleurs  (cf.  Homeric  doiSot),  which  probably  can 
be  traced  back  to  the  tenth  century  and  of  which  the  Chanson 
de  Roland  is  "  the  earliest  and  best  example,"  Ldon  Gautier 
wrote :  "  Our  first  epic  poets  did  not  actually  and  materially 
patch  together  pre-existent  cantilenes  [short  songs  sung  not  by 
professional  minstrels,  but  by  the  crowd  in  chorus;  traces  of 
them  in  yth  century].  They  were  only  inspired  by  these  popular 
songs ;  they  only  borrowed  from  them  the  traditional  and  legend- 
ary elements.  In  short,  they  took  nothing  frpm  them  but  the 


I,  B]  WHAT  IS  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  EPIC  595 

ideas,  the  spirit,  the  life ;  they  '  found '  (ils  ont  trouve)  all  the 
rest "  (quoted  by  Monro,  Art  Homer,  Encyc.  Brit.,  from  Les 
Epopees  franchises,  vol.  I,  2d  ed.,  1878,  p.  80;  in  the  first  ed., 
1865,  Gautier  had  held  that  the  chansons  de  geste  were  formed 
by  patching  together  '  bunches '  of  the  earlier  cantilenes}.  Corn- 
pare  Paul  Meyer  on  the  improbability  of  the  chansons  having 
been  formed  from  cantilenes  (Rech.  sur  1'epopee'fr.,  pp.  65-66). 

—  The  cantilenes  of  Spain  did  not  attain  epic  form ;  neither  did 
the  ballads  of  Serbia.    According  to  Gaston  Paris  (Hist,  poetique 
de  Charlemagne,  p.  9)  the  national  songs  of  Scandinavia,  Lithu- 
ania, and  Russia  have  developed  only  part  way  toward  the  epic. 
What  of  '  ballad '  poetry  in  other  nations  ?    What  of  antecedent 
lays   for  other  so-called   folk  epics  (Beowulf ;    Indian,   Persian, 
and    Homeric    epics)?     Of    Teutonic    epical    poetry    Professor 
Chadwick  says : 

Four  well-marked  stages  may  be  distinguished  in  the  history  of 
Teutonic  heroic  jtoetry.  The  first  is  that  of  strictly  contemporary  court 
poetry,  dealing  with  the  praises  or  the  adventures  of  living  men. 
The  second  is  that  of  epic  or  narrative  court  poetry,  which  celebrates 
the  deeds  of  heroes  of  the  past,  though  not  of  a  very  remote  past. 
The  third  is  the  popular  stage,  during  which  the  same  stories  were 
handled  by  village  minstrels.  The  last  stage  is  that  in  which  the  old 
subjects  again  found  favour  with  the  nobility  in  Germany  and  were 
treated  in  a  new  form  which  reflected  the  conditions  of  the  age  of 
chivalry  (The  Heroic  Age). 

Note  also  Christ,  Croiset  (§  12,  below),  Steinthal,  Heusler,  etc. 

—  But  to  classify  by  schools  of  opinion  were  a  fruitless  task,  so 
numerous  the  possibilities  of  scientific  divergence,  and  so  kaleido- 
scopic the  combinations  offered    by   individual   authorities.     For 
further  references  see  below,   §  1 1 ;    also  under  history  of  the 
epic  by  nationalities,  §  12,  i. 

2.  Individualistic  Theory.  Those  who  hold  this  theory  believe 
the  earlier  songs  afford  materials  for  the  inspiration  of  the  indi- 
vidual poet  or  poets,  composer  or  composers,  whose  task  is  one 
of  invention,  creation,  rather  than  compilation.  See  Nitzsch, 
Gautier,  Meyer,  Terret,  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  etc.  It  is  to 


596  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

be  noted,  furthermore,  that  this  theory  makes  no  sharp  differen- 
tiation between  the  methods  of  composition  of  the  so-called  folk 
and  art  epics.  Perhaps  there  may  be  some  essential  difference 
in  the  character  and  the  degree  of  elaboration  of  the  popular 
materials  as  they  come  to  the  poet's  hand  (Bradley) ;  but  that 
remains  to  be  shown.  Perhaps  the  distinction  should  be  made 
between  those  epics  which  use  only  indigenous  '  national '  material 
(Homeric  epics,  chansons  de  geste)  and  those  that  are  cosmo- 
politan and  selective  in  their  sources  (Paradise  Lost,  Aeneid, 
Divine  .Comedy).  Are  not  the  great  national  epics  of  indigenous 
material  closer  to  their  immediate  sources,  in  point  of  time  and 
understanding,  than  the  cosmopolitan  epics  ?  Are  they  not  closer 
to  oral  tradition  and  oral  forms  of  poetry?  Do  they  acquire  a 
greater  ease  of  movement  and  simplicity  from  this  contiguity  with 
oral  forms  ?  See  Monro,  Art.  Homer,  Encyc.  Brit. 

3.  Relation  to  the  Lyric.    From  the  comparative  study  of  early 
literatures  what  do  we  ascertain  as  to  the  relative  periods  of  the 
finished  folk  epic  and  lyric  ?    (a)  Is  there  any  uniform  order  of 
precedence  ?   (l>~)  In  certain  literatures  are  there  not  traces  of  a 
great  lyric  flowering  which  preceded  the  epic?   May  such  traces 
be  found  in  the  epics  themselves,  of  India,  Greece,  Rome,  Ger- 
many, England,  Finland,  Scotland,  Norway  ?  (f)  In  the  Old  Testa- 
ment is  the  epic-lyric  order  of  development  merely  an  a  priori 
speculation  ?   On  these  problems  see  Victor  Hugo,  Posnett,  Jebb, 
Herder,  Miiller,  Donaldson,  Jacobowski,  ten  Brink,  Schopenhauer, 
Hegel,  Hapgood,  Steinthal,  Wackernagel  pp.  86-90  and  156-164, 
and,  in  general,  disquisitions  on  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.    In 
discussions  under  this  head,  the  term  'folk  song,'  or  'folk  poetry,' 
should  be  carefully  defined  as  a  precautionary  measure.    There 
may  be  considerable  difference  between  songs  sung  by  the  folk 
and  songs  composed  by  the  folk.    See  Steinthal,  p.  2  ff. 

4.  Origin,  Distribution,  and  Transformation  of  Epical  Stories. 
Whether   or   not   one   accepts   the  evolutionary  theory  of   epic 
authorship  the  truth  is  that  with  few  exceptions  the  epic  makes 
use  of  myth,  legend,  and  tradition.    The  origin  and  distribution 


I,  B]  WHAT  IS  THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE  EPIC  597 

of  these  stories,  a  great  part  of  which  may  be  denominated 
folk  tales,  is  in  itself  a  huge  and  vastly  interesting  study. 
Whether  or  not  all  variants  of  a  story,  or  how  many  of  them, 
go  back  to  one  original ;  whether  that  original  was  the  product 
of  primitive  or  early  folk  invention,  or  of  later,  premeditated 
authorship ;  whether  it  originated  as  a  literal  belief  of  untutored 
minds,  or  in  playful  romancing ;  whether  the  story  was  originally 
aetiological  or  allegorical  or  for  the  purpose  of  mere  amuse- 
ment; what  were  the  conditions  of  its  distribution,  and  the 
causes  and  interrelation  of  its  variants ;  how  it  was  amalga- 
mated with  other  stories,  and  won  or  lost  significance,  humor, 
or  pathos ;  under  what  circumstances  and  in  what  form  it 
was  taken  up  into  the  epic :  these  are  some  of  the  alluring 
questions  of  mythology  and  folklore.  See  Child,  Jensen,  Foulet, 
Gautier,  Chad  wick,  Rajna,  etc. 

But  so  far  as  the  epic  is  concerned,  something  more  than  an 
investigation  of  its  sources  is  involved  in  this  study,  (a)  How  does 
epic  handling  modify  the  form,  content,  and  spirit  of  myth  ? 
Do  the  gods  take  on  more  and  more  of  human  sentiment  and 
passion  (contrast  the  beast-gods  of  primitive  belief  and  the  talking 
beasts  of  fairy  tales),  and  lose  the  traits  of  their  original  nature- 
meaning?  Are  the  gods'  adventures  multiplied,  and  their  moral 
purposes  rendered  nobler  ?  Do  they  become  more  decidedly  and 
extensively  ideals  of  human  virtue  and  vice  ?  Do  they  become 
ideals  of  an  heroic  age  —  heroes  painted  upon  the  clouds  ?  and 
do  they  lose,  pari  passu,  their  religious,  cultural  significance  ? 
Does  primitive  fear  of  the  gods  yield  to  a  reverential,  or  at  least 
a  plastic,  idealism?  See  Wundt's  Volkerpsychologie,  Bd.  2,  Tl.  2, 
pp.  607-608  (Leipz. :  1905);  also  Immisch,  Usener,  Wackernagel, 
and  Gummere,  as  noted  below,  §  1 1 .  (£)  Or  is  the  epic  itself  a 
means  of  exalting  heroes  to  gods  (euhemerism)  ?  See  W.  Miiller. 
(c)  How  in  turn  do  the  form  and  content  of  myth  affect  the  con- 
duct of  epic  narrative  ?  Does  the  poet  find  in  the  gods  an  ever- 
present,  popular  means  of  imparting  to  heroic  legend  the  elevated 
or  sublime  atmosphere  which  his  hearers  have  felt  and  he  must 


598  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [|  10 

convey  ?  Does  myth  supply  the  motivation  and,  consequently,  the 
more  than  casual  significance  of  heroic  events?  Is  the  poet 
limited  in  any  way,  in  any  degree,  by  the  actual  forms  of  myth  ? 
Does  he  imitate  the  forms  of  the  myth  ?  (</)  Similarly,  we  may 
inquire  how  far  epic  handling  has  modified  legend  and  tradition, 
and  how  far  it  has  been  controlled  by  them. 

The  proper  method  of  studying  these  questions  consists,  of  course, 
in  comparing  pre-epical  song  and  story  with  the  epopee.  But  in  the 
majority  of  cases  we  lack  the  actual  form  from  which  a  given  epic 
poet  derived  (unless,  to  be  sure,  we  accept  the  Kleine  Lieder  theory 
and  believe  we  can  by  analysis  separate  the  lays  that  have  been 
stitched  together).  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  recourse  to  less 
direct  methods.  Assuming  that  the  myths  and  legends  of  present-day 
primitive  and  barbaric  races  are  analogous  to  those  from  which  the 
great  folk  epics  of  the  past  derived,  we  may  compare  the  mythic  and 
heroic  stuff  of  the  epic  with  these  known  stories ;  or,  assuming  that 
the  epics  were  derived  from  forms  analogous  to  our  old  ballads  and 
heroic  lays,  we  may  compare  the  latter,  as  regards  content,  structure, 
spirit,  and  scope,  with  epic  content  and  handling.  For  examples  of 
such  methods  or  approaches  to  them,  see  Chadwick,  Hart,  Heusler, 
Jebb,  Murra"y,  Ker,  Krohn,  Panzer,  Laveleye,  Meier,  Jacobowski  (Primi- 
tive Erzahlungskunst),  Mackenzie,  Macculloch,  Voretzsch,  etc.  But  for 
carrying  on  these  methods  successfully  the  student  must  turn  to  the 
accumulations  and  knowledge  of  the  anthropologist  and  student  of 
folklore  (see,  for  a  brief  introduction,  the  article  Folklore,  with  selected 
bibliography,  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.;  for  a  huge  bibliography  see  the 
footnotes  of  Frazer's  Golden  Bough).  The  anthropologists  have  them- 
selves studied  the  folk  epics  and  have  succeeded  in  throwing  much 
light  upon  epical  customs  and  beliefs  (see  A.  Lang's  Homer  and  his 
Age,  1*906,  with  which  compare  the  same  author's  The  Homeric 
Hymns,  1 899 ;  W:  Ridgeway's  The  Early  Age  of  Greece ;  Chadwick's 
Heroic  Age ;  Klenze,  as  noted  below,  §  1 1 ;  Michel  Bre"al,  Pour  mieux 
connaitre  Homere,  1906;  further  bibliography  in  T.  D.  Seymour's 
Life  in  the  Homeric  Age). 

Here,  too,  we  must  ask  which  is  nearer  to  historical  fact, — 
the  epical  lay  or  the  epopee?  Is  the  lay  or  saga  a  connecting 
link  between  history  and  epopee  ?  See  Schneegans,  Voretzsch ; 
cf.  above,  §  7,  n,  B,  The  Subject  of  the  Epic. 


II]  STAGES  OF  DEVELOPMENT  599 

An  examination  of  the  later  art  epics  to  determine  how  in 
them  myth,  legend,  and  history  have  been  employed  —  perhaps 
transformed- — will  contribute  something  toward  the  solution  of 
many  problems  mentioned  in  this  division.  Such  investigation 
appears  especially  promising  when  we  remember  that  the  dis- 
tinction between  folk  and  art  epic  is  perhaps  a  vanishing  one 
(Bradley).  What  was  the  practice  of  Virgil,  Dante,  Ariosto,  Tasso, 
Milton,  Klopstock,  Goethe  (Hermann  und  Dorothea)  ? 

II.  Stages  of  Development.  The  comparative  study  of  folk  epic 
and  ballad,  lay,  gest,  etc.,  to  which  we  have  just  referred,  may 
lead  to  generalizations  as  to  the  typical  stages  of  the  evolution 
of  heroic  poetry.  Compare  below,  §  12,  I,  B.  For  attempts  to 
sketch  the  order  of  development  see  Chadwick  (as  quoted  above), 
Nitzsch,  Steinthal,  Gautier,  Marsh,  Myers;  compare  Ker,  Hart, 
Heusler,  Panzer,  Mackenzie,  Posnett,  Gunkel,  Laveleye,  Krohn, 
Gummere,  Wackernagel,  Ve'ron,  Loise,  etc. 

In  general,  stages  of  development  may  be  marked  with  refer- 
ence to:  (i)  inner  form  of  the  poem,  as  its  construction  of  plot 
and  episode,  its  setting,  handling  of  character,  style-length,  addi- 
tion of  incidents,  etc.  (see  Hart,  Heusler,  and  Ker);  (2)  outer 
form,  as  the  single  story  (isolated  form) ;  the  fusion  of  two  or 
more  stories  —  often  by  splitting  one  and  inserting  another  — 
which  leads  to  the  collection  of  several  into  a  gest  or  cycle  (agglu- 
tinative form) ;  and  the  final  re-composition  in  the  epopee  (organic 
form)  (see  Steinthal,  Laveleye,  and  Gunkel ;  cf .  Nitzsch  and  Krohn) ; 
(3)  stages  of  religion  or  government,  or  social  stratification,  re- 
flected in  the  poems  (see  Myers,  Posnett,  Veron,  and  Loise ; 
also  below,  §  12,  i,  B)  ;  (4)  manner  of  presentation,  as  orally 
by  contemporary  court  bard,  later  court  bard,  popular  minstrel ; 
or  in  some  written  form  (see  Chadwick ;  cf.  Marsh).  The  last 
method  involves  the  important  question  of  the  influence  of  oral 
and  written  methods  of  publication  upon  the  form  and  develop- 
ment of  heroic  narrative  (see  Gummere,  Wackernagel,  Chadwick, 
Steinthal,  Krohn,  Panzer,  Henderson,  etc.;  also  the  writers  upon 
the  Homeric  Question,  as  noted  below,  pp.  672-675). 


600  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

III.  What  Period  in   National   Civilization  seems  best  fitted 
to  the  Production  of  Heroic  Poetry  and  the  Folk  Epic?    Heroic 
poetry  is  a  recurring  historical  phenomenon  ;  so  too  is  the  epopee, 
in  which  some  bodies  of  heroic  poetry  have  culminated  (Chadwick). 
What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  civilizations  in  which  these 
poetic  forms  flourished  ?    What   conditions   foster   the   develop- 
ment of   a  great  national  epic?    See   Blackwell,   Hegel,   Lotze, 
Posnett,  W.  von  Humboldt  (§§  xcv-xcvi;  work  cited  above,  §  8), 
Gautier,    Hericault,    Hugo,    Loise.     Compare    Ker's    statement 
(op.  cit.,   p.  1 8)  that  the  dignity  of  the  epic  is  conformable  to 
the  spirit  of  the  heroic  age  and  is  not  "  attained  by  a  process 
of  abstraction  and   separation   from   the   meanness   of   familiar 
things."    See  Ker  further,  p.  23,  for  the  characteristics  of  the 
age  that  gives  to  the  hero  an  epic  importance.  —  In  particular : 
(i)  Is  an  agricultural  society  unfavorable  to  the  preservation  of 
heroic  poetry  ?  an  aristocratic,  military  society  ?  commercial  ?  Hap- 
good,  Posnett.    (2)   Is  epical  poetry  (heroic  poetry  on  the  road 
to  epopee)  a  product  of  the  conflict  of  nationalities,  or  of  their 
fusion  ?    And  does  the  epopee  tell  a  story  that  was  the  original 
possession  of  one  race  (often  the  conquered  race,  as  Achaeans 
or  British)  but  has  become  the  ideal  of  the  amalgamated  race  of 
conquerors  and  the  conquered  ?    And  is  it  characteristic  of  this 
process  that  no  memory  should  be  retained  of  the  fact  that  the 
stories  belonged  first  of  all  to  one  race  only  ?   See  Lemcke,  Krohn, 
Marsh.    (3)  Does  the  epopee  appear  in  an  age  when  wonder- 
loving  traditions  are  giving  place  to  history  ?    Cf .  Schneegans. 
(4)  Only  in  an  age  of  wealth,  leisure,  and  writing?    Cf.  Marsh, 
Posnett.    (5)  At  the  apex  or  first  decline  of  a  communal  civiliza- 
tion, when  individualism  is  already  remaking  customs  and  beliefs  ? 
Is  the  epopee  the  swan-song  of  a  civilization?   Cf.  the  Homeric 
poems.    (6)  Or  is  the  epopee  a  sign  of,  and  stimulus  to,  a  new 
nationalism  ?    (7)  Is  implicit  belief  in  its  myths  and  marvels  a 
characteristic  of  its  age  ?   a  necessary  characteristic  ?    Hapgood. 

IV.  Development  of  the  Art  Epic.    In  general  an  art  epic  imi- 
tates indigenous  folk  epics  and  (or)  previous  art  epics.  To  trace 


IV]  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ART  EPIC 

the  development  of  art  epics  consists,  therefore,  in  determining 
the  kind  and  degree  of  imitation  and  variation  involved  in  succes- 
sive examples.  What,  in  other  words,  are  the  principles  of  imita- 
tion and  variation  involved  in  the  history  of  the  art  epic  ?  These 
principles,  obviously,  are  of  a  psychological  character  and  belong 
to  the  psychology  of  imitation  and  invention. 

The  student,  therefore,  should  fortify  himself  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  psychology  of  imitation  and  invention,  both  as  respects  the  general 
operations  of  the  human  mind  and  the  more  particular  phenomena  of 
literary  genius,  so  far  as  it  has  been  observed  and  reduced  to  general 
statements.  Little  enough  of  such  science  has  been  furnished  us.  Here 
and  there  in  the  treatises  on  psychology  a  few  suggestions  occur. 
Ribot's  Essay  on  the  Creative  Imagination  (English  trans,  by  A.  H.  N. 
Baron,  Chicago :  1 906)  is  helpful,  and  contains  references  to  allied 
works.  The  sociological  aspects  of  imitation  have  been  studied,  as 
noted  above,  by  Gabriel  Tarde,  E.  Ross,  and  W.  McDougall.  Essays 
on  the  nature  of  genius  have  to  be  taken  with  a  grain  of  salt,  but  occa- 
sionally they  offer  something  for  our  purposes  (references  in  Gayley 
and  Scott,  p.  138). 

The  European  series  of  epics  deriving  from  Homer  (and  at 
a  later  period  further  fructified  by  imitation  of  the  heroic  and 
romantic  narratives  of  the  Dark  and  Middle  Ages)  offers  a 
tempting  opportunity  for  original  investigation  of  the  actual  prin- 
ciples of  imitation  and  variation.  Such  a  series  as  the  epics  of 
Homer,  Apollonius  of  Rhodes,  Virgil,  Lucan,  Quintus  Smyrnaeus, 
Trissino,  Tasso,  Ronsard,  Chapelain,  Voltaire,  Milton,  Klopstock 
—  to  mention  only  a  few  —  might  well  be  made  the  basis  of  a 
study  that  would  endeavor  to  answer  these  and  other  related 
questions :  To  what  extent  does  each  poem  follow  previous  epics 
in  respect  to  plot,  characterization,  development  of  situation, 
diction,  etc.,  etc.?  What  variations  in  these  respects  may  be 
noted?  What  generalizations  can  be  made  as  to  the  sort  of 
details  that  are  imitated,  and  the  sort  that  are  varied?  as  to 
the  methods  of  imitation  and  variation?  the  causesi  Do  the 
same  principles  hold  for  imitation  and  variation  in  all  the  poems  ? 
in  groups  of  poems  ? 


602  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

In  general  the  inner  spirit  of  successive  European  epics  has 
been  very  different,  but  imitation  of  models  has  tended  to  restrain 
variation  in  the  outer  form.  Can  a  method  be  devised  for  measur- 
ing, as  a  ratio,  the  relative  degree  of  variation  in  the  inner  spirit 
and  outer  form  of  a  poem  as  compared  with  those  of  its  models 
or  prototype?  Or  must  we  limit  observation  to  the  details  of 
outer  form  ? 

For  further  suggestions  of  problems  of  development  see 
below,  §12. 

V.  What  classification  -of  the  epic  may  be  made  in  consideration 
of  its  origin  (popular  or  artificial),  or  of  its  development?  This 
question  may  be  regarded  as  referring  to  the  chronological  or 
historical  course  of  the  epic  poetry  of  one  nation,  or  to  its  devel- 
opment on  a  broader  ethnical  and  comparative  plane. 

A.  Through  the  history  of  the  epos  of  any  one  nation  may  be 
traced  a  growth  (i)  of   personal  consciousness,  (2)   of  artistic 
expression.     What  classification  of  the  epic   may  be   made   on 
each  of  these  bases  ?   And  which  is  preferable  ?  Steinthal,  Hegel, 
Posnett.    Is  the  absence  of  personal  revelation  on  the  part  of 
the  epic  author  due  to  the  early  subordination  of  the  individual 
to  communal  life  ?    Can  the  distinction  between  a  romantic,  agglu- 
tinative stage  of  epic  composition  (e.g.,  the  Cid),  and  an  organic 
epic  stage  (e.g.,  the  Iliad),  be  shown  to  coincide  with  a  difference 
in  the  degree  of  the  singer's  personal  consciousness  of  the  events 
narrated  ?    See  Steinthal,  p.  2  ff.    Do  we  find  in  the  Greek  epic 
evidences  of  communal  material  handled  in  a  later  individualistic 
spirit  ?   Immisch. 

B.  Under  the   comparative  study  of  epics,  the   student  will 
remark  interesting  variations  in  the  religious  attitude  of  typical 
characters,  in  the  unity  of  narrative,  in  the  personality  behind  poetic 
expression,  as  he  advances  from  the  epic  of  the  East  to  the  epic 
of  the  West,  from  the  epic  of  the  folk  to  the  epic  of  the  artist, 
from  the  age  of  faith  to  the  age  of  reason.    See  Watts-Dunton 
(Encyc.  Brit.),  Herder,  Hegel,  Posnett,  etc.    (i)  What  stage  of 
religious   belief    finds   its   expression   most   fitly   in   epic   form? 


V,  C]  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  EPIC  603 

(2)  Explain  ethnic  and  geographical  variations  of  the  epic  type. 

(3)  Of  what  merit  are  the  following  schemes  of  the  evolution 
of  the  epic  ?  and  what  is  in  each  case  the  basis  of  classification  ? 
(0)  the  nai've  or  primitive  epic,  and  the  literary,  learned,  or  artistic 
epic  (cf.  Ker,  p.  34) ;  (£)  the  hero-saga,  the  composite  or  agglu- 
tinative epic,  the  artistic ;  (e)  the  '  fatalistic,'  the  '  self-assertive,' 
the  '  altruistic ' ;  (d}  the  folk  epic,  the  national  epic,  the  '  cosmo- 
politan '  epic ;  (e)  the  lyric  epic,  the  epic  proper,  the  dramatic  epic ; 
(/)  the  naive,  the  reflective,  the  artistic ;  (g)  Hegel's  stages  of 
development,  Aesthetik,  vol.  Ill,  p.  398  ff. 

C.  A  much  narrower  but  plausibly  practicable  method  of  com- 
parative study  is  that  employed  by  many  of  the  earlier  English 
and  French  critics,  who,  taking  the  Iliad  as  the  paragon  of  epics, 
attempt  to  grade  by  one  scale  other  epics  of  all  times  and  periods. 
This  fashion  of  criticism  can  be  commended  only  as  a  means  of 
first  approach.  It  will  inform  the  student  concerning  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  type  ordinarily  considered  to  be  best ;  but  since  it 
premises  what  it  ought  to  prove,  it  leads  to  no  conclusion  concern- 
ing the  historical  characteristics  of  the  type.  This  is  the  style  of 
criticism  represented  by  Vida,  Boileau,  Dryden,  Addison,  and 
most  of  the  writers  of  the  Classical  School.  See  above,  §§  7,  8,  9. 

VI.  Is  the  Age  of  Epic  Composition  Past  ?   Consider  the  rela- 
tion of  literary  epics,  such  as  Paradise  Lost,  or  of  the  combination 
epic,  Kalevala,  to  the  conditions  of  the  periods  in  which  they 
were  produced.     See  Hegel  and  Schopenhauer  on  the  type  of 
literature  required  by  the  tendencies  of  modern  thought,  taste, 
and  activity;  also  in  §  n,  'W.  J.'  and  Duchesne.    See  Herder 
on  the  possibility  of  a  new  and  more  splendid  epic.    Can  romance 
and  the  novel  supersede  the  epic  ?   Consider  the  literary  epics  of 
the  nineteenth  century :  Jason,  Light  of  Asia,  Light  of  the  World, 
Saul,   Epic  of   Hades,   etc.    Compare  also  W.  Jordan,   Epische 
Briefe,  No.  III. 

VII.  To  what  extent  does  the  history-  of  the  epic  warrant  the 
'opinion  that  the  metrical  romance,  idyl,  and  even  the  novel,  are 
differentiations,  or  even  sub-species,  of  the   epic?    See   among 


604  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

others  Brockhaus'  Konversations-Lex. ;  Moulton,  Mod.  Study  of 
Lit.,  p.  132  ff. ;  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  eng.  Phil.,  pp.  356-357.  Is  it 
possible  that  hero-saga  and  ballad  are  not  representative  of  pre-epic 
lays  ?  Henderson.  Is  it  true  that,  generally  speaking,  great  popular 
hero-epics  are  not  found  in  nations  where  the  hero-ballad  has  been 
developed  extensively  ?  See  Wulker,  p.  244,  and  compare  the  prac- 
tice of  Russians,  Serbians,  Croatians,  Bulgarians,  Siberian  Tartars, 
Celts,  and  ancient  Scandinavians  (Comparetti,  pp.  viii,  327). 

VIII.  What  relation  exists  between  the  epic  proper  and  the 
imitative  folk  epic,  the  allegory,  metrical  romance,  the  idyl,  the 
ballad,  the  animal  epic,  the  dramatic  epic,  the  didactic  poem, 
the  metaphysical  or  scientific  epic,  the  'heroic  poem,  the  mock- 
heroic  poem  ?  On  a  distinction  between  epic  poetry  (or  the 
epopee)  and  the  epos,  see  Wackernagel,  p.  95,  and  Steinthal. 
Is  the  epic  a  complex,  comprehensive  type  in  which  most  of  the 
other  kinds  may  be  included?  Ker,  p.  18.  Consider  the  epic 
features,  if  any,  in  such  works  as  the  following: 

The  Theogony  and  the  Works  and  Days  of  Hesiod,  the  Saga 
of  the  Well-and-Wise-Walking  Khan,  the  Saga  of  Ardschi-Bordschi 
(in  Sagas  from  the  Far  East.  Lond. :  1873),  the  Thibetan  Tales  of 
Schiefner  and  Ralston  (Lond.:  1882),  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  Mac- 
pherson's  Ossian's  Fingal,  the  Campaign  of  Addison,  the  Lutrin  of 
Boileau,  the  Hero  and  Leander  of  Musaeus  (and  the  English  adapta- 
tions of  it  by  Marlowe  and  Chapman  and  by  Edwin  Arnold),  the  Rape 
of  the  Lock,  Hudibras,  William  Tennant's  Anster  Fair,  Tennyson's 
Princess  and  the  Idylls  of  the  King,  William  Morris'  House  of  the 
Wolfings,  the  Roots  of  the  Mountains,  Earthly  Paradise,  Lewis  Morris' 
Epic  of  Hades,  Wilkinson's  Saul,  Wordsworth's  Excursion,  Coleridge's 
Ancient  Mariner  and  Christabel,  Byron's  Childe  Harold,  Don  Juan, 
Bride  of  Abydos,  Scott's  Marmion,  etc.,  Keats'  Endymion  and  Hyperion, 
Fletcher's  Purple  Island,  Sir  Richard  Blackmore's  The  Creation  (see 
Spectator,  No.  339),  Lucretius'  De  Rerum  Natura,  Darwin's  Botanical 
Garden,  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales,  Nonne  Priestes  Tale,  and  House 
of  Fame,  Davenant's  Gondibert,  Lang's  Helen  of  Troy,  Gosse's  Fir- 
dausi  in  Exile,  Matthew  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum,  and  Balder 
Dead,  Swinburne's  Tristram  of  Lyonesse,  Browning's  The  Ring  and 
the  Book,  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal, 
the  Battle  of  Brunanburh,  Cynewulf's  Elene,  the  Traveller's  Song, 


IX,  A]      MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY         605 

Judith,  the  cycles  of  Alexander,  Charlemagne,  and  Arthur,  the  Romaunt 
of  the  Rose,  Sir  Gawayne  and  the  Green  Knight,  von  Eschenbach's 
Parzival,  Langland's  Vision  concerning  Piers  Plowman,  Goethe's 
Hermann  und  Dorothea.  For  other  examples  of  poems  with  possibly 
an  epic  flavor,  see  Gummere's  chapter  on  the  Epic  (Poetics). 

IX.  Minor  Forms  of  Narrative  Poetry.  These  have  been  sug- 
gested above,  §  7,  vn,  where  will  be  found  an  enumeration  of 
the  chief  varieties  and  a  brief  consideration  of  the  nature  of 
Ballad,  Pastoral,  and  Idyl.  The  following  notes  are  intended  for 
the  beginner  in  the  fields  of  study  to  which  they  pertain. 

A.  Ballad,  i.  Origin.  That  the  popular  or  traditional  ballad 
is  folk  poetry,  i.e.,  poetry  that  has  originated  usually  in  oral  form, 
among  a  homogeneous,  non-literary  people,  and  has  been  handed 
down  among  them  by  word  of  mouth,  is  generally  conceded.  See 
Kittredge,  xii-xiii ;  cf.  Moulton  on  fossil  poetry,  Mod.  Study  of 
Lit.,  32-33.  But  the  .exact  method  of  origin  is  a  question  still 
under  discussion.  Two  theories,  which  after  all  are  probably  not 
incompatible,  have  been  advanced,  (a)  The  Theory  of  Individual 
Authorship.  Ballads,  say  some,  are  composed  by  individuals,  just 
as  a  modern  lyric  or  narrative  poem  is  the  work  of  a  particular 
author.  They  achieve  popularity  as  catchy  songs  do  nowadays ; 
from  transmission  by  word  of  mouth  from  one  generation  to 
another  they  take  on  certain  distinctive  traits  of  popular  rehearsal, 
such  as  repetitions,  stock  expressions,  nai've  phrasing  and  point 
of  view.  But  is  it  not  nearer  to  the  evidence  to  suppose  that 
the  ballad-poet,  an  undistinguished  member  of  the  mass  or  crowd, 
composes  in  the  artless  and  popular  vein  of  which  practically 
everybody  else  in  the  crowd  is  capable  (such  improvisation  is 
not  at  all  unusual  among  those  of  the  unliterary  class)  ?  And  is 
it  not  nearer  to  the  evidence  to  suppose  that  the  ballad-poet 
makes  use  of  the  stock  phrases,  settings,  and  situations  of  earlier 
ballads,  instead  of  striving  for  novel  conceptions  and  expressions 
that  will  distinguish  his  work  from  that  of  other  poets  ?  The  ballad- 
maker  is  the  mouthpiece  of  the  crowd ;  his  subject  is  matter 
of  common  knowledge;  and  his  production  at  once  becomes 


6o6  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

the  possession  of  the  people.  Usually  his  authorship  is  unre- 
garded or  forgotten ;  his  composition  becomes  as  anonymous 
as  it  was  impersonal.  Of  such  authorship  we  have  an  account 
in  the  following  notice  of  Serbian  ballads: 

The  anonymous  authorship  of  these  songs  may  excite  surprise  among 
a  people  of  bookish  training  and  habits.  It  will  readily  be  understood 
that  a  singer  knowing  some  fifty  of  the  ballads  by  heart  can  without 
great  difficulty  compose  new  songs  on  any  passing  event  of  village  life, 
even  as  a  cultivated  gentleman,  well  versed  in  even  one  of  Shakespeare's 
plays,  can  find  fitting  quotations  for  an  after-dinner  speech  on  any 
imaginable  topic.  Karajich  gives  an  example  of  such  a  jesting  song 
composed  upon  a  village  wedding.  Ballads  of  this  type  have  no  value 
in  themselves,  and  disappear  from  memory  along  with  the  trifling  event 
that  occasioned  them.  But  "  just  as  waggish  old  men  and  youths  com- 
pose these  jocose  songs,  so  others  compose  serious  ballads  of  battles 
and  other  notable  events.  It  is  not  strange  that  one  cannot  learn  who 
first  composed  even  the  most  recent  of  the  ballads,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  older  ones;  but  it  is  strange  that  among  the  common  people  no- 
body regards  it  as  an  art  or  a  thing  to  be  proud  of  to  compose  a  new 
ballad ;  and,  not  to  speak  of  boasting  of  doing  so,  everyone,  even  the 
real  author,  refuses  to  acknowledge  the  ballad,  and  says  that  he  has 
heard  it  from  another.  This  is  true  of  the  most  recent  ballads,  of 
which  it  is  known  that  they  were  not  brought  from  elsewhere,  but 
arose  on  the  spot  from  an  event  of  a  few  days  ago  ;•  but  when  even 
a  year  has  passed  since  the  event  and  the  ballad,  or  when  a  ballad  is 
heard  of  an  event  of  yesterday,  but  of  a  distant  locality,  no  one  even 
thinks  of  asking  about  its  origin."  .  .  .  Acquaintance  with  these  simple 
statements  by  Karajich  as  to  conditions  with  which  he  was  familiar, 
in  a  country  where  ballads  are  still  a  living  force,  might  have  saved 
writers  on  English  balladry  from  much  empty  theorizing.  Despite  the 
prevailing  anonymity,  the  authorship  of  some  of  the  modern  ballads  is 
known  with  reasonable  certainty  (G.  R.  Noyes  and  L.  Bacon,  Heroic 
Ballads  of  Servia,  Boston  :  1913,  pp.  9-10 ;  Karajich,  Preface  to  2d  ed. 
of  Servian  National  Songs,  1824,  government  ed.  1891).  • 

(£)  Communal  Theory.  But  though  the  authorship  of  individual 
ballads  —  including  our  three  hundred  and  five  English  and 
Scottish  ballads  —  is  probably  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  modi- 
fied individualistic  theory  which  has  just  been  suggested,  yet  the 


IX,  A]      MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY         607 

question  of  the  origin  of  the  ballad  as  a  type  remains  to  be  con- 
sidered. And  a  virtue  of  the  modified,  individualistic  theory  is 
that  it  welcomes  the  communal  theory  as  an  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion of  type-origin,  but  clearly  discourages  the  absurd  misinter- 
pretation of  the  latter  that  attributes  the  authorship  of  our  ballads 
in  their  present  form  to  a  dancing,  improvising  throng. 

According  to  the  communal  theory,  if  we  wish  to  discover 
the  singing  narrative  —  with  its  popular  refrain,  burden,  or  chorus, 
with  its  naive,  monotonous  repetitions,  with  its  utter  simpleness 
of  conception  and  expression  —  which  in  the  course  of  time 
evolves  the  ballad  of  sustained  developed  narrative,  we  must  go 
to  the  communal  choral,  improvised  by  various  members  of  a 
primitive  dancing,  singing  crowd  that  is  celebrating  an  event  of 
common  moment.  Among  all  primitive  people  we  find  this  simple 
communal  improvisation :  the  song  may  be  composed  of  but  two 
or  three  verses,  repeated  hour  after  hour.  Presumably  from  such 
songs  is  taken  the  cue  for  longer,  sustained  narrative.  But,  after 
all,  by  way  of  caution  we  must  ask  whether  this  connection  can 
actually  be  demonstrated.  And,  on  the  other  hand,  is  it  not  true 
that  often  the  very  people  who  improvise  these  monotonous 
'  shouts '  possess  long  aetiological  narratives,  quite  unrelated  to 
communal  improvisation  ?  See  Spencer  and  Gillen,  Native  Tribes 
of  Australia.  Is  not  the  faculty  for  such  narration  an  individual 
gift  even  among  primitives  ?  Is  it  not  as  probable  that  the  ballad 
is  a  development  from  such  narratives,  as  from  the  camp-fire 
'  shout '  or  '  sing '  ?  See  Beatty,  and  note  Gummere,  Pop.  Ballad, 
69-70. 

However,  the  essential  point  remains  this :  that  the  traditional 
ballad,  belonging  to  oral,  '  folk '  poetry,  rather  than  to  the  written 
art  poetry  of  the  educated  classes,  is  as  a  type  in  all  probability 
to  be  traced  back  to  very  early,  even  primitive  beginnings  of 
some  sort,  but  that  our  extant  ballads  are  probably  due  in  the 
first  place  to  individual  authorship  in  a  naive,  unpremeditated, 
unstudied  vein.  Moreover,  these  extant  ballads  have  undergone 
many  changes  of  form  and  content  during  their  oral  transmission ; 


6o8  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

and  the  whole  body  of  these  popular,  anonymous  changes  has 
amounted  to  a  secondary,  progressive,  and  collective  act  of  com- 
position, which  is  "as  efficient  a  cause  of  the  ballad  ...  as  the 
original  creative  act  of  the  individual  author  "  (Kittredge,  p.  xvii). 

For  an  excellent  concise  analysis  and  appraisal  of  the  theories  of 
origin  see  Kittredge.  On  the  communal  theory  see  works  by  Gummere ; 
for  the  individualistic  theory,  Henderson,  Courthope,  and  G.  G.  Smith, 
as  noted  below,  §  1 1 ,  under  Gummere,  Popular  Ballad.  See  also  Child, 
Lang,  Hart,  Ker,  G.  M.  Miller,  Heusler,  Steenstrup,  and  others  noted 
in  the  outline  of  the  history  of  the  ballad  question  given  by  Gummere 
in  his  Introd.  to  his  Old  English  Ballads  (1894)  and  by  H.  Hecht, 
Neuere  Literatur  zur  englisch-schottischen  Balladendichtung  (in  Eng- 
lische  Studien,  36:  37off.  1906).  See  also  Gayley  and  Scott, 
pp.  266-274. 

2.  Antiquity  and  Distribution  of  the  Ballad.  Although  the 
very  nature  of  their  oral  and  popular  existence  makes  an  ade- 
quate history  of  particular  ballads  well-nigh  impossible,  yet  the 
great  antiquity  of  ballad-making  may  be  fairly  demonstrated. 
The  student  should  note  the  evidences  of  balladry  during  the 
Middle  and  Dark  Ages  —  among  the  Angles  and  Saxons  when 
they  invaded  England,  among  the  Germans,  French,  Danes, 
Scandinavians,  Italians,  Greeks,  and  others.  Early  manuscript 
references  to  popular  narrative  songs  are  the  chief  direct  evi- 
dence. But  most  valuable  is  the  indirect  evidence  which  may 
be  deduced  from  the  wide  distribution  of  the  ballad.  Ballad- 
versions  of  certain  romantic  themes  are  diffused  over  all  Europe, 
which  may  indicate  a  very  considerable  antiquity.  The  compara- 
tive study  of  these  versions  soon  carries  the  student  into  the 
larger  fields  of  comparative  folklore.  Materials  for  such  study 
may  be  found  in  the  introductions  and  notes  to  Child's  English 
and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads  and  in  the  larger  histories  of 
national  literatures.  For  an  inspiring  introduction  to  the  field 
see  Andrew  Lang's  article,  Ballads  (Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.). 
See  also  the  references  to  folk  poetry  under  each  division  in 
§  6,  above ;  for  early  Germanic  poetry,  §  6,  xin,  A.  On  sources 


IX,  A]      MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY         609 

of   English  ballads  see   E.  Fliigel  in  Anglia,  21:    3 1 2  ff . ;    also 
Child,  Kittredge,  and  Ker. 

3.  Development  of  the  Ballad,  and  Relation  to  Other  Types. 
What  are  the  means  and  stages  of  accretion  and  internal  change, 
with  respect  to  both  form  and  content,  that  constitute  the  develop- 
ment of  the  ballad  (a)  from  its  germ  in  the  communal  improvisa- 
tion of  the  dancing  throng  to  its  appearance  as  a  recognized  form 
of  popular  but  individual  improvisation  ?  (£)  from  an  original 
form  created  by  an  individual  author  to  the  far  different  form 
which  is  the  result  of  the  many  changes  to  which  the  poem  is 
subject  during  oral  transmission  ?  (/)  from  the  simple  ballad  to 
the  ballad-cycle  ?  Does  the  ballad  precede  or  succeed  the  epic  ? 
Do  some  legendary  ballads  develop  into  heroic  lays  (chansons 
de  geste],  and  these  into  epic?  By  what  means  and  stages? 
What  is  the  relation  of  the  ballad  to  medieval  metrical  romance  ? 
For  a  more  ample  statement  of  these  problems  and  a  serious 
attempt  at  answering  some  of  them,  see  W.  M.  Hart,  Ballad  and 
Epic,  and  English  Popular  Ballads,  which  are  noted  at  some 
length  in  §  n,  below.  Compare  Clawson,  Comparetti's  Trad. 
Poetry  of  the  Finns,  Ker's  Epic  and  Romance,  Gummere's  Begin- 
nings of  Poetry,  and  Heusler's  Lied  und  Epos,  also  noted  in  §  n. 

B.  Pastoral.  A  very  few  of  the  outstanding  problems  of  the 
history  of  the  pastoral  are  noted. 

i.  Origin,  (a)  Do  pastoral  people  possess  a  distinctive  pastoral 
poetry  ?  Or  does  what  we  know  of  the  songs  of  pastoral  nations 
lead  us  "to  suppose  that  they  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
type  of  popular  verse  current  wherever  poetry  exists,  folk  songs 
of  broad  humanity  in  which  little  stress  is  laid  on  the  peculiar 
circumstances  of  shepherd  life  "  (Greg,  p.  4)  ?  (£)  Is  the  general 
assumption  that  Theocritus  derived  his  materials  and  inspiration 
from  the  shepherds  of  Sicily  erroneous?  See  Lang,  Introd.  to 
Trans,  of  Theocritus ;  Knaack,  as  noted  below,  under  Idyl.  Com- 
pare, in  this  connection,  the  songs  of  modern  Greek  peasants  — 
shepherds  included  —  with  those  of  other  pastoral  and  non-pastoral 
peoples. 


6lO  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§10 

For  Greek  specimens  see  C.  Fauriel,  Chants  populaires  de  la  Grece 
moderne  (1825);  Lucy  Garnett,  several  volumes  (1885 +).  For  popular 
songs  of  other  peoples  see  under  the  divisions  of  §  6,  above. 

(f)  Are  the  festivals  of  pastoral  peoples  distinguished  by  peculiar 
practices  and  songs  ?  (d)  How  does  the  art  pastoral  originate  ? 
This  question  resolves  itself  into  (i)  a  study  of  the  sources  of 
the  pastoral  idyls  of  Theocritus,  for  which  see  below ;  and  (2)  a 
study  of  the  rise  of  the  medieval  French  pastourelle,  which  tells 
a  story  of  the  wooing  of  a  shepherdess  by  a  nobleman  (see  Bartsch, 
Altfranzdsische  Romanzen  und  Pastourellen  (1870);  G.  Paris, 
La  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age,  §§  122,  127,  133;  an  essay  by  Grosart 
in  the  3d  vol.  of  his  ed.  of  Spenser ;  above,  §  6,  vn,  B). 

2.  Development.  Problems  of  development  include:  (a)  Arti- 
ficializing  of  the  type  by  the  Greek  and  Roman  imitators  of 
Theocritus  (Bion,  Moschus,  Virgil  —  in  Conington's  Introd.  to 
the  Bucolics  is  a  defense  of  Virgil)  and  by  later  imitators  of 
Theocritus  and  Virgil  (Calpurnius,  Nemesianus,  neo-Latin  poets 
(for  whom  see  the  references  noted  above,  §  6,  v ;  also  Macrl- 
Leone,  as  noted  below,  §  n,  and  Oporinus,  En  habes,  lector, 
bucolicorum  auctores,  xxxviii,  etc.,  Basle:  1546),  Mantuanus, 
Petrarch,  Tasso,  Sannazaro,  Guarini,  Montemayor,  Sidney,  Spenser, 
Pope,  and  a  host  of  others) ;  (If)  extension  of  pastoral  to  dramatic 
(Politian,  Beccari,  Tasso,  Guarini,  Fletcher,  Ben  Jonson,  etc.) 
and  novelistic  (Longus,  Sannazaro,  Montemayor,  Sidney,  D'Urfe, 
Lodge,  etc.)  forms ;  (f)  the  union  of  Hellenic,  Roman,  neo-Latin, 
and  Provengal  (vid.  pastourelle)  influences  in  the  Renaissance  pas- 
toral ;  (</)  successive  stages  of  development  in  the  pastoral  litera- 
tures of  the  various  nations,  including  i7th  and  i8th  century 
formalism  and  decay,  and  later  revival  of  the  '  natural '  pastoral. 
E.  K.  Chambers  suggests  four  methods  by  which  the  pastoral  has 
at  various  times  been  rejuvenated  and  has  escaped  its  "  constant 
state  of  menace  from  the  artificial  elements  in'  it " :  personal 
allusion ;  political,  social,  or  religious  allusions ;  realistic  'descrip- 
tion and  adaptation  to  new  natural  environment ;  idealistic  inter- 
pretation, through  exaltation  of  content,  purification  of  love,  and 
intuition  of  nature  (English  Pastorals,  pp.  xxxiv-xlii). 


IX,  B]      MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY         6ll 

Among  English  pastoral  poets  the  following  are  typical :  Spenser, 
Drayton,  William  Browne,  Nicholas  Breton,  John  Philips,  Lady  Win- 
chelsea,  Pope,  Ambrose  Philips,  Parnell,  Gay,  Ramsay,  Jas.  Thomson, 
John  Armstrong,  Matthew  Green,  John  Dyer,  John  Byrom,  Shenstone, 
Collins,  Gray,  Goldsmith,  Thos.  Warton,  Beattie,  Cowper,  Crabbe, 
Burns.  For  others  see  E.  K.  .Chambers,  English  Pastorals.  Long  lists 
of  pastoral  poets  of  many  nations,  ancient  and  modern,  may  be  found 
in  Blankenburg  and  Quadrio. 

For  some  of  the  more  important  essays  on  pastoral  poetry  see  Greg 
and  Chambers  as  noted  above,  §  8 ;  Carrara,  Gosse,  Hanford,  Herford, 
Lilly,  Macri-Leone,  Moorman,  Mustard,  Sommer,-  Windscheid,  etc.  as 
noted  below,  §  1 1 ;  the  principal  histories  of  national  literatures,  as 
noted  in  the  Appendix,  especially  J.  A.  Symonds,  Renaissance  in  Italy, 
vols.  IV,  V  Italian  Lit.,  L.  Petit  de  Julleville,  Hist,  de  la  langue  et  de  la 
litt.  frangaise,  G.  Ticknor,  Hist,  of  Spanish  Lit.,  W.  J.  Courthope,  Hist. 
Eng.  Poetry,  vols.  II,  III,  and  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit. 

An  admirable  account  of  the  German  pastoral  is  O.  Neboliczka's 
Schaferdichtung  und  Poetik  im  18.  Jahrh.  (in  Vierteljahrschrift  fur 
Littgesch.,  2:  1-89).  See  also  H.  Brogle,  as  noted  below,  §  n,  and 
Kressner,  Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der  franzosischen  Pastoraldichtung 
(Herrig's  Arc/itv,  1866);  Weidinger,  Die  Schaferlyrik  der  franz.  Vor- 
renaissance  (Diss.,  Munchen:  1893);  Weinberg,  Das  franz.  Schaferspiel 
in  der  i.  Halite  des  1 7.  Jahrhdts.  (Diss.,  Heidelberg:  1884);  J.  Rocafort, 
Chap.  VI  of  the  work  cited  above,  §  2 ;  Riihle,  Das  deutsche  Schaferspiel 
des  1 8.  Jahrhdts.  (Diss.,  Halle:  1885);  Bertrand,  La  fin  du  classicisme 
(Paris:  1897).  Among  older  essays  see  No.  39  of  Hugh  Blair's  Lectures 
and  Joseph  Warton 's  Diss.  upon  Pastoral  Poetry  (in  his  Works  of 
Virgil  in  Latin  and  English);  many  other  essays  from  the  r6th  to 
the  1 8th  century  are  listed  under  the  article  Hirtengedichte  in  Blank- 
enburg's  work  noted  above,  §  2.  See,  further,  the  references  below, 
under  Idyl. 

C.  Idyl.  The  origin  and  development  of  the  idyl  well  illustrate 
the  peculiar  confusion  and  variation  of  terms  and  materials  that 
constitute  the  progress  of  a  literary  type.  Questions  of  origin 
center  about  the  poems  of  Theocritus.  These  were  of  various 
kinds:  mimes,  bucolics,  epical  romances,  lyrics,  epigrams,  etc. 
What  may  have  been  the  relation  of  Theocritus'  poems  to  the 
origin  and  development  of  each  of  these  kinds  —  whether,  for 
instance,  he  originated  the  bucolic  by  direct  imitation  of  rural 
debat  or,  which  was  in  all  probability  the  case,  followed  a 


6l2  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

contemporary  school  of  poetry  and  became  the  "  exponent  of 
that  school  in  its  purest  form"  —  must,  of  course,  be  studied 
in  detail.  But,  as  we  have  already  noted  (above,  §  7,  vn,  c),  the 
term  eiSuAAia  (signifying  '  little-pieces '  or  short  poems)  was 
applied  by  Alexandrian  grammarians  to  the  collected  poems  of 
Theocritus,  —  to  all  the  kinds  alike.  Then  began  a  confusion. 
In  some  way  the  term  eiSvAAw.  gathered  special  connotation 
from  the  pastoral  poems  in  the  collection  but  continued  to  be 
applied  to  all  the  poems,  —  mimes,  epical  romances,  lyrics,  etc. 

From  this  point  on  the  student  may  elucidate  how  Roman, 
medieval,  and  modern  poets  have,  on  the  one  hand,  intensified 
the  pastoral  quality  of  the  idyl  and,  on  the  other,  extended  the 
more  general  application  of  the  term  to  cover  a  range  of  subjects 
and  manners  even  more  diverse  than  those  included  in  the 
'  short  poems '  of  Theocritus.  Thus  variation  in  the  usage  of 
the  term  has  rendered  even  more  complex  the  consideration  of 
the  nature  of  the  sub-type  'idyl,'  until  the  critic  who  would 
test  the  validity  of  a  type  or  sub-type  by  its  logical  adherence 
to  a  specific  quality  is  ready  in  despair  to  forget  the  differential 
of  growth,  return  to  the  original  meaning  of  the  term,  and  define 
the  idyl  as  a  miniature  of  any  one  of  the  major  types  or  of  any 
combination  of  them. 

Among  more  particular  subjects  of  inquiry  we  may  note  the 
following:  (i)  Can  it  be  shown  that  the  pastoral  idyl  goes  back 
of  its  art  form,  as  given  it  by  Philetas  and  the  Coan  school,  to 
an  original  folk  form  ?  And  if  so,  did  this  form  originate  in  connec- 
tion with  the  worship  of  Artemis  ?  as  rustic  debat  ?  See  Knaack. 
(2)  Can  the  essential  reaction  from  town  life  be  regarded  as  the 
new  modifying  influence  upon  the  older  folk  type,  which  produced 
a  new  species  ?  (3)  In  what  social  environment  does  the  idyl 
flourish?  (4)  Is  the  idyl  found  in  Oriental  literature,  and  what 
does  its  Oriental  form  prove  as  to  the  essential  character  and 
development  of  the  species  ?  See  Moulton  and  Gosche.  (5)  How 
much  of  the  history  of  the  idyl  is  a  history  of  the  imitation 
of  previous  literary  forms  —  especially  of  Theocritus  and  Virgil? 


IX,  C]      MINOR  FORMS  OF  NARRATIVE  POETRY         613 

Where  does  the  student  find  a  recrudesence  of  the  original  idyl, 
deriving  from  direct  observation  of  life  ?  Compare  in  this  respect 
with  the  elegy.  (6)  To  what  extent  and  under  what  conditions  has 
the  idyl  presented  life  in  conventionalized  prettiness  ?  (7)  Trace 
the  relation  of  the  idyl  to  the  development  of  the  love  for  nature. 
(8)  Did  a  new  idyllic  ideal  mark  the  transition  from  the  Middle 
Ages  to  the  Renaissance?  Did  the  sensuous  susceptibility  to 
beauty  which  was  characteristic  of  the  Renaissance  find  a  fit 
expression  in  the  idyl  ?  Or  was  the  Renaissance  idyl  —  Italian, 
French,  Spanish,  and  English  —  an  insincere  embroidering  upon 
ancient  models  ?  Did  the  Renaissance  idyl  derive  from  both 
Virgil  and  Theocritus  ?  From  which  the  more  ?  (9)  Have  the 
rustic  scenes  and  idealization  of  nature  afforded  by  pastoral 
idyls  ever  affected  the  peasant-class,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly? (10)  Has  the  idyl  been  an  instrument  of  political  satire, 
moral  or  economic  education,  religious  interpretation,  imaginative 
freedom  ? 

Among  writers  of  idyls  are  Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus,  Virgil, 
Valerius  Cato,  Septimius  Serenus,  Severus  Ehdelechius,  Ausonius 
(Idyllia,  or  possibly  Epyllia?),  Claudian,  Nemesianus,  Calpurnius 
Siculus,  —  see  the  neo- Latin  writers  as  collected  by  Oporinus  (noted 
above,  under  B,  Pastoral,  2),  Sacchetti,  Petrarch,  Mantuanus,  Tasso, 
other  Italians  as  noted  in  G.  Ferrario's  Poesie  pastorali  e  rusticali  (in 
Classici  Italiani,  vol.  235.  Milano:  1808),  Montemayor,  Guiraut  Riquier, 
Marcabrun,  Thibaut  de  Navarre,  Clement  Marot,  Ronsard,  Honore' 
d'Urfe",  The"ophile  de  Viau,  Saint-Amant,  Mme.  Deshoulieres  (Idylles, 
1675),  Fontenelle,  Houdar  de  Lamotte,  Florian,  Roucher,  Bernardin 
de  Saint-Pierre,  Andre"  Che'nier,  Victor  de  Laprade  (Idylles  hejo'iques, 
1858;  cf.  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King),  Brizeux  (Marie),  Autran 
(Poemes  de  la  mer),  Mistral  (Mireille),  Gessner  (in  prose,  1758),  Voss 
(Luise,  1 784),  Friedrich  Miiller  (known  as  '  Maler  Miiller '),  Goethe 
(Alexis  und  Dora,  Hermann  und  Dorothea),  J.  P.  HebbeJ,  Martin 
Usteri,  Platen,  Kosegarten,  Ed.  Morike,  B.  Auerbach,  J.  -Gotthelf, 
Spenser  (Shepherd's  Calendar),  Burns  (Cotter's  Saturday  Night), 
Tennyson,  various  English  pastoral  poets  mentioned  above  (under 
B,  Pastoral,  2),  and  the  authors  of  the  books  of  Ruth,  Tobit,  Esther, 
and  Song  of  Solomon.  Many  other  names  are  noted  by  Blankenburg 
and  Quadrio.  See  also  Hall's  Idylls  of  Fishermen  (noted  below). 


614  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  10 

On  the  Greek  and  Roman  idyl  see  G.  Knaack,  Art.  Bukolik,  in  Pauly- 
Wissowar  Real-Encyc.  (1899),  and  the  same  author's  Hellenistische 
Forschungen, — authoritative,  indispensable,  with  valuable  bibliograph- 
ical references;  P.  E.  Legrand,  Etude  sur  The'ocrite  (Paris:  1898), 
—  comprehensive,  indispensable;  Ribbeck,  Die  Idyllen  des  Theokrit 
(in  Preuss.  Jahrb.,  1873,  32:  59-98),  popular;  R.  von  Reitzenstein, 
Epigramm  und  Skolion  (Giessen :  1893),  Chap.  IV,  —  discredited,— 
cf.  Crusius  in  Litt,  Centralbl.,  1894,  724,  and  Knaack  in  Berl.  phi  I. 
Wochenschr.,  1895,  1160;  Holm,  Gesch.  Siciliens  (n.d.),  2:  298- 
321,  493;  C.  Haeberlin,  Carmina  Figurata  Graeca  (2d  ed.  Hannover: 
1887),  and  Epilegomena  (in  Philol.,  N.  F.  3:  649),  many  errors;  the 
histories  of  Greek,  Alexandrian  (esp.  Couat  and  Croiset),  and  Roman 
literature  as  cited  in  Appendix;  the  works  of  Cholmeley,  Mackail, 
Symonds,  and  Chambers  noted  above,  §  8 ;  A.  C.  Clark,  'Art.  The- 
ocritus, Encyc.  Brit.,  1 1  th  ed.  For  Virgil's  Eclogues  see  particularly 
Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age,  and  Patin,  Sur  I'dglogue 
latine  (in  Rev.  d.  Deux  Mondes,  1838,  15:  234,  382).  On  medieval 
and  modern  idyls  see  the  various  histories  of  national  poetry;  the  art. 
Idyl,  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed. ;  and,  especially,  the  references  on  pastoral 
poetry  noted  above,  under  Pastoral.  See  also  R.  T.  Kerlin,  Theocritus 
in  English  Lit.  (Lynchburg,  Virginia:  1910;  Yale  Thesis),  which  con- 
tains a  long  bibliography;  H.  M.  Hall,  Idylls  of  Fishermen,  A  Hist, 
of  the  Lit.  Species  (N.Y. :  1912;  Columbia  Diss.),  with  bibliography 
of  its  field ;  F.  E.  Schelling,  A  Book  of  1 7th  Cent.  Lyrics  (Boston : 
1899);  H.  Brogle,  as  noted  below,  §  n;  B.  Wendell,  The  Temper 
of  the  1 7th  Cent,  in  English  Lit.  (N.Y.:  1904);  D.  Mornet,  Le  senti- 
ment de  la  nature  en  France  de  J.-J.  Rousseau  a  B.  de  St.-Pierre 
(Paris:  1907),  L'idylle  champetre,  p.  67  ff. ;  W.  Nagel,  Die  deutsche 
Idylle  im  18.  Jahrh.  (Diss.,  Zurich  :  1887) ;  G.  Eskuche,  Zur  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Idyllendichtung  (Siegen:  1 894);  R.  Maack,  Pope's  Einfluss 
auf  die  Idylle  ...  in  Deutschland  (Hamb. :  1895);  R.  Knippel,  Schillers 
Verhaltnis  zur  Idylle  (in  Breslauer  Beitrdge  zur ' Littgesch.,  No.  18. 
1909).  R.  Gosche's  Idyll  und  Dorfgeschichte  im  Alterthum  und  Mittel- 
alter  (in  Arch,  fiir  Littgesch.,  1870,  i  :  169-227)  is  a  brief,  superficial 
survey  of_  the  characteristics  of  the  idyllic  literatures  of  the  Hebrews, 
Egyptians,  Hindoos,  Chinese,  Greeks,  Romans,  Germans,  and  Romance 
peoples.  Compare  G.  Schneider's  Ueber  das  Wesen  und  die  Entwick. 
der  Idylle  (Hamburg:  1893). 


§11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  615 

SECTION  n.    GENERAL  REFERENCES 

Most  of  the  works  on  the  historical  development  of  this  form 
of  poetry  are  concerned  with  individual  epics  or  the  epics  of 
particular  nations.  General  works,  discussing  the  history  of  the 
type  as  a  whole,  are  necessarily  rare ;  the  study  of  epics  separately 
is  probably  not  so  far  advanced  as  to  present  a  body  of  obser- 
vation sufficiently  broad,  or  sufficiently  verified,  for  the  task  of 
general  induction.  In  this  list  of  references  the  few  attempts 
at  generalization  that  have  been  made  are  noted ;  but  they 
have  been  supplemented  by  the  more  important  studies  of  the 
various  epics  or  particular  national  epic-literatures,  especially 
when  these  special  studies  contain  references  or  suggestions  of 
a  general  nature.  The  student  should  also  consult  authorities, 
such  as  Gladstone,  Kleinpaul,  Lotze,  Nettleship,  Sellar,  Ulrici, 
cited  under  §  §  8  and  9  ;  and  the  Poetics  of  Scherer,  Gottschall, 
Rosenkranz,  Viehoff,  etc.,  which  may  be  traced  by  means  of  the 
Index.  -For  histories  of  literature  in  general  see  the  Appendix; 
here  are  noted  only  a  few  of  the  larger  and  more  important 
of  these. 

ABERCROMBIE,  L.   The  Epic. 
See  above,  §  8. 

AUBERTIN,  C.     Langue  et  litterature  franchise  au  moyen  &ge. 
2  vols.    Paris:   1883. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  222-380  Les  sources  de  la  podsie  dpique  et  he"ro'ique 
au  moyen  age ;  Cantilenes ;  Chansons  de  Geste ;  Epopees ; 
les  Cycles,  etc. 

AUBIGNAC,  L'ABB^  F.  H.  D'.    Conjectures  academiques  ou  disser- 
tation sur  1'Iliade.    Paris:   1715. 

Probably  written  as  early  as  1664.  For  this  famous  anticipation 
of  the  Wolfian  theory  of  the  multiple  authorship  of  the  Iliad,  see 
§  9,  vi,  B,  above. 

BAZZONI,   G.     Di  alcune  epopee  nazionali  e  del   loro   processo 
formativo.    Milano :   1868. 


6l6  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

BEATTY,   ARTHUR.     Ballad,   Tale,  and   Tradition :    A    Study   in 
Popular  Literary  Origins.     Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  N.  S. 
XXII,  No.  4,  pp.  473-498.    Dec.  1914. 
A  brief  outline  of  the  argument  that  the  story-content  of  the 

ballad  derives  not  from  communal   dance   and   song  but  from 

the  popular  prose  tale. 

BEDIER,  J.  Les  legendes  epiques.  Recherches  sur  la  formation 
des  chansons  de  geste.  4  vols.  Paris:  1908-13.  ist  vol., 
2d  ed.  1913. 

Reviews :  Romania,  42 :  593  ;  Littbl.  f.  germ.  u.  roman. 
Phil.,  No.  6.  1908;  also  P.  Rajna  in  his  Studi  medie- 
vali  (3:  331-391.  1910),  and  Bedier's  reply,  Re"ponse 
a  M.  Pio  Rajna  (Extrait  des  Annales  du  Midi,  octobre 
1910,  Toulouse:  1910). 

Authoritative  and  recent;  of  the  highest  philological  and 
historical  importance. 

BIEDERMANN,  FREiHERR  W.  VON.   Zur  vergleichcndcn  Geschichte 
der  poetischen  Formen. 
See  above,  §  5. 

BISTROM,  W.    Das  russiscfie  Volksepos.    In  Zritschr.  fur  Volker- 

psychol.  und  Sprachwiss.,  5  :   180-205;  6:   132-162. 
Descriptive  of  the  metre,  form,  epithets,  action,  etc.  A  footnote 
(5  :   1 80)  gives  a  list  of  collections  of  Russian  folk-epic  songs. 
Another  footnote  (5:    181-182)   gives  a  bibliography  of   some 
German  works  dealing  with  the  Russian  epic. 

BLACKWELL,  T.   An  Enquiry  into  the  Life  and  Writings  of  Homer. 

2d  ed.    Lond. :   1736. 

This  much-abused  book,  said  to  have  suggested  to  Wolf  his 
theory  of  epic  composition,  is  at  least  of  historical  interest  as 
being  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  in  English  to  apply  to  epic 
criticism  the  sociological  method.  Blackwell's  text  is  "  that  every 
kind  of  Writing,  but  especially  the  Poetic,  depends  upon  the 
Manners  of  the  Age  when  it  is  produced"  (p.  70).  Accordingly, 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  617 

the  social  manners,  religion,  and  language  of  the  Homeric  age  are 
examined  —  unfortunately  without  critical  distinction  in  weighing 
authorities  —  and  Homer's  superiority  as  an  epic  poet  is  explained 
by  reference  to  peculiarly  favorable  conditions  in  his  social  and 
spiritual  environment.  In  the  course  of  the  Enquiry  many  inter- 
esting discussions  are  started,  such  as  the  following :  few  surprising 
or  marvellous  things  happen  in  a  well-ordered  state,  and  therefore 
such  a  state  does  not  afford  subjects  for  epic  poetry  (pp.  26-27)  '•> 
the  epic  poet  cannot  rely  upon  fictitious  manners  —  he  must  de- 
scribe what  he  has  seen  (29) ;  "  When  .  .  .  the  Greek  Language 
was  brought  to  express  all  the  best  and  bravest  of  the  human 
Feelings  and  retained  a  sufficient  Quantity  of  its  Original,  amaz- 
ing, metaphoric  Tincture;  at  that  Point  of  Time  did  Homer  write" 
(46-47) ;  Homer  appeared  at  a  time  when  religion  and  belief  had 
gained  their  vigor  and  had  not  lost  the  "  Grace  of  Novelty  and 
Youth"  (51);  a  polished  state  of  language  is  unsuitable  to  epic 
production  (60);  pernicious  effect  of  an  absolute  court  (61). 
For  references  to  the  bards  (whence  Wolf  is  said  to  have  de- 
rived his  idea),  see  pp.  79,  io6ff.  Compare  Herder  and  Wood, 
as  noted  in  this  section,  and  J.  G.  Hamann  as  noted  in  §  9,  VHI,  B. 
But  all  these  men  from  Blackwell  to  Wolf  had  been  anticipated 
by  D'Aubignac  (writing  in  1664  and  printing  in  1715)  and  by 
Vico  (printing  in  1722).  See  §9,  vi,  B,  and  v,  c. 

BLASS,  F.    Interpolationen  in  der  Odyssee.    Halle:   1904. 

One  of  the  later  attempts  at  analysis  of  the  Homeric  texts. 
See  review  in  The  Nation,  81  :  59. 

BOCKEL,  O.    Psychologic  der  Volksdichtung.    Leipz. :   1906. 

BOECKH,  A.    Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  philologischen 
Wissenschaften.    Leipz.:   1886. 

Pp.  649-655  Greek  epic;  pp.  716-721   Latin  epic;  pp.  745- 
756  Bibliography. 

BOISSIER,  G.    Les  theories  nouvelles  du  poeme  epique.    In  Rev. 
d.  Deux  Mondes,  67  :  848-879.    1867. 


618  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§11 

Contains  some  superficial  remarks  upon  the  development  of 
the  epos  from  the  popular  chant  or  song,  upon  the  Wolfian  theory 
of  epic  composition,  and  upon  the  dangerous  effect  of  these  new 
theories  of  epic  composition  upon  our  critical  appreciation  of  the 
artificial  epic. 

BROGL£,  H.  Die  franzosische  Hirtendichtung  in  der  2.  Halfte  des 
1 8.  Jahrhunderts  dargestellt  in  ihrem  besonderen  Verhaltniss 
zu  Salom.  Gessner.  I.  Idyll  und  Conte  Champetre.  Diss. 
Leipz. :  1903. 

For  other  works  on  pastoral  and  idyl  see  above,  §  i  o,  ix,  B,  c. 

BRUCHMANN,  K.    Poetik. 

Pp.  1 22-206.    For  this  work  see  above,  §  8. 

BRUINIER,  J.  W.    Das  deutsche  Volkslied.    2d  ed.   Leipz.:   1904. 

BRUNETIERE,  F.    Eludes  critiques  sur  1'histoire  de  la  litterature 

franchise.    Paris:   1880. 

In  the  first  essay  Brunetiere  sounds  what  is  possibly  a  much- 
needed  warning  against  considering  the  chanson  de  geste  as  epic 
poetry.  "  Dans  1'histoire  de  notre  litte'rature,  comme  dans 
1'histoire  de  la  litte'rature  grecque  et  de  la  litterature  la  tine,  la 
chanson  de  geste  est  moins  une  poesie  qu'un  acheminement  vers 
la  prose,  et  non  pas  tant  un  genre  capable  de  se  suffire  a  soi-meme 
qu'un  apprentissage  de  la  maniere  d'ecrire  1'histoire."  —  Compare 
Nouvelles  questions  de  critique,  p.  5. 

BRUNETIERE,  F.    Eludes  critiques  sur  1'histoire  de  la  litte'rature 

fransaise.    5e  SeYie.    Paris:   1893. 

See  the  first  essay:  La  Re'forme  de  Malherbe  et  Involution 
des  genres. 

BRUNETIERE,  F.    Nouvelles  questions  de  critique.    Paris:   1890. 
See  the  first  essay :  La  Podsie  francaise  au  moyen  age. 

CARRARA,  E.  La  poesia  pastorale.  Vol.  V  of  the  series,  Storia 
dei  generi  letterari  italiani.  Milano  :  c.  1907. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  619 

CARRIERE,  M.    Die  Poesie.    Ihr  Wesen  und  ihre  Formen.    ad  ed. 
Leipz. :   1884. 

Pp.  173-190  Folk  poetry  vs.  art  poetry;  pp.  227-280  Origin 
and  development  of  the  epic,  —  especially  p.  228,  the  character 
of  the  heroic  age  from  which  the  epic,  with  its  objectivity,  springs. 
'  Volksepos '  rests  upon  the  hero-saga.  Regard  the  statement  on 
p.  231  that  the  "  Vermischung  des  Historischen  und  Idealen  ist 
der  Anfangspunkt  der  epischen  Sage."  Notice  the  discussion 
of  Steinthal,  and  compare  the  author's  theory  of  the  development 
of  the  hero-saga  from  a  lyric  to  an  epic  character  with  Professor 
Gummere's  theory  of  ballad  development  (see  below). 

CHADWICK,  H.  M.    The  Heroic  Age.    Cambridge:  1912. 

This  scholarly  work  is  heartily  recommended  to  the  student 
who  wishes  by  a  comparative  study  of  heroic  poems  and  heroic 
ages  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  folk  epic  is  a  recurring 
expression  of  a  certain  sort  or  stage  of  civilization.  "  The  type 
of  poetry  known  as  heroic,"  says  the  author,  "  is  one  which  makes 
its  appearance  in  various  nations  and  in  various  periods  of  history. 
No  one  can  fail  to  observe  that  certain  similar  features  are  to  be 
found  in  poems  of  this  type  which  are*  widely  separated  from  one 
another  both  in  date  and  place  of  origin.  In  view  of  this  fact  it 
has  seemed  worth  while  to  attempt  a  comparative  study  of  two 
groups  of  such  poems  with  the  object  of  determining  the  nature 
of  the  resemblances  between  them  and  the  causes  to  which  they 
are  due."  The  heroic  poetry  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  early 
Teutonic  peoples  is  viewed  under  such  aspects  as  the  follow- 
ing: characteristics  of  the  heroic  ages  of  the  two  races,  origin 
and  distribution  of  epical  stories  and  their  relation  to  folk  tales, 
relations  of  variants  of  the  same  story,  minstrelsy  of  the  heroic 
age,  and  estimates  of  the  historical,  supernatural,  mythical,  and 
fictitious  elements  in  the  poems.  The  author  concludes  that  re- 
semblances in  the  two  groups  of  poems  are  due  primarily  "  to 
resemblances  in  the  ages  to  which  they  relate  and  to  which  they 
ultimately  owe  their  origin.  The  comparative  study  of  heroic 


620  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

poetry  therefore  involves  the  comparative  study  of  '  Heroic  Ages ' ; 
and  the  problems  which  it  presents  are  essentially  problems  of 
anthropology." 

CHILD,  F.  J.    The  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads,    i  o  parts 
in  5  vols.    Boston:   1882-1898. 

Part  X,  Critical  apparatus,  ed.  G.  L.  Kittredge. 
This  voluminous  and  authoritative  work  contains  not  only  all 
the  three  hundred  and  five  distinct  English  and  Scottish  popular 
ballads  and,  with  several  exceptions,  all  the  versions  of  each,  but 
also  an  exhaustive  critical  apparatus :  an  historical  and  biblio- 
graphical introduction  to  each  ballad,  with  notes  on  distribution ; 
collations,  general  bibliographies,  index  of  published  ballad  airs, 
collection  of  tunes,  etc.  Indispensable  in  the  critical  and  historical 
study  of  the  ballad.  Child's  opinions  on  the  ballad  have  been 
collected  by  W.  M.  Hart,  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  21:  7550°. 
1906.  See  also  Child's  article,  Ballad  Poetry,  in  Johnson's 
Cyclop.,  1893. 

CLARK,  J.   A  History  of  Epic  Poetry  (Post-Vergilian).    Edinburgh : 

1900. 

An  ambitious,  dogmatic,  very  sketchy  and  superficial  discussion 
of  the  epic  since  Virgil. 

CLAWSON,  W.  H.    The  Gest  of  Robin  Hood.    In  Univ.  of  Toronto 

Studies,  Phil.  Series.    1909. 

A  study  of  the  sources,  proximate  and  probable,  of  the  popular 
epic  of  Robin  Hood,  and  of  the  manner  of  composition  of  such 
originals. 

COMPARETTI,  D.   The  Traditional  Poetry  of  the  Finns.  (Translated 

by  Miss  I.  M.  Anderton  from  II  "  Kalewala  "  o  la  poesia 

tradizionale  dei  Finni ;  studio  storico-critico  sulle  origini  delle 

grandi  epopee  nazionali.)    N.  Y. :   1899. 

An  extremely  important  work.    Its  problem  is  the  discovery  of 

the  relationship  in  which  the  completed  epic  stands  to  the  songs 


§11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  621 

which  preceded  it  (p.  vii).  The  point  of  view  is  comparative. 
The  Kalevala,  which,  as  we  have  it,  is  a  modern  and  fully 
authenticated  combination  of  early  anonymous  songs,  by  one 
Lonnrot,  "without  inventions  or  additions  on  the  part  of  the 
composer,"  is  first  analyzed,  and  the  results  are  then  applied 
to  the  composition-problems  of  other  epics  (ix).  Comparetti 
shows  at  great  length  that  Lonnrot  has  made  up  a  so-called 
epic  in  exactly  the  fashion  in  which  the  Wolfians  suppose  the 
Greek  epics  to  have  been  made ;  that  an  examination  of  Lonnrot's 
work  in  relation  to  the  original  Finnish  songs  shows  that  critical 
ingenuity,  if  ignorant  of  those  songs,  could  not  disengage  them 
as  the  Wolfians  profess  to  do  with  their  made-up  Homer :  there- 
fore the  Wolfian  hypothesis  is  untenable  in  general.  Moreover, 
Lonnrot  has  not  achieved,  and  could  not  possibly  achieve  by 
his  Wolfian  treatment  of  the  original  songs,  the  unity  of  the 
Greek  epic :  therefore  the  Wolfian  theory  is  doubly  untenable 
for  the  Homeric  poems.  The  inference  is  individual  inventive 
authorship.  —  In  criticism  it  may  be  advanced  that  the  refutation 
of  the  possibility  of  the  Wolf-Lonnrot  method  of  combination 
is  not  the  refutation  of  all  possible  methods  of  combination. 
The  student  may  well  consult  the  review  of  Comparetti  in  The 
Nation  (N.  Y.),  69:  319. 

DIPPOLD,  G.  T.   The  Great  Epics  of  Mediaeval  Germany.   Boston  : 
1882. 

DIXON,  W.  MACNEILE.    English  Epic  and  Heroic  Poetry.    Lond.: 
1912. 

While  excellent  as  a  history  not  of  insignificant  details  but  of 
the  vital  idea,  poetic  form,  and  fascination  of  the  type,  this  is 
a  genuine  contribution  in  admirable  literary  style  to  constructive 
criticism  as  well.  For  appreciative  reviews  see  The  Nation  (N.  Y.), 
vol.  97,  No.  2522,  Oct.  30,  1913,  and  H.  E.  Cory,  The  English 
Epic,  in  The  Dial,  vol.  55,  No.  651,  Aug.  i,  1913. 


622  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

DUCHESNE,  J.   Histoire  des  poemes  e'piques  frangais  du  XIP  siecle. 

Paris:   1870. 

The  epopke  (Iliad  and  Odyssey,  Roland,  Nibelungenlied,  etc.) 
is  differentiated  from  the  epic  poem  (Aeneid,  Paradise  Lost, 
Te'le'maque,  etc.).  The  former  is  not  a  literary  kind,  but  a 
literary  epoch  (p.  4).  The  conditions  of  success  for  the  epic 
poem  are  then  defined  (summary,  p.  20).  The  body  of  the  work 
traces  the  history  of  epic  poetry  and  epic  theory  from  Ronsard 
to  Fdnelon.  A  convenient  summary  of  the  theoretical  material 
contained  in  the  prefaces  to  the  various  French  epics  of  the 
seventeenth  century  —  such  as  La  Pucelle,  Alaric,  Clovis,  Saint- 
Louis,  Tele'maque,  etc. — will  be  found  in  pp.  57  ff.  Much  of 
the  work  is  concerned  with  the  propriety  of  Christian  marvels  — 
especially  angels — in  epic  poems.  An  interesting  account  is  given 
of  Bossuet's  share  in  arousing  the  attention  of  the  epic  poets 
to  these  marvels  (Chap.  XIII). 

EGGER,  E\    L'Helle'nisme  en  France.    2  vols.    Paris:  1869. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  182-194  Development  of  French  epic  under  Greek 
influence.  Everything  written  by  this  distinguished  and 
most  critical  scholar  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

ELLIOTT,  F.    Trustworthiness  of  the  Border  Ballads.    1906. 

ELLIOTT,  F.    Further  Essays  on  Border  Ballads.    1910. 

Typical  essays  on  the  genuineness  of  certain  Border  Ballads. 

FAIRCLOUGH,  H.  R.  The  Connection  between  Music  and  Poetry 
in  Early  Greek  Literature.  In  Studies  in  Honor  of  Basil 
L.  Gildersleeve.  1902.  * 

FISHER,  L.  A.    Mystic  Vision  in  the  Grail  Legend  and  in  the 

Divine  Comedy.    N.Y. :   1917. 
Literary  influence  of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation. 

FISKE,  A.  K.   The  Great  Epic  of  Israel.    N.Y.:  1911. 

Contains  a  popular  account  of  the  narrative  literature  of  the 
Old  Testament. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  623 

FOULET,  LUCIEN.    Le  Roman  de  Renard.    Paris:   1914. 

Aiming  to  prove  that  the  usual  explanation  of  the  derivation 
of  the  Renard  from  folklore,  i.e.,  from  the  poetizing  crowd  and 
not  from  books,  is  incorrect,  the  author  examines  the  archetype 
of  the  various  manuscripts,  dissociates  the  sixteen  French  branches 
of  which  it  is  composed  and  studies  each  in  turn  as  an  independent 
poem,  arranges  the  chronology  of  each  within  the  limits  1170- 
1205,  shows  by  minute  comparative  investigation  that  the  oldest 
branch  is  that  which  tells  the  stories  of  Renard  and  Chantecler, 
Renard  and  the  torn-tit  (mesange),  Renard  fooled  by  the  cat 
(Tibert),  and  that  the  first  and  second  of  these  stories  derive 
from  the  Latin  ipopee,  Ysengrimus,  by  Nivard  (about  1150), 
but  that  the  third  is  an  invention  of  the  trouvere  himself.  Not 
only  is  the  Roman  de  Renard  later  than  the  Ysengrimus,  but  the 
German  Reinhart  Fuchs  is  later  than  still  other  branches  of  the 
Renard  story  —  it  is  not  a  translation  of  French  branches  that 
have  disappeared,  but  a  clever  recomposition  of  half  a  dozen 
branches  still  extant.  Professor  Foulet  then  traces  the  history 
of  imitations,  1205-1250,  and  of  animal  folk-tales  from  that 
time  down  to  Joel  Chandler  Harris'  Uncle  Remus,  and  shows 
conclusively,  in  our  judgment,  that  these  are  not  the  product  of 
folk  composition  and  oral  tradition,  but  that  they  derived  directly 
or  indirectly  from  the  Roman  de  Renard  and  other  books.  The 
Roman  de  Renatd,  in  fine,  "  is  the  work  not  of  the  crowd,  but 
of  a  score  of  clerks  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
who  borrowed  from  ancient  or  mediaeval  Latin  the  framework, 
the  form  of  their  compositions ;  the  material,  however,  they  owed 
only  to  themselves  and  to  their  epoch."  This  study  is  a  model 
of  literary  historical  investigation  —  one  of  the  most  conclusive 
rebuttals  of  the  folk-inditing  theory  of  Grimm,  Sudre,  Voretzsch, 
and  its  modified  presentation  by  Gaston  Paris,  —  of  value  as 
applicable  not  only  to  the  composition  of  this  particular  epopee 
but  to  the  whole  Wolf-Lachmann  hypothesis,  and  to  still  later 
attempts  at  the  derivation  of  poetry  from  the  afflatus  of  the 
dancing,  singing  crowd. 


624  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

A  few  of  the  more  important  studies  of  the  Renard  literature,  as  cited 
by  Foulet,  are  Ernst  Martin,  Observations  sur  le  Roman  de  Renard 
(Strassb.-Paris :  1887)  —  his  edition  of  1882-85  is  mentioned  below, 
§  12,  v,  E;  L.  Sudre,  Les  Sources  du  Roman  de  Renart  (Paris:  1892), 
and  the  review  by  G.  Paris  in  the  Journal  des  Savants,  Sept-Dec.,  1894, 
Feb.  1 895  (reprinted  in  Melanges  de  lit.  franc.,  du  moyen  age,  publ.  by 
Mario  Roques,  Paris:  1912);  Paulin  Paris,  Les  Aventures  de  maitre 
Renard  etd'Ysengrin  son  compere  (Paris:  1861);  Jacob  Grimm,  Reinhart 
Fuchs  (Berlin  :  1 834) ;  by  the  same,  Sendschreiben  an  Karl  Lachmann, 
Ueber  Reinhart  Fuchs  (Leipz. :  1840);  H.  Biitnner,  Die  Ueberlieferung 
des  Roman  de  Renard  und  die  Handschrift  O  (Strassburg :  1891); 
Jonckblaet,  Etude  sur  le  Roman  de  Renart  (Groningue:  1863);  Mone, 
Reinardus  Vulpes  (Stuttg.  et  Tubing.:  1832);  Voigt,  ed.  of  Ysengrimus 
(Halle:  1884);  Reissenberger,  ed.  of  Reinhart  Fuchs  (Halle:  1886); 
Rothe,  Les  Romans  de  R.  examines,  etc.  (Paris:  1845);  Voretzsch, 
Tierfabel,  Tiermarchen  u.  Tierepos  (in  relation  to  the  R.  de  R., 
Reutlingen:  1905);  Gerber,  Uncle  Remus  traced  to  the  Old  World 
(in  Journ.  Am.  Folk-Lore,  VI,  p.  245);  Warren,  on  Uncle  Remus 
and  Renard  (in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  V,  258). 

Of  works  on  the  animal  epic  and  folklore,  in  general,  the  following 
are  cited  by  Foulet :  Kolmatchevsky,  L'e"pope"e  animale  en  Occident  et 
chez  les  Slaves  (Paris :  1882),  and  the  review  by  Gerber  (in  Pubs.  Mod. 
Lang.  Assoc.  of  America,  VI,  p.  6,  1891);  C.  Voretzsch,  Jacob  Grimm's 
Deutsche  Thiersage  und  die  moderne  Forschung  (in  Preuss.  Jahrb., 
LXXX,  p.  417,  1895),  and  the  reviews  by  Sudre  (in  Ltbl.  f.  germ. 
u.  rom.  Phil.,  1895,  col.  isff.)  and  Willems,  Ysengrimus  (in  Ztschr. 
f.  rom.  Phil.,  XX,  p.  413,  1896);  Cahier  et  Martin,  Le  Bestiaire  de 
Pierre  le  Picard  (in  Melanges  d'arche"ologie,  etc.,  Paris:  1851);  Voigt, 
Kleinere  lateinische  Denkmaler  der  Tiersage  (1878);  Robert,  Fables 
inedites  des  XI Ie,  XIIIe,  et  XI Ve  siecles  et  Fables  de  La  Fontaine 
(2  vols.,  Paris:  1825);  Novati,  Quelques  remarques  sur  un  tres  ancien 
document  de  la  fable  animale  en  France,  Moyen  Age,  1892,  p.  178; 
Hervieux,  Les  fabulistes  latins  (Paris:  1896);  Be"dier,  Les  Fabliaux 
(Paris:  1895);  Jacobs,  The  Folk  (in  Folk-Lore,  IV,  p.  232);  Cerquand, 
Legendes  et  re"cits  populaires  du  pays  basque  (Pau :  1882).  See  also 
M.  E.  Smith,  The  Fable  and  Kindred  Forms  (in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ. 
Phil.,  14:  519.  1915);  M.  Plessow,  Gesch.  der  Fabeldichtung  in 
England  bis  zu  John  Gay,  1726  (in  Palaestra,  No.  52.  1906),  with 
text  of  four  16th-century  English  fable-books;  F.  Tyroller,  Die  Fabel 
von  dem  Mann  und  dem  Vogel  in  ihrer  Verbreitung  in  der  Weltlit.  (in 
Litthist.  Forsch.,  No.  51);  Voigt  in  Nos.  8,  25  of  Quellen  und  Forsch. 


§  11)  GENERAL  REFERENCES  625 

FRANCKE,  K.    Social  Forces  in  German  Literature.    N.Y.:   1896. 

The  remarks  upon  the  progress  of  the  collectivistic  and  indi- 
vidualistic tendencies  in  the  development  of  the  German  epic 
are  particularly  stimulating. 

FRICK,  O.,  and  POLACK,  F.  Aus  deutschen  Lesebiichern.  Bd.  IV 
Epische  und  lyrische  Dichtungen  erlautert  fiir  die  Oberklassen 
der  hoheren  Schulen  und  fiir  das  deutsche  Haus.  Erste  Abt., 
Epische  Dichtungen.  Zweite  Aufl.  Gera  u.  Leipz. :  1894. 

An  excellent  compendium  of  fact  and  description  for  one  be- 
ginning his  acquaintance  with  German  epic  poetry.  Chapters  on 
the  Nibelungenlied,  Gudrun,  Parzival,  Der  arme  Heinrich,  Das 
gliickhafte  Schiff  von  Zurich,  Der  Messias,  Der  Heliand,  Hermann 
und  Dorothea,  Reineke  Fuchs. 

GAUTIER,  L.  Les  epopees  frangaises.  5  vols.  in  6.  2d  ed.  Paris : 
1878-97. 

Vol.  I  Etude  sur  les  origines  et  1'histoire  de  la  litte'rature 
nationale.  Pp.  3-6  Trois  genres  de  poesie ;  la  poesie 
e*pique  est  posterieure  a  la  lyrique ;  elle  precede  les 
temps  ou  1'on  e"crit  1'histoire;  pp.  6-13  Deux  especes 
d'epopees ;  des  conditions  necessaires ;  p.  13  ff.  L'e'popde 
franchise. 

An  admirable,  useful,  and  most  scholarly  work,  which  shows 
that  the  early  epic  poets  of  France  did  not  string  together  the 
chansons  de  geste  from  popular  songs,  but  were  merely  inspired 
by  these  pre-existent  cantilehes.  For  a  critique  of  the  first  edition, 
vol.  I  (1865),  in  which  Gautier  had  espoused  the  Lieder-Theorie  as 
explaining  the  formation  of  the  chansons  de  geste,  see  P.  Meyer, 
Recherches  sur  Pepopee  frangaise  (Paris:  1867). 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.   The  Principles  of  Poetry.    N.  Y.:  1904. 

In  English  Poetry,  its  Principles  and  Progress  by  C.  M.  Gayley 
and  C.  C.  Young.  See  above,  §§  2,  8.  P.  xciv  Distinction  between 
'the  great,  or  folk,  epic,  and  the  individual  epic. 


626  .     HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.    Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature  and  in  Art. 

Boston:   1911. 

See  Chaps.  XXX-XXXII  The  Origin  and  Elements  of  Myth ; 
The  Distribution  of  Myths ;  The  Preservation  of  Myths :  Greek, 
Roman,  Norse,  German,  Egyptian,  Indian,  Persian. 

GEROULD,  G.  H.    Saints' Legends.    Boston:   1916. 

After  a  preliminary  discussion  of  the  definition  and  use,  origins 
and  propagation  of  saints'  legends,  the  story  of  their  development 
in  English  literature  is  told  with  scholarly  enthusiasm.  The  biblio- 
graphical appendix  affords  convenient  and  valuable  direction. 

GERVINUS,  G.  G.     Geschichte"  der  poetischen  National-Literatur 
der  Deutschen.    3d  ed.    2  vols.    Leipz. :   1846. 

Th.  I,   pp.  176-191    French   folk  epic.     Th.  II,    pp.  93-11  ij 
German  national  epic ;   compare  Th.  I,  pp.  306  ff. 

GIRARD,  J.    Eludes  sur  la  poesie  grecque.    2d  ed.    Paris:   1900. 
Chap.  IV  La  pastorale  dans  Theocrite. 

GORBING,  F.    Beispiele  von  realisierten  Mythen  in  der  englischen 
und  schottischen  Balladen.    In  Anglia,  23  :   i.    1901. 

GOSSE,  E.    Epic  Poetry.    In  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed. 

A  very  brief  resume  of  the  history  of  epic  poetry ;  but  illumi- 
nating, as  all  Mr.  Gosse's  work  is. 

GOSSE,  E.    Pastoral.    In  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.    A  brief  historical 
sketch. 

See  also  the  same  author's  English  Pastoral  Poetry,  and 
Grosart's  Rider  on  Mr.  G.'s  Essay,  in  Grosart's  ed.  of 
Spenser,  3  :  ix-lxxi.  1882. 

GRANDGENT,  C.  H.    Dante  (Master  Spirits  of  Literature  Series). 

N.Y.:   1916. 

Dante  is  depicted  as  the  representative  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
the  Divine  Comedy  as  the  true  and  abiding  expression  of  all  phases 
of  the  medieval  spirit.  It  is  a  vision,  a  fantastic  journey,  a  spiritual 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  627 

autobiography  in  one.  The  chapters  on  society  and  politics,  church 
and  state,  medieval  learning  and  theology,  and  the  medieval  temper 
furnish  a  vivid  background  against  which  medieval  song,  allegory, 
epic  and  romance,  and  the  Divine  Comedy  stand  in  clear  relief. 
Not  only  is  the  book  the  best  introduction  in  English  to  the 
study  of  Dante,  it  is  also  so  well  equipped  with  bibliography 
of  translations,  editions,  and  references  that  the  student  may 
acquaint  himself  readily  with  the  results  of  Dante  scholarship. 
And  the  style  of  the  writer  is  charming  and  rich. 

GREG,  W.  W.    Pastoral  Poetry  and  Pastoral  Drama. 

For  a  notice  of  this  important  work  see  above,  §  8. 

GROBER,    G.     Grundriss   der   romanischen'  Philologie.     2   Bde. 

Strassburg:   1888-1902. 

Consult  for  bibliography  of  various  romance  literatures,  — 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  etc.  For  further  references,  see  below,  §  12. 

GROSSE,  E.    The  Beginnings  of  Art.    N.Y.:   1897. 

Pp.  250-265  ;  cf.  above,  §  5. 

The  author  excludes  from  primitive  epic  material  all  aetiological 
stories  and  (surprisingly  enough)  historical  traditions,  and  confines 
his  attention  to  a  few  animal  and  other  stories  which  are  notice- 
ably similar  to  our  fairy  tales.  Such  stories  are  narrative,  hardly 
epical,  in  nature  and  substance.  Is  not  epic  material  more  nearly 
allied  to  historic  traditions  ?  See  Panzer,  Marchen,  Sage  und 
Dichtung  (cited  below). 

GROTE,  G.    History  of  Greece.    12  vols.    ist  ed.    Lond.:  1848. 

Part  I,  Chap.  XXI  (vol.  II,  p.  160). 

Though  this  chapter  contains  almost  nothing  in  the  way  of 
general  epic  theory,  being  taken  up  almost  entirely  with  a  criticism 
of  the  Wolfian  hypothesis,  it  remains  even  at  the  present  day  one 
of  the  best  introductions  to  the  study  of  the  Homeric  poems.  The 
distinction  between  bards  and  rhapsodes  should  be  considered.  In 
opposition  to  Wolf,  Grote  believes  that  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  were 
entire  poems  long  anterior  to  Pisistratus,  whether  they  were 


628  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

originally  composed  as  wholes  or  not.  The  notably  unified  structure 
of  the  Odyssey  precludes  the  probability  of  its  having  been  pieced 
together  out  of  preceding  epics.  The  analogy  of  the  Odyssey 
shows  that  long  and  premeditated  epical  composition  is  consistent 
with  the  capacities  of  the  early  Greek  mind.  The  Iliad  as  a  whole 
is  much  less  coherent  than  the  Odyssey  ;  but  those  parts  of  it  that 
make  up  the  story  of  the  wrath  of  Achilles  show  a  well-organized 
poem.  This  poem  —  the  Achilleis,  or  the  Achilleid,  as  it  is  some- 
times called  —  was  the  original  poem,  the  scheme  of  which  did 
not  comprehend  the  entire  Iliad  as  we  now  have  it.  To  the  story 
of  the  wrath  of  Achilles  were  added  other  stories  dealing  with 
other  aspects  of  the  war  around  Ilium ;  hence  the  title,  Iliad. 
The  original  Achilleis,  Grote  thinks,  was  made  up  of  Books  I, 
VIII,  and  XI  to  XXII.  The  transition  from  the  Achilleis  to 
the  Iliad  is  found  in  the  beginning  of  the  second  book ;  the 
transition  back  to  the  Achilleis  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  seventh 
book.  The  Odyssey,  Grote  believes,  is  by  one  author;  the  Iliad 
probably  not.  For  further  notice  of  the  Homeric  question,  see 
below,  §  12,  i,  A.  For  a  development  of  Grate's  theory  of  an 
Achilleid,  see  W.  D.  Geddes,  The  Problem  of  the  Homeric  Poems 
(Lond.:  1878). 

GUBERNATIS,  A.  DE. 

See  above,  §  5.    See  volume  entitled  Storia  della  poesia  epica. 
GUMMERE,  F.  B.    The  Beginnings  of  Poetry.    N.Y. :   1901. 

See  Chap.  V  for  the  relations  of  ballad  and  choral  refrain,  and 
pp.  422-424  for  the  development  therefrom  of  the  epic.  The 
author  speaks  of  that  "state  of  things  where,  as  Ten  Brink  has 
put  it  so  well,  song  oscillates  between  production  and  reproduc- 
tion, that  is,  between  improvisation  and  memory.  This  is  the 
period  of  the  early  epic.  When  deliberation  and  conscious  art 
come  in,  and  yet  the  old  alliance  of  spontaneous  production 
and  living  memory  is  not  broken  up,  then  is  the  golden  age  of 
epic  verse;  then  Homer,  whoever  or  whatever  he  may  be,  can 
work  out  the  perfect  union  of  art  and  nature"  (p.  424).  See 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  629 

also  p.  434  ff.,  on  myth  and  its  relation  to  religion  and  poetry. 
For  the  earliest  differentiations  of  poetry  —  Lyric,  Drama,  and 
Epic  —  see  Chap.  VII. 

GUMMERE,  F,  B.    The  Popular  Ballad.    Boston:   1907. 

An  indispensable  work  on*  the  popular  origin,  classification, 
characteristiQS,  sources,  and  poetic  worth  of  the  popular  ballad 
in  English  and  Scottish  literature.  The  author  is  the  chief  sup- 
porter of  the  communal  theory  of  ballad  origins.  See  also  his 
other  works :  Old  English  Ballads,  Introduction,  which  contains 
an  outline  of  ballad  criticism  (Boston:  1894);  The  Ballad  and 
Communal  Poetry,  in  Child  Memorial  Volume  of  Studies  and 
Notes  in  Philol.  and  Lit.  (Boston:  1896);  Primitive  Poetry 
and  the  Ballad,  3  papers,  in  Modern  Philology,  i:\ig3-2O2, 
217-234,  373-390.  1903-04;  Art.  Ballad,  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng. 
Lit.,  vol.  II.  1908.  For  views  opposed  to  the  theory  of  popular 
origins  see  T.  F.  Henderson  as  noted  below,  and  his  Scottish 
Vernacular  Lit.,  p.  355  ff.  (1898),  and  Introd.  to  new  ed.  of 
Scott's  Minstrelsy  (1902);  W.  J.  Courthope,  Hist,  of  Eng. 
Poetry,  i:  426  ff.  (1895);  G.  G.  Smith,  The  Transition  Period, 
p.  i8off.  (1900). 

GUNKEL,  H.   Genesis.   In  Handkommentar  zum  Alten  Testament. 
Ed.  by  W.  Nowack.    Gottingen:   1901. 

The  Einleitung  has  been  translated  by  W.  H.  Carruth,  The 
Legends  of  Genesis  (Chicago  :   1 90 1 ). 

The  Old  Testament  affords  the  student  of  the  development 
of  literary  types  a  field  of  almost  unequalled  opportunity.  The 
primitive  origin  of  many  of  the  stories,  the  long  stages  of  develop- 
ment through  which  they  have  passed,  the  preservation  in  their 
present  form  of  traces  of  their  previous  history,  their  relation 
to  the  literature  of  other  peoples,  especially  the  Babylonians ;  the 
ascertainable  conditions  under  which  later  stories  (such  as  those 
in  Judges,  Kings,  Samuel,  etc.)  arose,  and  the  characteristic  political 
and  religious  influences  to  which  they  were  subjected  in  successive 
ages;  the  clearly  marked  periods  of  oral  tradition,  oral  cycles, 


630  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

written  cycles,  and  the  like ;  the  problem  of  the  absence  of  a 
Hebrew  epic,  —  all  contribute  to  the  richness  of  this  field.  The 
specialists  in  Hebrew  philology  and  archaeology  have  tilled  the 
field  extensively ;  the  student  of  comparative  literature  will  find 
it  ready  to  his  reaping.  Of  all  the  volumes  of  the  specialists, 
Gunkel's  Genesis  is  the  most  suggestive  to  the  literary  student. 
In  the  Introduction,  and  throughout  the  Commentary,  Gunkel 
clearly  marks  the  literary  stages,  from  primitive  or  barbaric  origi- 
nals, through  which  the  stories  of  Genesis  may  have  progressed ; 
he  relates  these  stages  to  their  social,  political,  and  religious  back- 
grounds, and  differentiates  their  literary  technique.  He  is  inde- 
fatigable in  indicating  the  traces  of  origin  and  development  still 
retained  by  the  stories. 

HALLAM,  H.    Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe,    yth  ed. 

4  vols.    Lond. :   1864. 
HANFORD,  J.  H.    Classical  Eclogue  and  Medieval  Debate.    In 

Romanic  Rev.,  *:   16,129.    1911. 
On  the  origin  of  the  medieval  dtbat. 
HANFORD,  J.  H.    The  Pastoral  Elegy  and  Milton's  Lycidas.    In 

Mod.  Lang.  Ass.  Pubs.,  25  :  403-447.    1910. 

HAPGOOD,  I.  F.    Epic  Songs  of  Russia.    Introd.  Note  by  F.  J. 
Child.    N.Y.:   1886. 

On  the  Russian  epic,  see  below,  §  1 2,  xvi. 

Beside  describing  in  brief  outline  the  Russian  folk  epos,  the 
Introduction  furnishes  many  valuable  data  and  suggestions  for 
the  comparative  study  of  the  epic.     Agricultural  occupation  i.v 
not  favorable  to  the  preservation  of  epic  song,  and  in  such  aj 
society  the  singers  come  almost  entirely  from  the  ranks  of  "  tailors,' 
shoemakers  and  net-makers "  (p.  6) ;   singers  and  hearers  alike 
believe  implicitly  in  the  marvels  of  the  songs,  and  when  doubt 
enters,  epic  poetry  dies  (7) ;  the  introduction  of  schools  and  of 
trade  results  in  the  destruction  of  popular  epic  poetry  (9) ;  stages 
of  decay  in  an  epic  poem  (n);   relation  of  the  Russian  cycles 
to  Aryan  originals  (n  ff.). 


§11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  631 

HART,  W.  M.  Ballad  and  Epic.  A  Study  in  the  Development  of 
Narrative  Art.  In  Studies  and  Notes  in  Philol.  and  Lit., 
vol.  XI  (Harvard  University).  Boston:  1907. 
A  storehouse  of  materials  carefully  observed  and  systematized 
with  a  view  to  an  inductive  study  of  literary  evolution.  The  author 
traces  stages  of  development,  in  certain  definite  essentials  (length, 
scope  of  subject,  motivation,  elaboration  of  character  and  structure, 
etc.),  through  the  various  types  of  the  ballad  to  the  epic.  This 
development  from  ballad  to  epic  proceeds  mainly  by  a  process 
of  elaboration  (or  growth  from  within),  and  another  process  of 
accretion  (or  growth  by  the  aggregation  of  independent  incidents). 
The  following  general  tendencies  of  elaboration  are  discovered : 
(i)  increase  in  scope,  —  "the  simplicity  and  meagreness  of  the 
Simple  Ballad,  the  .steady  increase  through  Border  and  Outlaw 
Ballads  to  the  Gest  and  Heroic  Ballads,  the  enormous  increase 
in  the  Epic  " ;  and  accompanying  this  "  a  gradual  advance,  again 
with  a  break  and  leap  to  the  Epic  at  the  end,  from  the  almost 
complete  absence  of  detail  in  the  Simple  Ballad  to  the  wealth 
of  material  ...  in  the  Epic  " ;  (2)  the  poet,  in  the  course  of  this 
procedure,  impresses  himself  with  growing  emphasis  upon  his 
material,  thinking  of  it  "  more  and  more  as  a  body  of  related 
phenomena " ;  (3)  an  increasing  abstraction,  particularly  by  an 
inference  of  character,  mental  states,  and  motives,  from  the 
action  presented ;  by  the  conception  of  action  as  conduct ;  and 
by  the  development  of  an  interest  in  manners  out  of  the  more 
primitive  insistence  upon  rank ;  (4)  elaboration  of  plot,  dialogue, 
character;  (5)  increase  in  length  due  to  combination  of  stories 
arid,  consequently,  an  increase  in  general  architectonic  power; 
(6)  an  increasing  delight  in  the  art  of  telling  the  story,  as  distinct 
from  the  interest  in  the  story  itself.  - —  At  the  close  of  the  book 
the  author,  in  the  light  of  his  detailed  studies,  makes  a  valuable 
suggestion  in  connection  with  the  Lieder-Theorie :  that  there  is 
indeed  a  certain  similarity  in  kind  *between  ballad  and  epic,  but 
that  there  is  at  the  same  time  "  an  enormous  difference  in  degree, 
in  stage  of  development "  ;  and  that  if  the  epic  is  "  made  up  of  a 


632  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

series  of  heroic  songs,  strung  together  with  little  or  no  modification, 
these  songs  must  have  been  something  very  different  from  the 
popular  ballad ;  they  must  have  been  highly  developed  examples 
of  the  poetry  of  art."-— For  its  method,  as  well  as  for  its  results, 
the  book  is  very  valuable  to  the  literary  student;  and  it  should 
encourage  the  displacement  of  a  too  commonly  loose  and  a  priori 
critical  method  by  a  sane,  exact,  and  strictly  inductive  one.  For 
a  review  see  W.  H.  Clawson,  Ballad  and  Epic  (in  Journ.  of 
American  Folk-Lore,  21  :  349-361). 

HART,  W.  M.    English  Popular  Ballads.    Chicago:   1916. 

The  Introduction  (pp.  11-51)  is  a  brief  but  admirable  ac- 
count of  the  ballad,  —  at  once  sympathetic  and  scholarly.  An 
attempt  has  been  made  here  "  to  trace  the  development  of  the 
narrative  art  from  the  simple  ballad  of  situation  to  the  popular 
epic  of  Robin  Hood,  from  the  manner  of  the  ballad  par  excellence, 
the  ballad  of  the  multitude,  to  the  manner  of  a  rudimentary  poetry 
of  art,  the  poetry  of  the  individual  poet.  Typical  ballads  are 
analyzed,  and,  incidentally,  compared  with  the  poetry  of  art.  An 
attempt  is  made,  finally,  to  interpret  the  results  in  the  light  of 
Professor  Gummere's  theory  of  communal  origins." 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F. 

Op.  «'/.,  §  8.  Bd.  X,  Abt.  Ill,  pp.  396-418. 
Hegel's  theory  of  the  development  of  epic  poetry,  in  spite  of 
the  philosophical  prepossession  of  the  author  and  his  primarily 
deductive  method,  is  of  prime  importance.  He  considers  the 
oriental  epos,  the  classical  epos  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  epic- 
romantic  epos  of  Christendom.  Naturally  the  epic  of  the  classical 
stage  is  for  Hegel  the  highest  development  of  its  kind.  Note  the 
influence  of  Teutonic  paganism  and  of  medieval  knight-errantry 
upon  this  type  of  poetry. 

HENDERSON,  T.  F.    The  Ballad  in  Literature.   Cambridge:   1912. 

In  pp.  57-96  Origin  and  Authorship,  the  writer  attempts  to 

confute  and  with  some  degree  of  success  the  dictum  of  Child, 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  633 

that  the  historical  and  'natural  place  of  the  ballad  is  anterior 
to  the  appearance  of  the  poetry  of  art,  and  the  theories 
developed  by  Gummere,  Kittredge,  and  Hart  of  its  origin  as 
an  improvisation,  either  in  the  presence  of,  or  mainly  by,  a 
throng  (according  to  Gummere,  a  dancing  throng).  Mr.  Henderson 
falls  foul  of  the  theory  also  of  oral  transmission  and  improvement 
in  the  process.  He  favors  the  conclusions  of  Jeanroy  and  Gaston 
Paris :  that  the  authorship  is  of  individual  poets  of  a  certain 
culture  but  en  rapport  with  the  thought  and  sentiment  of  the 
people ;  that  the  oldest  surviving  ballads  of  every  country  are  of 
later  date  than  the  old  epic  verse;  that  the  lyric-epic  in  general 
"  did  not  originate  among  what  is  usually  termed  the  folk." 

HERDER,  J.  G.    Sammtliche  Werke.    Ed.  by  B.  Suphan.    32  vols. 
Berlin:   1877-99. 

Taken  in  their  chronological  order  the  chief  writings  which 
concern  the  student  of  the  history  of  literature  are  as 
follows  :  Fragmente  iiber  die  neuere  deutsche  Lit.  (1767), 
Kritische  Walder  (1769),  Uber  Ossian  und  die  Lieder 
alter  Volker  (1773),  Von  Ahnlichkeit  der  mittleren  eng- 
lischen  und  deutschen  Dichtkunst  (1777),  Stimmen  der 
Volker  in  Liedern  (1778-79),  Wirkung  der  Dichtkunst 
auf  die  Sitten  der  Volker  (1778),  Vom  Geist  der  hebrai- 
schen  Poesie  (1782-83),  Ideen  zur  Philosophic  der  Ge- 
schichte  der  Menschheit  (1784),  Briefen  zur  Beforderung 
der  Humanitat  (1794),  Uber  Homer  und  Ossian  (1795). 
See  also  above,  §  8,  under  Herder.  On  Herder  see 
C.  Joret,  Herder  et  la  renaissance  litte*raire  en  Allemagne 
au  XVIIIe  siecle  (1875);  R.  Haym,  Herder  nach  seinem 
Leben  und  seinen  Werken  (2  vols.  1 880-85);  R.  Biirkner, 
Herder,  sein  Leben  und  Wirken  (1904);  H.  Nevinson, 
A  Sketch  of  Herder  and  his  Times  (1884). 

Herder  may  be  said  to  be  the  father  of  the  modern  historical 
or  genetic  method  of  conceiving  and  studying  national  culture, 
including,  specifically,  national  poetry.  The  study  of  early  folk 
or  'primitive'  poetry  derives  from  him.  From  him  we  inherit 
the  theory  of  the  primitive  origin  and  development  of  poetry  under 
determining  conditions  of  environment,  and  of  the  growth  of 


634  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

distinctive  national  traits.  He  saw  the  field  of  poetry  as  a  natural 
whole,  springing  from  uniquely  human  conditions,  developing 
diversely  in  different  environments,  splendidly  divided  among 
the  nations  of  men.  From  this  broad,  evolutionary  conception 
he  derived  much  of  the  fine  enthusiasm,  and  even  inspiration, 
that  color  his  intensely  suggestive  but  unsystematic  essays  upon 
poetry. 

The  student  should  thoroughly  acquaint  himself  with  Herder's 
seminal  ideas.  As  a  guide  to  reading,  the  following  topics  may 
be  suggested:  (i)  English  influences  upon  Herder,  —  Addison 
and  Pope  (see  above,  §§8,  9),  Blackwell  and  Wood  (see  above 
and  below),  Percy's  Reliques,  Ossian,  Shakespeare,  etc.;  (2)  Re- 
volt from  neo-classicism,  which  *is  unhistorical  in  its  application 
of  absolute  standards  of  criticism  (derived  from  antiquity)  to  all 
nations  in  all  stages  of  their  growth ;  Herder  as  a  leader  in  the 
new  Sturm  und  Drang  movement,  —  a  pioneer  of  romanticism; 
(3)  National  idiosyncrasy  in  poetry  as  illustrated  by  Homer  for 
the  Greeks,  by  '  Ossian  '  for  the  Northern  peoples,  and  by  Hebrew 
poetry;  (4)  Homer  as  a  folk  poet,  not  composing  according 
to  the  rules  of  Aristotle,  but  handing  down  in  living  oral  form 
impromptu  rhapsodies  commemorative  of  what  he  had  seen  and 
heard ;  (5)  Relation  of  ballad  and  folk  song  to  epic  composition ; 
(6)  Lyrical  quality  of  early  folk  narratives;  (7)  Coincidence  between 
the  stages  of  belief  in  divine  agency  and  stages  in  the  evolution 
of  the  epic ;  also  a  connection  between  the  appearance  of  history 
in  Greece  and  the  disappearance  of  the  epic  (see  reference  above, 
§  8) ;  (8)  Other  suggestions  —  usually  vague,  seldom  amplified 
—  of  laws  of  poetic  development;  (9)  Effect  of  Herder's  ideas: 
(a)  the  new  significance  of  the  study  of  poetry  in  the  light  of  the 
poet's  environment :  as,  for  example,  the  significance  of  the 
Homeric  poems  when  seen  not  under  the  formalism  and  historical 
ignorance  of  neo-classical  legislation,  but  as  the  ideal  revelation  of 
a  particular  period  of  human  development,  —  a  period  that  is 
represented  in  the  very  style  and  construction  of  the  epics  as 
well  as  in  their  events  and  characters,  human  and  divine ;  (<$)  the 


§11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  635 

new  significance  of  myth,  marvel,  superstition,  and  fairy-story 
when  studied  as  natural  expressions  of  certain  ages  or  conditions 
of  culture ;  (t)  the  new  evolutionary  conception  of  poetry,  particu- 
larly of  the  epic  (though  still  of  that  Rousseau  order  that  senti- 
mentalized the  primitive  at  the  expense  of  later  progress). 

HERFORD,  C.  H.   Spenser.    Shepheard's  Calendar.    Lond. :   1897. 

See  Introduction  for  a  scholarly  and  most  stimulating  account 

of  pastoral  poetry  in  general.   On  the  relation  of  Spenser's 

Calendar  to  earlier  pastoral   poetry  see   F.   Kluge  and 

O.  Reissert  in  Anglia,  3  :   266 ;  9 :  205. 

HERICAULT,  CHARLES  D'.   Essai  sur  1'origine  de  I'dpopee  franchise, 

et  sur  son  histoire  au  moyen  £ge.  Paris :  1859. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  general  works  upon  the  origin  of  the 
French  kpopee  (cf.  Fauriel).  D'Hericault  examines  the  Cantilenes 
in  honour  of  the  Carlovingian  kings,  discusses  characteristics  of 
thought  and  language,  and  shows  by  what  influences  of  race- 
element  and  of  history  they  were  developed  into  the  Chansons 
de  Geste.  He  then  recounts  the  influences,  poetic,  political,  and 
*  cyclical,'  under  which  the  Chanson  passed,  and  follows  particu- 
larly the  history  of  the  Arthurian  Cycle.  He  shows  how  the 
romance  of  adventure  and  of  love  disengaged  itself  from  the 
Arthurian  Cycle,  dropped  from  poetry  to  prose,  from  the  dignified 
to  the  popular,  and  found  its  final  resting-place  in  the  Bibliotheque 
Bleue. 

HERMANN,  GOTTFRIED.  Dissertatio  de  Interpolationibus  Homeri. 
Leipz. :  1832.  —  De  Iteratis  Homeri.  Leipz. :  1840.  Re- 
printed in  his  Opuscula. 

A  very  important  follower  of  Wolf,  who,  however,  in  view  of 
Nitzsch's  powerful  arguments  in  opposition  to  the  Lieder-Ttieorie, 
modified  the  Wolfian  thesis  by  admitting  the  existence  of  an 
Iliad  core  dealing  with  the  Wrath  of  Achilles,  and  an  Odyssey 
core  dealing  with  the  Return.  According  to  Hermann  there 
are  in  the  Iliad  pre-Homeric  lays,  an  Homeric  core,  and  later 
interpolations. 


636  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

HEUSLER,  A.    Lied  und  Epos  in  germanischer  Sagendichtung. 

Dortmund:   1905. 

Dr.  Heusler  follows  Ker  (Epic  and  Romance,  1897,  pp.  92  ff., 
io5ff.,  i4off.)  in  maintaining  that  the  fundamental  difference 
between  the  epos  and  older  popular  songs  lies  in  the  art  of  nar- 
rative and  not  in  the  mere  gluing  together  of  the  songs  to  form  a 
bigger  poem.  "  Der  Weg  vom  Liede  zum  Epos  ist  Anschwellung ; 
Verbreiterung  des  Stiles."  "  Auf  der  einen  Seite  ein  gedrun- 
gener,  andeutender,  springender  Stil ;  die  '  liedhafte  Knappheit.' 
Auf  der  andern  Seite  ein  gemachlicher,  verweilender,  ausmalender 
Stil ;  die  '  epische  Breite '  "  (pp.  24,  22). 

HIRN,  YRJO.    The  Origins  of  Art. 
See  above,  §  8. 

HOSKINS,  J.  P.    Biological  Analogy  in  Literary  Criticism. 
See  above,  §  5. 

HUGO,  VICTOR.    The'atre.    Paris  (Lib.  Hachette)  :   1882. 

Vol.  I,  The'atre,  Preface  to  Cromwell,  pp.  26-31. 
A  somewhat  extravagant  but  eloquent  assertion  of  the  priority 
of  lyric  to  epic.  The  following  dictum  is  worthy  of  discussion : 
"  L'ode,  1'epopee,  le  drama,"  —  such  are  the  ages  of  poetry.  "  La 
Bible  avant  1'Iliade,  ITliade  avant  Shakespeare.  ...  La  socie'te 
en  effet  commence  par  chanter  ce  qu'elle  reve,  puis  raconte  ce 
qu'elle  fait,  et  enfin  se  met  a  peindre  ce  qu'elle  pense.  .  .  .  Les 
modernes  n'ont  pas  la  tete  epique."  Also  Hugo's  statement  that 
Paradise  Lost  and  the  Divine  Comedy  were  dramatic  rather  than 
epic.  Were  the  conditions  of  their  composition  dramatic  ?  E.  Rigal, 
in  his  Victor  Hugo.  Poete  epique  (Paris:  1900),  attempts  to 
show  that  Hugo  himself  evinced  a  tete  epique  in  his  La  Legende 
des  siecles;  compare  E.  Dupuy,  Vigtor  Hugo  (new  ed.  Paris: 
1890). 

HURGRONJE,  C.  S.   The  Achehnese.   Trans,  by  A.  W.  S.  O'Sullivan, 

2  vols.    Leyden  and  Lond. :   1906. 
Contains  a  valuable  account  of  the  rise  of  oral  narrative  poetry. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  637 

IMMISCH,  O.   Die  innere  Entwicklung  des  griechischen  Epos.    Ein 

Baustein  zu  einer  historischen  Poetik.  Leipz. :  1904. 
An  attempt  to  show  that  the  inner  development  of  the  Greek 
epic  involved,  in  part,  the  treatment  of  old,  communal  mythic 
materials  in  a  larger,  individualistic  spirit,  as  seen  here  and  there 
in  details  of  artistic  form,  realistic  portrayal,  romantic  sentimen- 
talism,  etc. 

JACOBOWSKI,  L.  Die  Anfange  der  Poesie.  Grundlegung  zu  einer 
realistischen  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Poesie.  Dresden: 
1891. 

"  Urpoesie  ist  Urlyrik,"  says  the  author,  with  which  assertion 
compare  WackernagePs  equally  dogmatic  "  Alle  Poesie  ist  zuerst 
episch  gewesen."  Jacobowski's  essay  is  an  immature  but  very 
clever  reduction  of  poetry  to  its  elements :  exclamation  points, 
interjections,  the  sense  of  hearing  and  seeing,  the  impulses  of 
love  ana  nursing,  the  call  of  the  first  man  to  the  first  woman, 
the  wail  of  the  first  baby  in  the  ears  of  the  first  mother.  The 
author  has  applied  to  literary  investigation  a  few  of  the  results 
of  biological,  anthropological,  and  psychological  science. 

JACOBOWSKI,  L.  Primitive  Erzahlungskunst.  In  Die  Gesellschaft, 
15®:  9-21.  (Rev.  in  Jahresb.  fiir  neuere  deutsche  Litteratur- 
gesch.,  vol.  XI,  I,  3  :  263  (1900).) 

Describes  what  the  author  believes  to  be  the  earliest  stage  of 
narrative  art  found  among  primitive  savages. 

JACOBS,  J.    The  Most  Delectable  History  of  Reynard  the  Fox. 

Lond. :    1895. 

The  introduction  contains  a  popular  summary  of  the  results  of 
researches  by  Grimm,  Voigt,  Martin,  and  Sudre  into  the  ante- 
cedents and  character  of  this  so-called  '  beast-epic.'  Compare 
other  works  on  the  fable  by  the  same  author ;  see  Foulet,  above. 

JEBB,   R.   C.     Homer:    An   Introduction  to   the    Iliad   and   the 
Odyssey.    2d  ed.    Glasgow:   1887.    6th  ed.    Boston :   1904. 
Chap.  I,  pp.  1-37  (2d  ed.). 


638  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

The  student  will  find  here  no  slight  assistance  toward  the 
comparative  study  of  lyric,  ballad,  and  epic.  The  author  discusses 
in  order  of  development  the  pre-Homeric  poems  (songs  of  the 
seasons,  songs  of  legendary  bards  belonging  to  the  Thracian, 
Southern,  and  Asiatic  groups)  ;  the  Homeric  epic,  its  character- 
istics and  its  relation  to  ballad  poetry  and  to  the  literary  epic 
(Aeneid,  Paradise  Lost).  On  the  blending  of  divine  and  human 
agencies  see  p.  26  ;  on  the  importance  and  the  fashion  of  similes 
in  the  epic,  and  on  freshness,  nobility,  rapidity,  and  simplicity  in 
style,  pp.  28-36.  Jebb  concedes  the  superior  antiquity  of  hymn 
and  song,  but  deems  the  lyric  proper  of  more  recent  birth  than 
the  epic.  Is  such  a  position  tenable  ?  See  also  the  chapter  on 
Literature,  by  Jebb,  in  L.  Whibley's  A  Companion  to  Greek 
Studies  (Cambridge:  1905),  which  contains  a  convenient  resumt 
of  Homeric  criticism. 

JEBB,  R.  C.  The  Growth  and  Influence  of  Classical  Greek  Poetry. 
Boston:   1893. 

Chaps.  I-III. 

A  clear  arrangement  of  material  on  the  origin  and  development 
of  the  Greek  epic,  and  its  relation  to  the  genius  of  the  Greek 
race,  to  legend,  minstrelsy,  and  the  lyric. 

JENSEN,  P.    Das  Gilgamesch-Epos  in*  der  Weltliteratur.    Strass-  , 
burg:   1906. 

Bd.  I  Die  Urspriinge  der  alttestamentlichen  Patriarchen-, 
Propheten-  und  Befreier-Sage  und  •  der  neutestament- 
lichen  Jesus-Sage. 

At  great  length  the  author  traces  the  Gilgamesh  story  through 
its  variants. 

JUSSERAND,  J.  J.    L'fipopee  mystique  de  W.  Langland.    Paris: 


KEIDEL,  G.  C.    Romance  and  Other  Studies.    Baltimore:   1896. 

No.  II  A  Manual  of  Aesopic  Fable  Literature. 
A  useful  volume  of  first  reference  for  those  desiring  to  begin 
the  study  of  the  fable.    Supplies  bibliography.    See  Foulet,  above. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  639 

KER,  W.  P.  Danish  Ballads.  In  Scottish  Hist.  Rev.,  July  1904, 
July  1908. 

KER,  W.  P.  .Epic  and  Romance.    Lond. :   1897. 

For  a  summary  of  this,  the  most  considerable  of  English  con- 
tributions to  the  study  of  the  epic,  see  under  §  8.  The  whole 
work  is  valuable  for  theory,  for  descriptive  material,  and  for  his- 
torical method  ;  but  the  following  sections  in  the  first  two  chapters 
should  be  noted  especially:  Chap.  I,  §§  i,  3,  4;  Chap.  II,  §§2, 
3,  5,  6.  As  proceeding  from  a  master  of  the  subject,  the  conclu- 
sions of  Professor  Ker  concerning  the  composite  or  agglutinative 
theory  of  composition  (Chap.  II,  §§  2,  5)  are  of  great  weight. 

KER,  W.  P.    On  the  History  of  the  Ballads  1100-1500.    In  Proc. 

of  the  Brit.  Acad.,  vol.  IV.    Read  Dec.  15,  1909. 
A  valuable  comparative  study. 

KITTREDGE,  G.  L.  Introduction  to  Sargent  and  Kittredge's  Stu- 
dent's ed.  of  Child's  English  and  Scottish  Popular  Ballads. 
Boston:  1904. 

The  introduction  affords  the  best  brief  survey  and  judicial 
appraisal  of  the  conflicting  theories  of  ballad  origin. 

KLENZE,  C.  VON.  The  Sigfrid  Stories,  etc.  In  Poet-lore,  10:  543  ff. 
Boston:  1898. 

In  part,  a  simple  attempt  to  trace  the  development  of  the 
Siegfried  story  from  its  beginnings  in  the  personification  of 
natural  phenomena  to  its  amalgamation  with  legend  and  history. 
The  notice  is  very  meager  and  popular,  but  it  suggests  a  method 
of  inquiry  often  pushed  much  further  and  of  absorbing  interest. 
For  more  detailed  studies  of  the  same  kind  see  the  references 
given  below,  under  the  Nibelungenlied  (§12,  xi,  c).  * 

KORTING,  G.  Encyclopaedic  und  Methodologie  der  romanischen 
Philologie.  3  vols.  Heilbronn :  1884-88. 

See   the   third   volume   for   bibliographies   of    the   romance 
literatures. 


640  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

KROHN,  J.   Die  Entstehung  der  einheitlichen  Epen  im  allgemeinen. 

In  Zeitschr.  f.  Vblkerpsychol.  u.  Sprachwiss.,  18  :  59-68. 
Using  his  observations  of  the  Kalevala  as  a  basis,  the  author 
criticizes  some  of  the  conclusions  of  Steinthal's  essay  upon  the 
epic  (see  below).  Contrary  to  Steinthal's  theory,  the  Kalevala 
would  seem  to  show  that  the  simplest  embryos  of  the  epic  are 
short  songs  (kleine  Lieder).  These  songs  grow  by  the  addition  of 
fragments,  sometimes  whole  episodes,  from  other  songs  known 
to  the  minstrel,  —  more  rarely  by  additions  of  the  minstrel's  own. 
Again,  the  short  song  may  develop  by  being  combined  with 
another  short  song.  The  further  evolution  of  these  songs  is  due, 
principally,  to  three  causes:  (i)  additions  and  omissions  resulting 
from  the  reciter's  mistakes  in  memory ;  (2)  the  assimilative  tend- 
ency by  which  the  story  of  a  popular  hero  tends  to  transfer  to 
itself  and  its  hero  stories  told  about  other  heroes  of  less  renown ; 
(3)  the  tendency  to  prolong  the  effect  of  a  successful  theme  by 
using  the  same  theme  again  with  variations  of  setting:  The  cause 
of  the  development  of  a  unified  epic  is  said  to  lie  in  the  presence, 
among  the  mass  of  song  material,  of  some  one  song  that  is 
significant  enough  to  satisfy  better  than  any  other  the  imaginative 
cravings  of  the  people.  Like  a  whirlpool,  this  particular  song 
attracts  to  itself  everything  in  its  vicinity.  It  becomes  a  center 
of  assimilation  for  other  songs.  The  first  impulse  to  epic  poetry 
is  found  in  the  popular  excitement  following  upon  a  great  national 
or  historical  event.  Finally,  the  conglomeration  of  songs  must 
pass  under  the  unifying  hand  of  a  poet  who  can  at  one  and  the 
same  time  preserve  the  characteristics  of  the  folk  poetry  and 
give  to  it  a  well-rounded,  harmonious  unity.  —  The  conclusions  of 
this  essay  should  be  checked  by  a  comparison  with  Comparetti's 
Trad^  Poetry  of  the  Finns  (see  above).  Cf.  Hart  and  Heusler. 
KURTZ,  B.  P.  Studies  in  the  Marvellous.  Lond. :  1910.  Also  in 
Univ.  of  Calif.  Pubs.  Mod.  Philol.,  vol.  I. 

Chap.  I  Greek  Criticism  of  Fiction  and  Marvel ;  Chap.  II 
The  Psychology  of  Wonder;  Chap.  Ill  Wonder  in  Primi- 
tive Mind,  Custom,  and  Belief;  Chap.  IV  Wonder  in 
Central  Australian  Belief  and  Story. 


§  11J  GENERAL  REFERENCES  641 

LACHMANN,  K.   Betrachtungen  iiber  Homers  Ilias.  3d  ed.   Berlin : 
1874. 

In  1816  Lachmann  began  to  apply  the  method  of  Wolf  (see 
below,  under  Wolf)  to  the  Nibelungenlied  (see  below,  §  12,  xi,  c). 
In  dealing  with  the  Iliad  he  went  far  beyond  Wolf  in  an  attempt 
to  prove  the  composite  nature  of  the  text.  Wolf  had  distinctly 
said  (in  the  Preface  to  his  edition  of  the  Iliad,  Halle:  1794)  that 
the  sutures,  formed  by  the  stitching  together  of  separate  lays  to 
form  the  present  text,  probably  could  never  be  discovered ;  but 
Lachmann,  disregarding  Wolf's  conservative  warning,  attempted 
to  prove  that  "  the  Iliad  was  made  up  of  a  number  of  originally 
independent  lays,  skilfully  united,  but  still  showing  to  a  careful 
observer  the  seams  of  juncture."  This  is  the  celebrated  Kleine 
Lieder  theory,  now  generally  abandoned. 

LANG,  A.    Homer  and  the  Epic.    Lond. :   1893. 

Lang  considers  the  moot  question  of  the  unity  of  the  Homeric 
poems,  and  maintains  that  "  the  Homeric  epics,  in  spite  of  certain 
flaws,  and  breaks,  and  probable  insertion  of  alien  matter,  are 
mainly  the  work  of  one,  or,  at  the  most,  of  two,  great  poets" 
(p.  10).  Chap.  II  contains  a  convenient  resume  of  Homeric 
criticism  before  Wolf,  and  Chap.  Ill  summarizes  the  Wolfian 
thesis.  Chaps.  XVI-XVIII  contain  a  comparative  -treatment  of 
the  Homeric  epics,  the  Nibelungenlied,  the  Roland,  and  the 
Kalevala,  from  the  point  of  view  of  their  historical  composition. 
—  Compare,  by  the  same  author,  an  article  on  The  Song  of 
Roland  and  the  Iliad  (in  the  Nat.  Rev.,  Oct.  1892);  and  his 
Introduction  to  Comparetti  —  in  support  of  the  comparative 
against  the  analytic,  or  Wolfian,  way  of  studying  the  epic. 

LANG,  A.    Homer  and  his  Age.    Lond. :   1906. 

Lang  again  attacks  the  composite  theory,  this  time  with  an 
argument  drawn  from  archaeology.  He  argues  that  the  Homeric 
poems  are  a  product  of  a  single  age,  not  a  "  mosaic  of  several 
changing  centuries,"  by  endeavoring  to  show  that  the  poems 


642  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

depict  the  life  of  a  single  brief  age  of  culture,  with  no  anachronisms. 
Poets  like  Virgil,  who  write  of  early  times  in  later,  uncriti- 
cal ages,  are  full  of  anachronisms:  they  do  not  archaize. 
The  absence  of  anachronisms  in  Homer  tends,  therefore,  to 
disprove  later  composition.  —  But  is  Lang's  answer  to  Helbig 
(who  claimed  that  such  archaeological  unity  might  be  due  to  the 
"  sedulous  copying  of  poetic  tradition  ")  satisfactory  ?  Chaps.  XV, 
XVI  treat  the  problem  comparatively. 

LANG,  A.   The  World  of  Homer.   Lond.:  1910. 

Should  be  read  with  Lang's  two  other  works  on  Homer.  For 
a  brief  statement  of  the  author's  conclusions  about  the  Homeric 
Question  see  Chap.  XX. 

LANG,  A.    Art.  Ballads,  Encyc.  Brit,    nthed. 

"  The  object  of  this  article  is  to  prove  that  what  has  long  been 
acknowledged  of  nursery  tales,  of  what  the  Germans  call  Marchen, 
namely,  that  they  are  the  immemorial  inheritance  at  least  of  all 
European  peoples,  is  true  also  of  some  ballads.""  See  the  same 
author's  article  Ballad  in  Chambers'  Cylop.  of  Eng.  Lit.,  1902. 

LAVELEYE,  E.  DE.  La  Saga  des  Nibelungen  dans  les  Eddas  et 
dans  le  -Nord  scandinave.  Traduction  prece'de'e  d'une  e"tude 
sur  la  formation  des  e'popees  nationales.  Paris:  1866. 

The  introduction  first  lays  down  a  general  theory  of  the  epic, 
and  then  illustrates  it  by  reference  to  the  Nibelungenlied.  The 
origin  of  the  epic  is  found  in  both  history  and  myth :  the 
heroic  element  is  a  development  of  the  former;  the  marvellous 
element  is  contributed  by  the  latter.  The  epic  material  exists  first 
in  the  form  of  popular  songs ;  later  these  are  dominated  by  one 
idea,  e.g.  by  the  idea  of  Fate,  and  then  go  through  a  process  of 
coalescence,  and  division  into  parts  of  a  whole.  The  epic  material 
is  then  ready  for  the  hand  of  the  great  artist,  who  is  to  give  tc 
its  final  form. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  643 

LAWTON,  W.  C.    The  Successors  of  Homer.    N.Y. :   1898. 
LEAF,  W.    Companion  to  the  Iliad.    Lond. :   1892. 

Dr.  Leaf  is  a  separatist  of  the  school  of  Grote  and  Geddes, 
though  he  differs  from  them  in  some  important  respects.  See 
also  the  same  author's  Homer  and  History  (Lond.:  1915). 

LEMCKE,  L.  Ueber  einige  bei  der  Kritik  der  traditionellen  schotti- 
schen  Balladen  zu  beobachtende  Grundsatze.  In  Jahrbuch 
f.  rom.  u.  eng.  Lit.,  4:  i,  142,  297.  Leipz. :  1862. 
"  Ein  Blick  auf  die  Entwickelungsgesetze  fast  aller  Kulturvolker 
lasst  eine  Thatsache  erkennen,  welche,  wie  man  glauben  muss, 
auf  einem  Naturgesetze  beruht,  namlich  dass  iiberall  wo  auf 
historischem  Boden  auf  der  Mischung  verschiedener  Volksele- 
mente  eine  neue  Nation  entsteht,  der  Neubildungsprocess  selbst 
eine  erste,  unmittelbare  Quelle  der  neuen  nationalen  Dichtung 
wird.  Wenn  es  erlaubt  ist,  Vorgange  in  der  moralischen  Welt 
mit  solchen  der  physischen  Welt  zu  parallelisiren,  so  mochte  man 
sagen :  die  Poesie  begleitet  den  natiirlichen  Mischungsprocess 
von  Volkern  wie  die  Warmeentwickelung  denjenigen  der  chemi- 
schen  Elemente"  (p.  148).  But  is  the  ballad  produced  by  a 
fusion  of  nations?  And  as  for  the  epic,  does  it  not  more  fre- 
quently grow  out  of  a  collision  of  causes,  beliefs,  clans,  nations, 
civilizations,  than  out  of  a  fusion  ? 

LETOURNEAU,  C. 

Cited  in  §  5. 

LILLY,  M.  L.  The  Georgia  A  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  the 
Vergilian  Type  of  Didactic  Poetry.  Diss.,  Johns  Hopkins 
Univ.  Baltimore:  1917. 

Chap.  Ill  The  Relation  of  the  Georgic  to  the  Pastoral. 

LOISE,  F.    Histoire  de  la  poesie.    L'Allemagne  dans  sa  litt.,  etc. 

Bruxelles:   1873. 

A  running  history,  with  general  discussion  of  German  epics 
and  epic-romances.  See  pp.  51-71,  149-238. 


644  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

LOISE,  F.  Histoire  de  la  poesie  en  rapport  avec  la  civilisation 
dans  1'antiquite  et  chez  les  peuples  modernes  de  race  latine. 
L'Antiquite.  Bruxelles :  1887. 

The  introduction  contains  some  general  remarks  upon  the 
development  of  literature  in  connection  with  social  influences. 
P.  98  :  Homer  found  his  inspiration  in  the  reality  of  past  events, 
which  he  idealized ;  the  poet  has  indispensable  need  of  a  perspec- 
tive of  events  and  a  prestige  of  imagination.  On  moral  purpose, 
p.  102;  on  Virgil,  p.  2O4ff. ;  on  the  character  of  the  epic  pro- 
ductions of  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity,  p.  2946°. 

LUTJENS,  A.    Der  Zwerg  in  der  deutschen  Heldendichtung  des 

Mittelalters.    In  German.  Abhandlungen,  No.  38.    1911. 
An  example  of   how  a  particular  subject  or  detail   may  be 
isolated  for  comparative  study. 

MACAULAY,  T.  B. 

See  above,  §  8. 

Macaulay's  proof  of  his  premise  that  as  civilization  advances 
poetry  almost  necessarily  declines,  is  suggestive  to  the  student 
of  epic  history ;  but  the  doctrine,  unless  carefully  circumscribed, 
is  misleading.  With  the  advance  of  civilization  the  making  of 
poetry  tends  to  become  less  and  less  a  popular  habit,  more  and 
more  the  gift  of  a  few  chosen  souls;  but  with  this  specialization 
the  poetic  inspiration  grows  more  complex  and  profound,  the 
poetic  result  finer  and  greater.  See  also  Macaulay's  introduction 
to  his  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

MACCULLOCH,  J.  A.    The  Childhood  of  Fiction :  A  Study  of  Folk 

Tales  and  Primitive  Thought    N.Y. :   1905. 
A  collection  and  analysis  of  early  folk  tales  and  folk-tale  inci- 
dents such  as  are  often  later  embodied  in  the  epic. 

MACKAIL,  J.  W.    Lectures  on  Poetry.    Lond. :   1911. 

P.  48  ff.  Virgil  and  Virgilianism ;  p.  72  ff.  The  Aeneid;  p.  1 23  ff. 
Arabian  Epic  and  Romantic  Poetry ;  p.  r  54  ff.  The  Divine 
Comedy. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  645 

MACKENZIE,  A.  S.    The  Evolution  of  Literature.    N.Y.:   1911. 

The  author  attempts  a  survey  of  the  development  of  literature 
under  four  heads:  primitive,  barbaric,  autocratic,  and  democratic 
(cf.  Posnett).  A  provisional  induction  of  general  laws  of  develop- 
ment is  set  forth  in  the  last  chapter.  The  analysis  is  not  in  every 
respect  adequate ;  the  divisions  are  somewhat  disproportionate ; 
and  assumption  and  description  often  take  the  place  of  fact  or 
argument ;  but  the  'author  has  made  an  honest  attempt  toward 
a  scientific  method.  See  table  of  contents  for  passages  dealing 
with  epic,  lyric,  and  drama  in  different  stages  of  civilization. 

MACRI-LEONE,  F.  La  bucolica  latina  nella  letteratura  italiana  del 
secolo  XIV,  con  una  introduzione  sulla  bucolica  latina  nel 
medio  evo.  Torino:  1889.  . 

MANITIUS,  M.    Mittelalterliche  Umdeutung  antiker  Sagenstoffe. 

In  Zeitschr.fiir  vergleich.  Littgesch.,  15  :   1516°. 
Shows  some  of  the  characteristic  changes  which  were  undergone 
by  the  common  narrative  material  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

MANLY,  J.  M.  Literary  Forms  and  the  New  Theory  of  the  Origin 
of  Species. 

See  above,  §  5. 

MANTZ,  H.  E.  The  Non-Dramatic  Pastoral  in  Europe  in  the 
1 8th  Century.  In  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Assoc.,  31  :  421—447. 

MARSAN,  J.    La  pastorale  dramatique  en  France  &  la  fin  du  i6e  et 

au  commencement  du  iye  siecle,  Paris:   1905. 
Contains  much  information  on   French,  Italian,  and   Spanish 
pastoral  poetry. 

MARSH,    A.    R.     Epic    Poetry.     In   the   Universal   Cyclopaedia 

(Johnson's),  vol.  IV.    N.Y. :   1900. 

A  very  informing  article,  in  which  the  development  of  the 
French  epos  is  taken  as  typical  of  the  growth  of  all  great  popu- 
ar  epics.  The  summary  of  the  stages  of  epic  development  given 
n  the  second  column  of  page  141  is  sound  and  conservative. 


646  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

MASSING,  H.  Die  Geistlichkeit  im  altfranz.  Volksepos.  Inaug. 
Diss.,  Giessen.  Darmstadt:  1904. 

MEIER,  J.     Warden  und    Leben  des  Volksepos.     Halle:    1909. 

Reviewed  by  A.  Heusler  in  Anzeiger  fiir  deutsches  Altertum, 

33:   129-136. 

A  brief,  scholarly  study  of  the  interrelation  of  saga,  lay,  and 
epic.  Three  stages  of  growth  are  noted :  das  epische  Lied,  die 
Rhapsodic,  das  Gesamtepos. 

MEYER,  P.    Recherches  sur  1'epope'e  frangaise.    Paris:   1867. 

A  critical  examination  of  the  first  edition  of  L'Histoire  poetique 
de  Charlemagne  by  Gaston  Paris  and  Gautier's  fipope'es  franchises, 
vol.  I.  The  greater  part  of  the  book  is  taken  up  with  consider- 
ations of  the  French  epopee ;  but  on  pages  5  and  64-66  may  be 
found  a  criticism  of  the  theory  that  the  epic  (French  epic)  developed 
from  earlier  lyrics  which  celebrated  heroic  deeds  almost  immedi- 
ately upon  their  performance,  or  shortly  after.  For  a  summary 
of  Meyer's  views  on  this  subject  see  p.  75. 

MIKLOSICH,  F.    Beitrage  zur  Kenntniss  d.  slavischen  Volksepos. 
Denkschr.  d.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.,  Philos.-Hist.  CL    Wien :   1870. 
P.  55. 

MIKLOSICH,  F.  Die  Darstellung  im  slavischen  Volksepos. 
Denkschr.  d.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.,  Philos.-Hist.  CL  Wien:  1890. 

Abh.  III. 

Discusses  in  the  opening  paragraphs  the  difference  between  the 
Naturepos  and  the  Kunstepos, 

•MILLER,  G.  M.  The  Dramatic  Element  in  the  Popular  Ballad. 
In  Univ.  Studies  of  the  Univ.  of  Cincinnati,  Series  2,  vol.  I, 
No.  i.  1905. 

The  ballad  tells  a  story,  often  partly  in  the  objective  narrative  of  the 
epic.  It  is  in  lyric  verse,  and  is  meant  to  be  sung.  But  the  great  im- 
portance of  the  dramatic  element  in  the  ballad  can  be  seen  from  its 
origin  and  development,  from  its  connection  with  the  dramatic  dance 
and  with  the  drama,  from  the  strong  dramatic  character  of  closely 


§11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  647 

connected  parallels,  from  the  dramatic  elements  brought  out  by  an  analysis 
of  the  ballad  as  it  has  come  down  to  us" — dramatic  impersonality,  dra- 
matic presentation  of  action  and  character,  dramatic  structure  and  form. 
In  a  peculiar  way,  then,  the  popular  ballad  is  the  best  survival  of  primi- 
tive poetry,  the  best  representative  of  all  folk-poetry ;  it  is  distinguished 
from  all  other  poetic  types  by  its  unique  union  of  epic,  lyric  and  dramatic 
elements  (p.  46). 

What  becomes  of  these  observations  if  the  true  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  epic  is  that  of  Gaston  Paris,  Jeanroy,  and  Henderson 
(see  Henderson,  above)  ?  —  Compare  A.  Beatty,  The  St.  George, 
or  Mummers'  Plays,  A  Study  in  the  Protology  of  the  Drama 
(Trans.  Wisconsin  Acad.,  15  :  273  ff.  1906).* 

MOORMAN,  F.  W.  William  Browne.  His  Britannia's  Pastorals  and 
the  Pastoral  Poetry  of  the  Elizabethan  Age.  Strassburg:  1897. 
In  Quellen  und  Forschungen. 

MORNER,  J.  VON.  Die  deutschen  und  franzosischen  Heldengedichte 
des  Mittelalters  als  Quelle  fiir  die  Culturgeschichte.  Leipz. : 
1886. 

Not  a  work  of  literary  criticism,  but  valuable  to  the  critic  because 
it  analyzes  the  relations  of  various  hero-tales  to  medieval  civilization. 

MOULTON,  R.  G.    The  Modern  Study  of  Literature.    1915. 

See  references  to  this  work,  above,  §§'2,  8.    For  evolution  in 
epic  poetry  see  pp.  132-161. 

The   evolution  of  the    Organic  Epic  (e.g.,  Homeric  epic)  is 
summarized  as  follows: 

It  [this  evolution]  involves  the  transition  from  the  floating  poetry  of 
;minstrel  recitation,  in  a  state  of  constant  change,  to  the  age  of  fixed  or 
book  poetry,  that  brings  with  it  individual  authorship.  We  begin  with 
the  unit  story ;  in  the  free  variations  of  floating  poetry  we  readily  under- 
stand the  fusion  of  many  stories  together.  In  time  there  arise  certain 
leroic  names,  or  other  topics,  which  become  centers  around  which  there 
s  an  ever-increasing  aggregation  of  stories ;  stories  originally  (it  may  be) 
old  of  other  heroes,  but  now  brought  into  association  with  a  popular 
name.  We  get  an  Achilles  cycle  of  warrior  stories,  an  Odysseus  cycle 
of  wandering  adventures.  .  .  .  Such  an  heroic  cycle  is,  of  course,  not 


648  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

a  poem,  but  a  state  of  things  in  poetry :  a  mass  of  incidents  having  no 
necessary  connection  with  one  another,  yet  attributed  to  a  common  hero. 
Then  we  pass  over  the  boundary  into  the  age  of  written  literature  and 
individual  authorship  :  it  becomes  possible  for  an  individual  poet  to  take 
the  indiscriminate  incidents  of  the  Achilles  cycle  and  organize  the  whole 
into  the  harmonious  plot  of  the  Iliad.  .  .  .  The  product  is  an  Organic 
Epic :  from  the  unit  cell  of  the  single  story  we  have  a  development 
of  complex  literary  organism  with  its  parts  in  perfect  co-ordination 
(pp.  133-135). 

MULLER,  W.  Mythologie  der  deutschen  Heldensage.  Heilbronn: 
1886.  Zur  Mythologie  der  griechischen  und  deutschen  Hel- 
densage. Heilbronn:  1889. 

Mu'ller,  with-  a  modified  euhemerism,  attempts  to  trace  a  portion 
of  the  mythical  material  of  the'  German  and  Greek  epics  to  an 
origin  in  historical  facts.  Compare  A.  Fecamp,  Le  Poeme  de 
Gudrun  (Paris:  1892),  pp.  97-181.  A  recent  discussion  of  the 
relations  of  historical  fact  and  epical  poetry  is  W.  Leaf's  Homer 
and  History  (1915),  which  scouts  the  German  theories  of  Sagen- 
verscheibung  (i.e.,  transplanting  of  legends  from  historical  sources 
to  later  historical  events)  and  of  the  descent  of  epic  legends  from 
nature-myths. 

MULLER  and  DONALDSON.  A  History  of  Ancient  Greece.  3  vols. 
Lond.:  1858. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  40-53  The  Homeric  poems  attest  a  pre-Homeric 
bardic  poetry.   See  Jebb,  and  references  under  §.12,  i,  A. 

MURE,  W.  A  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece.  2d  ed.  5  vols.  Lond.:  1854. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  170-172  Epic  and  lyric,  their  origin  and  charac- 
teristics. 

Examine  the  reasons  assigned  for  the  probable  priority  of  the 
epic.  Is  lyric  poetry,  as  compared  with  epic,  "  speculative  and 
discursive  "  ? 

MURRAY,  G.  The  Rise  of  the  Greek  Epic.  Oxford :  1907.  2d  ed. 
Revised  and  enlarged.  1911. 

Lectures  IV-X,  pp.  91-252  (ist  ed.). 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  649 

Professor  Murray  belongs  to  the  school  of  Wolf,  Lachmann, 
Kirchhoff,  and  Leaf.  His  acc*ount  of  the  problems  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  Greek  epics  is  enriched  by  frequent 
reference  to  similar  problems  associated  with  other  epics,  and 
by  the  application  of  anthropological  knowledge  (derived  chiefly 
From  Dr.  Frazer's  works)  to  the  exposition  of  many  characteristics 
:>f  the  Homeric  poems.  The  book,  therefore,  is  unusually  valuable 
to  the  student  who  wishes  to  study  comparatively  the  historical 
problems  involved.  Side  by  side  with  this  book  the  student  should 
consult  Lang's  Homer  and  the  Epic  (see  above),  which  presents, ' 
svith  much  the  same  knowledge  and  method,  the  opposite,  or  anti- 
Wolfian,  view  of  the  origin  and  development  of  the  poems. 

MUSTARD,  W.  P.    Later  Echoes  of  the  Greek  Bucolic  Poets.    In 
Am.  Jr.  of  Phil.,  30:   245.    1909. 

On  the  influence  of  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus  on  English, 
French,  Italian,  and  German  pastoral  poetry.  See  the  same  author's 
Virgil's  Georgics  and  the  British  Poets  (ibid.,  29  :  i.  1908);  The 
Eclogues  of  Baptista  Mantuanus  (Baltimore:  1911),  edited,  with 
introduction;  The  Piscatory  Eclogues  of  Jacopo  Sannazaro  (1914); 
The  Eclogues  of  Andrelinus  and  Arnolletus  (1918),  etc. 

MYERS,  IRENE,  T.    A  Study  in  Epic  Development.    N.  Y.:   1901. 

In  Yale  Studies  in  English,  No.  XI. 

By  a  brief  review  of  the  theories  of  epic  poetry  the  author 
endeavors  to  show  that  the  critics  are  agreed  upon  only  one 
fundamental  distinction  of  the  epic  from  other  literary  species, 
—  its  narrative  form.  Behind  the  epic  lie  earlier  stages  of  narra- 
tive development,  and  the  author  aims  to  follow  these  to  the  point 
where  the  epic  appears,  and  (somewhat  after  the  fashion  of 
Posnett)  to  parallel  them  with  the  stages  of  political  develop- 
ment leading  to  the  appearance  of  a  national  form  of  government 
approximately  synchronous  with  the  appearance  of  the  epic.  An 
(examination  of  early  phases  of  literary  and  political  development 
shows  that  the  earliest  literary  product  is  correspondent  in  its 
Indistinctness  and  disjointed  form  with  the  indefinite  organization 


650  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

of  the  .clan.  Jt  As  the  people  advance  towards  the  more  centralized 
tribal  organization,  and  recognize  a  political  head,  they  manifest 
also  a  tendency  to  elevate  certain  representative  figures  in  their 
legends.  When  a  consciousness  of  nationality  has  been  aroused, 
and  the  tribes  have  found  a  basis  for  unity,  this  unity  finds  an 
expression  in  a  national  ideal  in  their  songs.  The  progress  of  the 
narrative  is  from  a  formless  expression,  without  plan  or  predomi- 
nant incident  or  figure,  towards  a  form  in  which  a  plot  is  developed, 
and  in  which  incidents  and  figures  group  themselves  with  reference 
to  their  relative  importance  to  a  central  idea  or  hero  "  (p.  86).  The 
examination  is  then  extended  to  the  German  and  Greek  epics  and 
peoples,  with  similar  results.  The  national  genius  realizes  itself  in 
government  and  in  epic ;  according  to  the  tendencies  and  strength 
of  that  genius  the  epic  "  appears  as  prose  or  verse,  in  dissociated 
sagas  or  in  more  or  less  unified  national  songs  "  (p.  147). 

Though  the  premises  are  not  entirely  trustworthy,  and  the 
conclusions  too  easily  drawn,  the  essay  offers  a  convenient  intro- 
duction to  the  historical  method  of  attack  as  practised  at  the 
present  day. 

NITZSCH,  G.  W.   Die  Sagenpoesie  der  Griechen  kritisch  dargestellt 
3  Th.    Braunschweig:   1852. 

See  Parts  I  and  II  for  the  "epic  cycle"  (compare  Welcker); 
Part  III  for  the  relation  of  the  Aeschylean  trilogy  to 
the  epic ;  pp.  439-446  deal  with  this  last  question  ia 
the  general  and  abstract. 

NITZSCH,  G.  W.    Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  epischen  Poesie  der 

Griechen.    Leipz. :  1862. 

A  believer  in  stages  of  evolution  in  the  national  epic,  but  of 
evolution  which  reached  its  climax  in  the  creative  genius  of  the 
individual  poet,  Nitzsch  was  the  foremost  opponent  of  the  Wolfian 
school.  "  Drei  Stufen :  Volkssage,  kleinere  Einzellieder  und  auf 
Grund  dieser  dann  erst  grossere  Gebilde,  bemessen  nach  dem  inne- 
wohnenden  Motiv  der  Bewegung,  beseelt  nach  dem  Phantasie- 
glauben  des  Volksgeistes,  den  der  ausfuhrende  Dichter  theilt, 


§11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  651 

und  den  er  erst  in  Charakteren  der  Helden  und  Gotter,  und  bei 
den  Wechselwirkungen  zwischen  Menschen-  und  Gotterwelt  die 
Handlung  zur  recht  lebensvollen  Anschaulichkeit  auspragt"  (p.  62). 
Homer's  relations  to  his  predecessors  and  followers  are  discussed  on 
pp.  130-298.  See  also  the  same  author's  earlier  pronunciamentos, 
the  Meletemata  (1830)  and  De  Historia  Homed  (Hannover: 
1830-37)- 

NYROP,  K.    Storia  dell'  epopea  francese  nel  medio  evo.    Trans., 
from   the   original    Danish  edition   of    1883,  by  E.  Gorra. 
Torino:   1888. 
In  this  valuable  study  is  included  a  resume  of  previous  works 

upon  the  same  subject.    Compare  Romania,  14:  143  ff. 

OUVR£,  H.    Les  formes  litteraires  de  la  pensee  grecque.    Paris: 

1900. 

An  attempt  to  trace  the  evolution  of  Greek  thought  and  its 
literary  form.  The  work  is  discursive  and  lacks  clearly  defined 
theses. 

PALEY,  F.  A.  Remarks  on  Professor  Mahaffy's  Account  of  the 
Rise  and  Progress  of  Epic  Poetry,  in  his  History  of  Classical 
Greek  Literature.  Lond.:  1881. 

The  argument  (p.  43)  is  to  the  effect  that  the  Cyclic  Epics 
represent  older  and  more  authentic  versions  of  the  tale  of  Troy 
than  do  the  Homeric  poems. 

PANIZZI,  A.  An  Essay  on  the  Romantic  Narrative  Poetry  of  the 
Italians.  Lond.:  1830. 

In  the  first  vol.  of  Panizzi's  edition  of  Boiardo  and  Ariosto. 
The  author  treats  of  romantic  fabulous  narratives  considered 
is  a  general  European  phenomenon,  and  touches  particularly 
upon  their  forms  in  France  and  Italy,  noting,  among  other  writers, 
Pulci,  Cieco,  Bernardo  Tasso,  etc.  The  essay  is  largely  antiquated 
and  not  seldom  in  error  as  to  facts ;  but  it  deserves  study.  For 
references  on  the  Italian  romantic  epics,  see  below,  §  12,  vi,  B-E. 


652  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

PANZER,  F.    Das  altdeutsche  Volksepos.    Halle:   1903. 

The  author  maintains  that  repetitions  in  the  epic  are  due 
originally  to  an  instinctive  habit  of  emphasizing  the  typical  aspect 
of  the  thing  repeated,' and  that  the  surrender  of  these  repetitions 
by  later  poets  signifies  an  advance  to  more  individual  habits  of 
thought.  It  is  then  suggested  that  certain  discrepancies  in  details 
commonly  found  in  epic  narrative  are  due  not  to  different  recen- 
sions, but  to  the  typical  tone  of  the  narrative,  which  does  not 
concern  itself  intimately  with  individual  details  or  with  any 
contradictions  in  details. 

PANZER,  F.    Marchen,  Sage  und  Dichtung.    Munchen:   1905. 

Holds  that  epical  poems  have  developed  not  only  from  poetic 
songs  dealing  with  legendary  material,  but  also  from  fairy  tales  to 
which  epic  technique  has  been  applied.  Compare  the  Odyssey, 
and  the  instances  in  German  epic  cited  by  Panzer,  p.  42  ff.,  and 
see  Panzer's  monographs  on  the  German  epic  cited  in  §  \2,  xi. 

PARIS,  G.    La  litterature  francaise  au  moyen  age.    5th  ed.    Paris: 

1914. 

See  pp.  35-156  (3d  ed.)  for  one  of  the  best  short  accounts  of 
the  medieval  French  epic  and  romance.  The  Tableau  Chronologique 
(p.  271  ff.)  gives  at  a  glance  a  resumb  of  the  mass  of  French 
medieval  epic  and  epical  narrative.  Compare  the  volume  on 
Mediaeval  French  Literature,  by  the  same  author  (in  the  series 
of  Temple  Cyclopaedic  Primers).  Other  important  works  by  this 
master  of  medieval  French  poetry,  including  his  invaluable  Hist, 
poetique  de  Charlemagne,  are  noted  above,  §§  5,  8. 

PAUL,    H.     Grundriss    der    germanischen    Philologie.      2d    cd. 
Strassburg:   1900-09.    3d  ed.    1911+. 

See  Bd.  II,  Abt.  I,  for  history  and  bibliography  of  the  epics 
and  epical  narratives  in  the  ancient  Germanic  tongues 
(Gothic,  German,  Dutch,  Friesian,  Norwegian  and  Ice- 
landic, Swedish-Danish,  and  Old  and  Middle  English). 
This  important  work  is  cited  repeatedly  in  §§  6,  12. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  653 

PEACOCK,  T.  L.    Works.    3  vols.    Lond. :   1875. 

Vol.  Ill,  pp.  324-338  The  Four  Ages  of  Poetry. 
The  article  may  also  be  found  in  Cook's  edition  of  Shelley's 
Defense  of  Poetry  (see  Gayley  and  Scott,  §  20).  Peacock's  satiri- 
cal emphasis  upon  the  relation  of  superstition  to  the  epic  and  his 
remark's  concerning  the  general  social  conditions  of  the  "  Golden 
Age  "  are  worthy  of  serious  consideration. 

PERCY,  BISHOP.     Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry,    .ist  ed. 
Lond.:   1765. 

Ancient  Metrical  Romances.    See  Bohn's  ed.,  1900,  vol.  II. 
For  Percy's  influence  see  above,  §  9,  vn,  c. 

PIDAL,  R.  M.   L'epopee  castillane  h  travers  la  litterature  espagnole. 

Paris:   1910. 

This  is  the  best  work  on  the  Spanish  epic.  The  author  studies 
"  the  formation  or  crystallization  of  the  epic  material,  and  its  later 
diffusion  and  evolution  in  Spanish  literature.".  A  long  line  of  epic 
material  preceded  the  epic  proper.  The  origin  of  the  Spanish  epic 
is  not,  according  to  Pidal,  French ;  he  supports  a  thesis  which  is 
similar  to  Rajna's  theory  of  the  Germanic  origin  of  the  French 
tpopee.  Much  attention  is  given  to  historical  and  social  back- 
grounds :  the  antagonism  of  Castile  and  Leon  is  traced  in  the 
Poeme  de  Femand  Gonzalez  and  the  Chanson  du  siege  de  Zamore ; 
the  relation  of  the  Cid  (Cantar  de  Meo  Cid)  to  national  life  is 
expounded.  The  last  four  chapters  consider  the  Enfances  de 
Rodrique,  later  redactions,  the  decay  of  epic  material  in  the 
Romancero,  and  the  diffusion  of  epic  subjects  in  the  classical 
period  of  Spanish  drama  and  in  modern  Spanish  poetry. 

POSNETT,  H.  M.    Comparative  Literature.    N.  Y. :   1896. 

Posnett's  assignment  of  choral  song,  hero-saga,  ballad,  epic, 
lyric,  drama,  idyl,  etc.,  to  various  stages  of  national  development, 
is  fruitful  of  suggestion.  He  does  not  believe  in  universal  con- 
ceptions of  any  type  of  literature ;  consequently,  not  in  definitions 
(pp.  42-44). 


654  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

Behind  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  existed  poetry  of  local  sympathies  and 
songs  of  local  sentiment  long  before  the  genius  of  one  master-bard,  or 
of  many,  built  up  the  Greek  epics  into  the  forms  in  which  they  have 
reached  us.  ...  The  picture  of  social  life  in  the  Homeric  poems  is  that 
of  men  who  have  left  the  barbarous  isolation  and  exclusiveness  of  clan 
life  far  behind  them  .  .  .  and  are  gaining  wider  sympathies  and  artistic 
refinement  under  the  guidance  of  chiefs  and  kings  (pp.  99-100).* 

Both  the  choral  and  the  personal  poetry  of  the  clan  give  way  to  the 
songs  of  the  chief's  hall.  Perhaps  one  of  the  earliest  shapes  of  heroic 
poetry  was  the  genealogical  poem  . . .  blending  the  communal  personality 
of  the  clan  with  the  individual  heroism  of  the  chief.  .  .  .  Old  songs  of 
eponymous  clan-ancestors  would  meet  such  beginnings  of  epic  poetry 
halfway,  and  the  glory  of  the  clan's  ideal  parentage  would  be  easily 
transferred  to  the  personal  ancestry  of  the  chief  (pp.  158-1 59). 

Pp.  152-158  are  devoted  to  a  criticism  of  Victor  Hugo's  theory 
(Preface  to  "  Cromwell,"  p.  26)  concerning  the  priority  of  lyric 
to  epic,  which,  according  to  Posnett,  is  "  an  inversion  of  the  order 
in  which  the  personality  of  man  has  been  developed."  Is  not 
Posnett  here,  like  many  of  the  psychological  theorists,  whom  he 
affects  to  despise,  confounding  the  process  of  mental  growth  with 
the  evolution  of  artistic  expression  ?  If  the  savage  regards  Force 
and  Law  as  objective  and  unsympathetic,  is  he  more  likely  to 
express  his  opinions  of  them  in  an  objective,  contemplative,  and 
epic  manner,  or  to  address  them  in  the  naive  utterance  of  the 
choral,  lyric,  prayer,  and  ode  ?  Does  Posnett  maintain  consistently 
one  view  or  the  other?  Compare  Gayley  and  Scott,  §§2  and  17. 

POUND,   L.    The   Beginnings  of  Poetry.    In  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang. 

Assoc.,  32  :   201-232.    1917. 

In  the  light  chiefly  of  songs  of  the  American  Indians  the  author 
re-examines  the  following  hypotheses :  "  the  inseparableness  of 
primitive  dance,  music,  and  song ;  the  simultaneous  mass- 
composition  of  primitive  song ;  mass-ownership  of  primitive  song ; 
the  narrative  character  of  primitive  song." 

QUADRIO,  F.  S.    Delia  storia  e  della  ragione  d'ogni  poesia.    7  vols1. 
Bologna  e  Milano  :   1739-1752. 
See  above,  §  8. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  655 

QUINET,  E.    QEuvres  completes.    30  vols.    Paris:   i857(?). 

In  vol.  IX,  De  1'histoire  de  la  poesie,  an  evolutionary  theory 
of  composition  is  developed.  See  also  Quinet's  ridicule  of  the 
Wolfian  theory  in  Bk.  V  of  his  L'Esprit  nouveau  (vol.  XXVII  of 
the  CEuvres).  His  point  is  that  the  poetic  imagination,  evident  in 
the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  "  ne  se  contente  pas  de  rediger,  elle  cree." 

RABB,  K.  M.    National  Epics.    Chicago:   1896. 
See  above,  §  8. 

RAJNA,  Pio.    Le  origine  dell'  epopea  francese.    Firenze:  1884. 

An  exhaustive  work,  which  is  recognized  both  as  a  standard 
authority  and  as  an  Italian  classic.  The  introduction,  on  the  epic 
and  its  origins,  discusses  the  poetics  of  the  epic,  its  laws,  its  unity, 
etc.  Of  especial  interest  are  Chaps.  XV  and  XVI  on  the  relation 
of  French  and  German  epics,  Chap.  XVIII  on  epic  rhythms,  and 
the  concluding  chapter  on  the  extension  and  propagation  of  the 
epic.  See  also  the  same  author's  Storia  ed  epopea,  in  Archive 
storico  italiano,  XLIII,  i. 

RAMBAUD,  A.     Cycle  de  Vladimir.     In  Rev.   d.   Deux  Mondes, 
3:4:  41. 

RAMBAUD,  A.    La  Russie  e'pique.    Paris:   1876. 

Highly  important  for  students  of  the  Russian  epic.  The  work 
takes  up  in  order  the  following  phases  of  the  subject:  (i)  the 
legendary  epic ;  (2)  the  historical  epic ;  (3)  the  adventitious  epic 
(i.e.,  epics  which  show  the  influence  of  Greece,  Persia,  France, 
etc.) ;  (4)  the  Little-Russian  epic. 

REEVE,  CLARA.   Progress  of  Romance.    2  vols.   Colchester:   1785. 
One  of  the  earliest  attempts  at  the  historical  method  in  England. 
See  above,  §  9,  vn,  c. 

RENNERT,  H.  A.    The  Spanish  Pastoral  Romances.    New,  revised 
ed.     Philadelphia:   1912.    Pubs.    Univ.   Penn.,  Dept.   Rom. 
Langs,  and  Lits.,  Extra  Series,  No.  i. 
See  references  to  pastoral  poetry. 


656  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

SAINTSBURY,  G.  (Ed.)    Periods  of  European  Literature.    12  vols. 

N.Y.:   1897+. 

A  series  of  volumes  which  treat  comparatively,  under  different 
epochs,  the  literature  of  Europe  as  a  whole.  May  be  consulted 
for  literary  movements  contemporary  with  the  various  European 
epics. 

SCHANZ,  M.    Geschichte  der  romischen  Litteratur. 
See  above,  §  5. 

SCHNEEGANS,   E.     Die  Volkssage  und  das  altfranzos.     Helden- 
gedicht.    In  Neue  Heidelberger  Jahrbticher,  1897,  pp.  58-67. 
A  discussion  of  the  relation  of  history,  folk  saga,  and  epic. 
Schneegans  is  not  in  accord  with  the  theory  that  the  saga  serves 
as  a  connecting  link  between  the  other  two.    The  epic,  he  thinks, 
is  nearer  to  historical  fact  than  the  saga  with  its  popular  idealiza- 
tion of  particular  episodes  and  heroes. 

SCHOPF,   A.     Nationalepos  und   Balladendichtung :    Eine  ethno- 

graphische  Studie.    Wien :   1881. 
A  small  affair  with  a  big  name,  written  for  juveniles. 

SCHURE,  E\ 

See  above,  §  5. 

SEYMOUR,  T.  D.    Life  in  the  Homeric  Age.    N.Y. :   1907.    2ded. 

1914. 

The  book  in  general  is  concerned  with  setting  forth  in  regard 
to  Homeric  antiquities  "  simply  what  may  be  learned  from  the 
Homeric  poems  themselves,  with  such  illustration  as  is  obvious 
or  naturally  presented  from  other  sources."  But  in  the  Introduc- 
tion will  be  found  a  clean-cut  summary  of  the  status  of  Homeric 
theory  in  1914.  The  problems  discussed  are  historical,  such  as :  \ 
basis,  myth  vs.  legend,  manner  of  composition,  strata  in  the  com- 
position, relation  of  the  poet's  age  and  culture  to  the  age  and  cul- 
ture depicted  in  the  poems.  —  Chap.  XVII  presents  a  convenient 
synopsis  of  the  Schliemann-Dorpfeld  discoveries  in  the  Troad. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  657 

SISMONDI,  J.  C.  L.  S.  DE.  De  la  litterature  du  midi  de  1'Europe. 
4  vols.  Paris:'  1839. 

English  translation  by  T.    Roscoe,   Historical  View  of  the 
Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe  (2  vols.    N.Y. :   1855). 

References  to  all  types ;  superseded,  but  historically  important. 

SMITHSON,  G.  A.    The  Old  English  Christian  Epic.    A  study  of 

the  plot  technique  of  the  Juliana,  the  Elene,  the  Andreas, 

and  the  Christ,  in  comparison  with  the  Beowulf  and  with 

the  Latin  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages.    In  Univ.  of  Calif. 

Pubs.  Mod.  Philol.,  i  :  303-400.    Berkeley,  Calif.:   1910. 

A  careful  and  independent  study  of   the   derivation   of   the 

technique  of  the  Old  English  Christian  epic  from  the  Beowulf 

and  from  Latin  saints'  legends,  hymns,  dramatic  colloquies,  and 

the  service  and  sermons  of  the  Advent.   "  The  Old  English  poems 

were  practically  uninfluenced  by  the  Virgilian  epics." 

SOERENSEN,  A.  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  der  Entwickelung  der 
serbischen  Heldendichtung.  In  Archiv  fur  slavische  Philo- 
logie,  vols.  14-20.  1892-98. 

SOMMER,  H.  O.  Erster  Versuch  iiber  die  englische  Hirtendichtung. 

Marburg:   1888. 

"A  useful  sketch  of  the  eclogue  in   English  literature  from 
1510  to  1805,  though  superficial  and  not  always  accurate." 

SPIELHAGEN,  F.    Neue  Beitrage  zur  Theorie  und  Technik  der 

Epik  und  Dramatik.    Leipz. :   1898. 

In  Chap.  II  the  author  contends  that  the  old  folk  epic  is  impos- 
sible in  modern  times.  Romances  and  the  novel  have  taken  its  place. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.    The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry. 
See  above,  §  8. 

STEENSTRUP,  J.  C.  H.  R.  Vore  Folkeviser  fra  Middelalderen. 
Copenhagen :  1891.  English  translation  by  E.  G.  Cox,  The 
Medieval  Popular  Ballad.  Univ.  of  Wash.  Pubs.  Eng.,  III. 
Boston :  1914. 


658  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

The  standard  Danish  work  on  the  ballad. 

"  The  method  is  both  intensive  and  comparative1.  It  lays  bare  in  great 
detail  the  original  conditions  of  production,  —  how  ballads  were  sung 
to  the  accompaniment  of  dancing,  —  the  nature  and  purpose  of  the 
refrain,  and  the  structure  of  the  rime,  rhythm,  and  melody.  It  investi- 
gates the  attitude  of  ballads  toward  questions  of  moral  import,  their 
feeling  for  religion,  patriotism,  and  historical  truth,  and  their  use  of 
nature.  The  comparisons  with  the  Norse  sagas  and  the  ballads  of 
Germany,  together  with  the  plenteous  use  of  extracts  from  the  ballads 
of  Denmark,  all  combine  to  set  forth  attractively  the  perplexing  and 
fascinating  question  of  ballad  origins  and  distributions." 

STEINTHAL,  H.    Das  Epos.    In  Zeitschrift  f.  Volkerpsychologie  und 

Sprachwissenschaft)  5  :    1-57.    1868. 

An  application  of  folk-psychology  to  the  development  and  clas- 
sification of  the  epic,  and  especially  to  the  Homeric  question.  In 
the  light  of  the  results  of  a  preliminary  discussion  of  the  nature 
of  folk  poetry,  the  problem  of  its  relation  to  the  epic  is  approached. 
The  people  as  a  whole  work  at  their  poetry,  forming  and  re- 
forming it  as  they  do  their  speech  or  customs,  like  bees  at  their 
cell-building.  Every  song  must  have  come  first  of  all  from  one 
individual,  but  as  soon  as  it  was  sung  it  belonged  to  the  entire 
folk.  Moreover,  folk  poetry  is  always,  like  speech,  in  the  course 
of  change :  it  is  never  a  finished  product.  '  Folk  poetry '  is  a 
nomen  actionis.  Consequently,  there  are  no  Volksgedichte,  but 
Volksdichten ;  no  Volksepos,  but  Volksepik.  Folk  poetry  has  no 
independent  existence  of  its  own,  but  is  entirely  dependent  upon 
the  vicissitudes  of  the  development  of  the  folk  (pp.  1-12).  There 
are  three  forms,  or  stages,  of  epic  composition:  (i)  the  isolated 
form,  —  separate  songs  each  celebrating  a  particular  incident ; 
(2)  the  agglutinative  form,  —  a  group  of  songs  celebrating  the 
various  deeds  of  a  single  hero,  e.g.,  the  romances ;  (3)  the  organic 
form,  —  a  great  cycle  built  by  the  communal  spirit,  with  organic 
relation  of  parts,  interdependent  members,  unity  of  development, 
etc.  —  There  is  a  greater  difference  between  (2)  and  (3)  than 
between  (i)  and  (2),  but  (i)  may  stand  near  to  (3).  (i)  and 
(2)  have  a  lyric  character.  Passage  from  one  form  to  another  is 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  659 

dependent  upon  a  revolution  of  poetic  spirit,  and  involves  a  re- 
creation of  material.  The  epic  is  no  mere  patching  together  of 
materials  from  the  agglutinative  stage.  Its  tone  and  its  matter 
are  essentially  different ;  it  is  a  new  creation,  using  the  older 
songs  only  as  material  and  infusing  a  foreign  spirit  into  this. 
The  prerequisites  for  this  organic  epic  are  a  copious  mythology, 
an  historical  importance  of  the  people,  and  a  store  of  valuable 
legends  proceeding  from  these.  But  the  poetizing  folk-spirit,  with 
its  "  ideal  unity,"  is  still  the  creating  force,  and  it  creates  the  Idea 
which  brings  the  material  into  organic  form  (compare  Woodberry's 
Appreciation  of  Literature,  under  §  8,  above.  Is  not  Stein thal's 
"  Idea "  Woodberry's  social  function  of  the  epic  idealized,  — 
philosophically  and  imaginatively  rarefied  into  an  abstract?). — 
Inasmuch  as  the  whole  epos  is  not  sung  at  once,  but  only  in 
parts  (compare  Lang's  Introd.  to  Comparetti,  p.  xxi),  wherein 
lies  its  practical  unity  ?  Steinthal  replies :  in  the  ideal  power, 
or  creative  force,  which  makes  the  organic  whole  and  permeates 
each  part.  The  Kalevala  is  an  example.  •  This  ideal  power  is 
not  the  work  of  the  diaskeuasts,  but  is  discovered  by  them 
(12-57). —  Query :  Are  not  the  revolution  of  material,  the  new 
tone,  the  new  idea,  which  Steinthal  makes  the  prerequisites  of 
the  organic  epic,  the  product  of  an  individual  author  rather  than 
of  the  communal  spirit  ?  This  communal  authorship,  when  pushed 
to  such  an  extreme,  necessitates  the  awkward  "  ideal  unity "  of 
SteinthaPs  third  stage.  —  Compare  Krohn,  above. 

SUMMING,  A.  Ueber  den  provenzalischen  Girart  von  Rossillon: 
Ein  Beitrag  zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Volksepen. 
Halle:  1888. 

See  p.  2  for  two  stages  of  evolution  of  the  romantic  folk  epics. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.    The  Greek  Poets.    1873-76. 

Vol.  I,  Chaps.  I-IV.    Compare  above,  §  8. 

"  Upon  the  overthrow  of  old  forms  of  government  and  the  rise  of 
individualism  the  lyric  and  then  the  drama  appear."  The  epic  period, 
that  of  impersonality,  precedes  both.  Compare  Hugo  and  Posnett. 


660  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.    Renaissance  in  Italy. 
See  above,  §  8. 

TEN   BRINK,   B.     Early   English  Literature.    Trans,  by  H.   M. 
Kennedy.    3  vols.    Lond. :   1883. 

Vol.  I,  Book  I;  especially  pp.  13-32  English  national  poetry 
before  the  Conquest. 

A  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  the  development  of 
early  literary  types.  Ten  Brink  calls  attention  to  the  '  property- 
rights  '  of  the  community  rather  than  of  the  individual  in  the 
earliest  types  of  poetry,  shows  that  hymnic  poetry  is  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  epic,  traces  the  evolution  of  the  German  epic  song 
from  the  hero-saga  into  the  epic,  and  describes  the  circumstances 
which  prevented  the  primitive  epic  of  England  from  attaining 
the  development  of  the  Homeric  epos.  The  remarks  concerning 
the  Nibelungenlied,  the  Lay  of  Hildebrand,  and  the  Beowulf  are 
worthy  of  critical  consideration.  Posnett  (Comp.  Lit.,  p.  8)  criti- 
cizes* ten  Brink's  conclusions  concerning  the  Beowulf. 

TERRET,  V.    Homere:  etude  historique  et  critique.    Paris:   1899. 
The  scope  of  this  mammoth  work  is  thus  set  forth : 

Apres  avoir  re"sum£  dans  les  trois  premiers  chapitres  tout  ce  que  le 
tdmoignage  des  anciens  et  la  science  contemporaine  nous  ont  appris  de 
plus  certain  sur  la  biographic  du  grand  poe'te  ionien,  sur  la  composition 
et  la  transmission  de  ses  epopees,  il  a  pris  a  part  chaque  chant,  chaque 
episode,  chaque  scene,  les  a  fait  passer  successivement  a  Tdpreuve  d'une 
critique  severe  mais  impartiale ;  et  finalement  il  a  cru  pouvoir  formuler 
cette  conclusion :  que  1'opinion  traditionnelle  de  1'antiquitd  qui  attribue 
k  son  seul  Homere  1'Iliade  et  1'Odysse'e  se  concilie  parfaitement  avec 
les  ddcouvertes  les  plus  re*centes  de  I'arche'ologie  et  de  la  philologie  (p.  x). 

TEUFFEL,  W.  S.    History  of  Roman  Literature. 

See  above,   §  5  ;   consult  for  Virgil,  Lucan,   Lucretius,  etc. ; 
also  for  writers  of  pastoral,  idyl,  elegy. 

USENER,  H.    Der  Stoff  des  griechischen  Epos.    In  Sitzungsb.  d. 

kais.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.  zu  Wien,  Bd.  137,  Ab.  3.  Wien :   1898. 

A  worth-while  discussion  of  the  origin  of   epic  materials  in 

myth  and  saga.    Anthropological. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  66 1 

VERON,    E.    Aesthetics.    Trans,    by  W.   H.  Armstrong.    Lond. : 

1879- 

P.  354  ff. 

The  development  of  the  morale  of  the  epic  reaches  from  the 
•adoration  of  the  strong  and  the  instinctive  egotism  that  has  its 
basis  in  a  constant  pre-occupation  with  dangers,  through  the 
higher  stages  of  an  evolving  human  sympathy.  Contributory  to 
the  growth  of  such  sympathy  were  the  development  of  family 
affections,  and  increased  solidarity  of  national  life,  and,  in  recent 
times,  the  discoveries  and  inventions  of  science  that  have  brought 
humanity  into  a  closer  union. 

Vico,   GIAMBATTISTA.     Opere  di  G.  Vico.     Ed.   by  G.   Ferrari. 
6  vols.    Milano  :   1852-1854. 

Principi  di  scienza  nuova,  Libro  terzo,  Delia  discoverta  del 
vero  Omero  (vol.  V,  pp.  422-461).  Cf.  R.  Flint,  Vico 
(Edinb. :  1884.  In  W.  Knight's  Philosophical  Classics 
for  English  Readers),  pp.  173-178;  R.  C.  Jebb,  Homer 
(6th  ed.  Boston:  1904),  pp.  106-107;  F.  A.  Wolf, 
Museum  der  Alterthumswissenschaft,  I  (1807),  p.  555  ff. 
(or  Kleine  Schriften,  II,  I57ff.). 

Vico's  "  Discovery  of  the  True  Homer  "  is  an  anticipation  of 
the  "  Wolfian  theory."  Vico  opened  the  question  in  the  notes 
(1722)  to  his  Diritto  universale.  In  the  second  edition  of  the 
Scienza  nuova  (1730)  the  subject  was  expanded  to  the  compass 
of  an  entire  '  Book.' 

The  true  Homer  is  here  affirmed  to  be  the  Greek  people  itself,  in 
its  ideal  or  heroic  character,  relating  its  own  history  in  national  poetry. 
In  others  words,  the  Homeric  poems  are  regarded  as  not  the  creations 
of  the  genius  of  an  individual,  but  the  formations  of  the  genius  of  a 
race  working  through  a  period  of  about  460  years.  The  Iliad  was  the 
work  of  the  youth  of  Homer  —  that  is  to  say,  of  the  infancy  of  Greece. 
.  .  .  The  Odyssey,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the  work  of  the  old  age  of 
Homer  —  that  is  to  say,  of  a  time  when  the  passions  of  the  Greeks 
began  to  be  cooled  by  reflection.  .  .  .  The  Pisistratidae  first  divided 
and.  disposed  the  Homeric  poems  into  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey.  .  .  . 
Under  the  name  of  Homer  there  has  come  down  to  us  the  work  of 


662  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

many  heroic  poets.  .  .  .  The  two  poems  .  .  .  were  probably  elaborated 
and  continued  by  various  authors  during  many  successive  generations. 
Thus  the  true  Homer  is  discovered  (Flint,  pp.  174-175). 

After  Wolf  had  published  his  Prolegomena  (see  below),  Cesarotti 
pointed  out  to  him  the  anticipation  of  his  theory  in  Vico's  "  Dis-. 
covery  " ;  Wolf  replied  with  an  inadequate  article  on  Vico  in  his 
Museum,  as  noted  above.  For  Perrault's  *  denial '  of  Homer  see 
his  Parallele  des  anciens  et  des  modernes,  4th  Dialogue  (1692). 

VIGFUSSON,  G.,  and  POWELL,  F.  Y.    Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale. 

2  vols.    Oxford:   1883. 

The  Introduction  and  the  various  Essays  scattered  through  the 
two  volumes  give  an  excellent  idea  of  Northern  poetry  and  of 
the  nature  of  the  problems  of  the  development  of  the  epic  material 
of  the  North.  See  vol.  I,  p.  xcvii  ff.  . 

VOIGT,  G.    Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alterthums,  etc. 
2d  ed.    2  vols.    Berlin:   1880—1881. 

Vol.  II,  p.  407  On  the  paucity  of  epic  poetry  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Renaissance. 

VORETZSCH,  C.   Marchen,  Sage,  Epos.   In  Beilage  der  Allgemeinen 

Zeitung,  No.  234  (1897). 
Maintains  that  the  epic  develops  from  the  hero-saga. 

WACKERNAGEL,  W.    Poetik,  Rhetorik  und  Stilistik.    3d  ed.    Halle 
a.  S. :  1906. 

Pp.  52-155. 

This  volume,  which  is  evolved  by  an  ingenious  combination  of' 
historical  and  philosophical  methods  of  criticism,  contains  one  of 
the  best  and  most  complete  analyses  of  the  epic  to  be  found 
among  German  writings  upon  poetics.  The  author  considers  the 
"  epos  of  national  objectivity  "  and  the  "  epos  of  individual  sub- 
jectivity." Under  the  former  he  discusses  the  historical  priority 
of  epical  poetry;  epical  vision  as  "  Anschauung  eines  gottlichen, 
einer  religiosen  oder  sittlichen  Idee  in  Form  einer  durch  Kausalitat 
verbundenen  Reihenfolge  von  aiisseren  Tatsachen "  (p.  59),  — 
which  holds  for  epic  poems  of  all  sorts,  of  all  peoples  and  times ; 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  663 

primitive  forms  of  epical  vision,  viz.,  saga,  myth,  fairy  story, 
animal  saga  (63-73)  >  communal  character  of  epical  vision,  —  the 
poet  expressing  this  communal  vision,  not  an  individual  point  of 
view  (73-74);  the  expression  of  epical  vision  in  oral  tradition 
and  the  influence  of  the  latter  upon  the  former  (74-86);  the 
definition  of  early  epical  song  —  the  first  stage  from  which  all 
poetry  derives  — "  eine  dem  ganzen  Volke  angehorige,  durch 
den  lebendigen  Gesang  mitteilbare  Darstellung  einzelner  Sagen, 
My  then,  Marchen  und  Tiersagen"  (85);  differentiation  of  epic, 
lyric,  and  drama  from  the  primitive  epical  stuff  as  due  to  social 
changes  and  the  development  of  individualism,  the  order  of  suc- 
cession being  epical-epic,  lyrical-epic,  epical-lyric,  lyrical-lyric,  drama 
(88  ff.).  Under  the  second  main  head  (epic  of  individual  subjec- 
tivity) Wackernagel  discusses  the  rise  of  epical  epic  through  pro- 
gressive cycles  of  heroic  songs  and  the  achievement  of  artistic 
unity ;  the  nature  and  laws  of  pure  epic  (Iliad,  Odyssey,  Nibe- 
lungenlied) ;  its  relation  to  mythology  and  history ;  its  decay  in 
romance  and  historical  composition  (91-120);  the  lyrical  epic  — 
hymns,  elegies,  folk-songs,  ballads,  romances  —  of  ancient  and 
modern  peoples  (120-131);  the  didactic  epic  —  idyl,  satire,  fable, 
parable,  proverb  (131-155).  For  the  peculiar  conditions  under 
which  the  modern  epic  labors,  see  pp.  113-117.  —  In  what  he 
says  about  the  "  epos  of  national  objectivity  "  one  may  ask  whether 
Wackernagel  does  not  beg  the  question  of  the  lyrical  quality  of 
primitive  mythic,  magic,  and  heroic  utterance.  One  feels  at  times 
that  the  scholarly  and  most  original  and  suggestive  author  is  not 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  actual  nature  and  conditions  of 
primitive  song  and  story.  Does  he  allow  philosophical  speculation 
and  system  to  take  the  place  of  anthropological  facts  ?  Does  not 
his  definition  of  epical  vision  connote  a  philosophical  consciousness 
that  is  alien  to  primitive  man  ?  Is  his  derivation  of  poetic  kinds  his- 
torically sound  ?  Does  he  show  the  actual,  historical  transitions  from 
type  to  type,  or  does  he  deduce  the  succession  of  types  from  a  priori 
psychological  premises?  How  does  he  justify  his  divisions  and 
subdivisions  of  the  "  subjective  epic,"  —  genetically  or  analytically  ? 


664  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

WARTON,  T.    History  of  Poetry.    3  vols.    Lond.:   1774-1781. 

See  the  essay  on  the  Origin  of  Romantic  Fiction  in  Europe ; 
also  R.  Price's  Preface  on  the  same  subject,  found  in 
the  four-volume  edition  of  1824. 

WATERMAN,  T.  T.  The  Explanatory  Element  in  the  Folk-Tales 
of  the  North  American  Indians.  In  The  Journal  of  American 
Folk-Lore,  Vol.  27,  No.  103.  1914. 

"As  far  as  the  present  form  of  our  mythical  tales  in  North 
America  is  concerned,  the  story  is  the  original  thing,  the  explana- 
tion an  afterthought." 

WATTS-DUNTON,  W.  T.    Article  on  Poetry.    Encyc.  Brit. 

Epics  divided  into  two  groups,  of  growth  and  art.  Has  the 
author  traced  clearly  the  stages  of  the  former  kind  of  epic  ?  Note 
the  characteristics  of  each  type  and  the  exemplification  of  the 
manner  in  which  epics  conform  to  the  scheme.  As  epics  become 
artistic  they  gain  in  unity  of  impression  and  of  motive ;  as  they 
advance  from  East  to  West  they  are  characterized  by  the  greater 
freedom  with  which  the  heroes  act.  See  above,  §  8. 

WELCKER,  F.  G.  Der  epische  Cyclus  oder  die  homerischen 
Dichter.  ist  ed.  Bonn:  1835-1849.  2d  ed.  2  Th.  Bonn: 
1865-1882. 

A  voluminous  and  astonishing  work,  one  of  the  most  significant 
in  the  history  of  philology.  It  furnishes  a  lucid  discussion  of  the 
respective  contributions  to  the  Iliad  —  of  prehistoric  lays,  the  great 
formative  poet,  and  the  later  interpolators,  and  maintains  that  the 
cyclic  epics  must  have  been  preceded  by  an  Iliad.  For  an  estimate 
of  the  indebtedness  to  it  of  the  scholars  of  the  middle  of  the  igth 
century,  see  G.  Nitzsch,  Sagenpoesie  der  Griechen,  p.  19. 

WERNAER,  R.  M.    The  New  Constructive  Criticism. 
See  above,  §  5. 

WiLAMOwrrz-MoELLENDORFF,  U.  VON.  Homcrische  Untersuchun- 
gen.  In  Philol.  Untersuchungen  (ed.  by  A.  Kiessling  and 
U.  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff.  Hft.  VII).  Berlin:  1884. 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  665 

WiLAMOwiTz-MoELLENDORFF,  U.  VON.  Die  gricchische  Literatur 
des  Altertums.  In  Hinneberg's  Die  Kultur  d.  Gegenwart, 
Tl.  I,  Abt.  VIII.  Berlin  u.  Leipz. :  1905. 

Pp.  4-16  Das  ionische  Epos;  135  ff.  Eidyllia. 
In  these  two  articles  we  have  the  views  of  one  of  the  foremost 
Greek  scholars  upon  questions  of  Homeric  composition  and  unity. 
"  The  origin  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  the  .long  way  that 
the  poetic  craft  must  earlier  have  traversed,  will  always  remain 
a  mystery ;  efforts  to  explain  it  by  the  mistaken  assumption  of  a 
folk  epic  spontaneously  emerging  in  the  development  of  the  human 
race  have  failed.  The  most  valuable  analogies  are  to  be  found  in 
the  Romanic,  especially  the  Old-French,  epos  "  (Ion.  Epos,  p.  5). 
"Without  question  Homer  was  a  man,  by  700  B.C.  the  acknowl- 
edged poet  of  several  epics.  His  lifetime -was  so  remote  that,  being 
of  Aeolian  stock,  he  had  been  lonicized  just  like  his  epic ;  or  else 
he  was  Ionian  and  only  the  memory  of  the  provenience  of  the 
epic  had  Aeolized  him.  In  the  latter  case  he  had  a  hand  in 
the  composition  not  of  the  earliest  but  of  the  latest  parts  of  the 
Iliad.  Whether  he  took  the  decisive  first  step  and  invented  the 
recitative  verse  and  the  spoken  epos,  or  took  the  last  and  com- 
posed our  Iliad  (wrote  it  down,  as  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say),  his 
services  were  great.  To  assume  that  the  poem  is  of  one  composer 
is  a  mistake ;  a  still  more  serious  delusion,  to  see  here  folk  poetry 
where  all  is  art "  (p.  7).  Wilamowitz  is  not  of  the  school  of  Wolf, 
but  rather  of  Hermann  and  his  followers. 

WILMANNS,  W.   Leben  und  Dichten  Walthers  von  der  Vogelweide. 

Bonn:   1882. 

For  the  lyric  development  of  the  epic  see  especially  the  intro- 
duction. Students  of  the  German  epic  should  consult  Wilmanns' 
other  works;  cf.  below,  §  12,  xi,  where  may  be  found  further 
references  on  the  German  court-epic. 

WINDSCHEID,  K.    Die  englische  Hirtendichtung  von  1579  bis  1625. 

Halle:   1895. 
Original  investigation ;  useful. 


666  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  11 

W.  J.     Preface  to  the  English  translation   of   Le   Bossu.     See 

under  Le  Bossu,  §  8. 

The  latter  half  of  this  Preface  gives  several  reasons  why  a 
successful  epic  poem  cannot  be  written  by  a  modern. 

WOLF,  F.  A.    Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,  etc.     ist  ed.    Halle: 

J7955  3d.  ed-    l884- 

The  "  Homeric  Question,"  the  modern  critical  discussion  of 
which  was  begun  by  this  book,  is  made  up  of  two  chief  problems : 
(i)  How  does  it  happen  that  these  finished  masterpieces  stand  at 
the  beginning  of  Greek  literature,  with  no  ruder  work  behind 
them  ?  (2)  Both  poems  are  artistic  wholes,  and  yet  each  shows 
passages  of  inferior  workmanship  and  contradictions  in  details. 
"  How  can  we  account  at  once  for  the  general  unity  and  for 
the  particular  discrepancies  ? "  Wolf's  answers  to  these  questions 
are  contained  in  the  Prolegomena,  and  are  summarized  thus  by 
Professor  Jebb  (Homer,  6th  ed.,  Boston:  1904,  pp.  108-109): 
"(i)  The  Homeric  poems  were  composed  without  the  aid  of 
writing,  which  in  9508.0.  was  either  wholly  unknown  to  the 
Greeks,  or  not  yet  employed  by  them  for  literary  purposes.  The 
poems  were  handed  down  by  oral  recitation,  and  in  the  course  of 
that  process  suffered  many  alterations,  deliberate  or  accidental, 
by  the  rhapsodes.  (2)  After  the  poems  had  been  written  down 
circ.  5 50  B.C.,  they  suffered  still  further  changes.  These  were 
deliberately  made  by  '  revisers '  (Siao-Kerao-nu ),  or  by  learned 
critics  who  aimed  at  polishing  the  work,  and  bringing  it  into 
harmony  with  certain  forms  of  idiom  or  canons  of  art.  (3)  The 
Iliad  has  artistic  unity ;  so,  in  a  still  higher  degree,  has  the 
Odyssey.  But  this  unity  is  not  mainly  due  to  the  original  poems ; 
rather  it  has  been  superinduced  by  their  artificial  treatment  in  a 
later  age.  (4)  The  original  poems,  from  which  our  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  have  been  put  together,  were  not  all  by  the  same 
author."  —  Wolf  was  one  of  the  first  to  point  out  the  difference 
between  the  popular  and  the  literary  epic.  He  says :  "  Nondum 
enim  prorsus  eiecta  et  explosa  est  eorum  ratio,  qui  Homerum  et 


§  11]  GENERAL  REFERENCES  667 

Callimachum  et  Vergilium  et  Nonnum  et  Miltonum  eodem  animo 
legunt,  nee,  quid  uniuscuiusque  aetas  ferat,  expendere  legendo  et 
computare  laborant "  (3d  ed.,  p.  33).  —  The  remote  predecessors 
of  Wolf  were  of  course  the  Chorizontes,  or  Alexandrian  separatists 
(about  1 70  B.C.),  with  whose  theories  and  those  of  Aristarchus 
(156  B.C.)  who  opposed  them,  and  of  the  school  of  Aristarchus 
which  was  active  till  about  A.D.  200,  he  became  acquainted  through 
the  publication  by  Villoison  of  the  Codex  Venetus  of  the  Iliad  in 
1788.  This  publication  contained  the  Scholia  Antiquissima  ad 
Homeri  Iliadem,  and  Wolf's  Prolegomena  was  undertaken  pri- 
marily to  discuss  the  textual  problems  raised  by  the  materials  of 
the  Scholia.  In  his  Lieder-Theorie  he  had  been  anticipated,  but 
without  the  adduction  of  substantial  proofs,  by  Vico,  D'Aubignac, 
Bishop  Bentley,  Blackwell  (1735),  Wood  (Essay  on  the  Original 
Genius  of  Homer,  1769),  Heyne,  and  others  (see  §  9,  vm,  B,  6). 

WOLFF,  E. 

See  above,  §  5. 

WOLFF,  E.    Prolegomena  der  litterar-evolutionistischen  Poetik. 

See  above,  §  8. 

A  criticism  of  the  natural-science  method  of  Scherer's  Poetik, 
in  the  course  of  which  it  is  asserted  that  the  earliest  poetry  is 
always  of  an  epic  character,  that  "  die  starre  Objectivitat  der  • 
altesten  Epik  allmahlich  durch  individuell-lyrische  Empfindungen 
erweicht  und  durchbrochen  wird  "  (p.  9).  Pp.  13-14  give  a  brief 
outline  of  the  development  of  German  epic  from  objective  to 
subjective  forms.  Wolff's  point  of  view  is  aesthetic ;  it  should  be 
tested  by  the  ethnological  material  at  hand.  Compare,  by  the  same 
author,  Vorstudien  zur  Poetik  (Zeitschrift  f.  vgl.  Lift.,  6  :  425). 

WOOD,  R.    An  Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  and  Writings  of 

Homer.    Privately  printed,  1769.    ad  ed.    1775. 

As  a  part  of  the  return-to-nature  reaction  of  the  close  of  the 

too  artificial  i8th  century  there  developed  an  appreciation  of  early 

popular  poetry  and  an  attempt  to  regard  the  Homeric  epics  as 

a  product  of  ancient  minstrelsy.    Already  Blackwell  (1735,  see 


668  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

above)  had  written  upon  the  '  naturalness '  of  Homer.  Wood 
endeavored  to  show  that  Homer  composed  orally,  in  the  fashion 
of  a  bard,  without  the  aid  of  writing.  (For  earlier  debate  on  this 
question  see  Finsler,  p.  211.)  His  arguments  are  based  upon 
ancient  authorities  and  upon  the  supposed  parallel  of  Ossian, 
which  had  lately  inflamed  the  '  nature-lovers '  of.  the  new  move- 
ment. These  works  of  Blackwell  and  Wood  were  translated  into 
German,  and  they  aroused  much  discussion,  preparing  the  way 
for  Wolf's  Prolegomena.  —  On  the  question  of  whether  writing 
was  known  in  the  time  of  Homer,  see  Art.  Homer, »Encyc.  Brit.; 
on  Minoan  writing,  anterior  to  the  Homeric  Age,  see  Art  Crete, 
Archaeology,  Encyc.  Brit. 

SECTION  12.    HISTORICAL  STUDY  BY  NATIONALITIES: 
SPECIAL  REFERENCES 

NOTE,  for  general  apparatus  for  the  historical  study  of  the  various  na- 
tional literatures,  see  above,  §  6,  and  the  list  of  literary  histories  given  in  the 
Appendix.  The  student  who  is  concerned  with  any  division  of  this  section 
should  be  sure  to  refer  at  once  to  the  general  bibliography  in  the  corresponding 
division  of  §  6.  If,  for  instance,  he  is  dealing  with  the  medieval  French  epic 
(v,  A— D,  below'],  he  should  consult  the  bibliographical  notes  under  the  medir.'al 
French  lyric  (§  6,  vn,  B-F). 

I.  The  Homeric  Epics. 

The  best  brief  introductions  to  the  study  of  the  Homeric  poems  and 
the  "  Homeric  Question  "  are  G.  Finsler's  Die  homerische  Dichtung 
(Teubner,  Leipz. :  1915),  L.  Laurand's  Manuel  des  e"tudes  grecques  et 
latines,  Fasc.  II,  Litt.  grecque  (Paris:  1914;  see  §§  53-62  for  a  sum- 
mary of  arguments),  Whibley's  Companion  to  Greek  Studies  (Cam- 
bridge:  1905),  H.  Browne's  Handbook  of  Homeric  Study,  though  it  is 
somewhat  one-sided  on  the  Homeric  question  (2d  ed.,  1910?),  and 
R.  C.  Jebb's  Homer  (6th  ed.  Boston:  1904).  The  student  cannot 
afford  to  neglect  these  methodical  and,  in  the  main,  reliable  guides. 
For  the  history  of  the  philology  that  has  concerned  itself  with  the 
poems,  see  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  History  of  Classical  Scholarship  (3  vols. 
Cambridge:  1903-08),  a  chapter  by  the  same  author  in  Whibley's 
Companion  to  Greek  Studies,  and  the  references  on  p.  651  of  Whibley's 
work;  also  Sandys'  article,  Classics,  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. 


I,  A]  THE  HOMERIC  EPICS  669 

A.  The  Homeric  Question  (for  other  references  to  this  topic 
see  above,  §  9,  vm,  B,  6;  §  10,  i,  B,  i;  §  n,  under  Wolf).  The 
chief  problem  of  Homeric  criticism,  and  the  one  most  important 
for  the  literary  student,  concerns  the  composition  of  the  poems. 
The  authorship  of  the  two  poems  was  traditionally  assigned  to 
'  Homer,'  and  it  had  always  been  generally  supposed  that  Homer 
had  originated  the  poems  much  as  any  author  nowadays  would 
compose  a  poem  on  an  historical  subject.  To  be  sure,  there  had 
been  some  objections  to  this  tradition.  In  antiquity  the  story  of 
the  redaction  or  collection  of  Pisistratus  had  suggested  to  scholars 
the  possible  existence  of  pre-Homeric  lays,  and  in  Alexandrian 
criticism  Xeno  and  Hellanicus  (known  as  the  Chorizontes,  or 
'separators')  had  cast  doubt  on  the  single  authorship  of  the  two 
poems.  These  ancient  doubters  were  cited  many  a  time  between 
1500  and  1795 ;  for  instance,  by  Camerarius  1538,  Eobanus  Hessus 
1540,  Scaliger  1561,  Paoli  Beni  1607,  Isaac  Casaubon,  Johannes 
Meursius  1623,  Salmasius  1629,  J.  Perizonius  1684,  J.  R.  Wetstein 
1684,  D.  G.  Morhof  1688,  Ludolph  Kiister  1696,  Gronovius  1702, 
J.  A.  Fabricius  (collection  of  all  ancient  loci  on  Homer,  in  his 
Bibliotheca  Graeca  1705-1728),  Richard  Bentley  1713,  and  Rapin. 
Perrault,  1692,  engaging  in  the  quarrel  of  the  ancients  and  mod- 
erns, had  called  attention  afresh  to  the  ancient  lod;.  Abbe 
d'Aubignac,  1715,  had  suggested  that  the  Iliad  was  derived  from 
lays  composed  shortly  after  the  Trojan  war,  which  later  were 
collected  in  rough  fashion  and,  still  later,  into  the  more  perfect 
form  of  the  present  poem.  But  these  exceptions  to  the  general 
belief  had  not  stirred  up  a  great  deal  of  discussion.  The  critics 
and  mankind  generally  thought  of  Homer  as  of  any  other  great 
historian-poet. 

References.  For  the  Pisistratus  fable  and  the  notices  of  Cicero, 
Aelian,  Plutarch,  Suidas,  Josephus,  et  al.  concerning  the  authorship 
of  the  Homeric  poems,  see  Finsler,  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit  202-203, 
482;  and  for  a  fuller  account,  J.  A.  Fabricius,  as  cited  above.  On  the 
Chorizontes  see  Whibley  and  p.  87  of  Browne's  work.  For  the  modern 
citations  of  the  ancient  loci  see  Finsler  203-207,  482.  Perrault's 


670  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

'denial'  of  Homer  is  in  the  4th  dialogue  (1692)  of  his  Parallele  des 
anciens  et  des  modernes ;  Abbe  d'Aubignac's  Conjectures  academiques 
ou  dissertation  sur  1'Iliade  was  published  anonymously,  1715. 

But  toward  the  close  of  the  i8th  century  the  reaction  against 
neo-classical  formalism  was  responsible  for  a  new  conception.  "  In 
this  movement  the  leading  ideas  were  concentrated  in  the  word 
Nature.  The  natural  condition  of  society,  natural  law,  natural 
religion,  the  poetry  of  nature,  gained  a  singular  foothold,  first  on 
the  English  philosophers  from  Hume  onwards,  and  then  (through 
Rousseau  chiefly)  on  the  general  drift  of  thought  and  action  in 
Europe.  In  literature  the  effect  of  these  ideas  was  to  set  up  a  false 
opposition  between  nature  and  art.  As  political  writers  imagined  a 
patriarchal  innocence  prior  to  codes  of  law,  so  men  of  letters  sought 
in  popular,  unwritten  poetry  the  freshness  and  simplicity  which 
were  wanting  in  the  prevailing  styles.  The  blind  minstrel  was  the 
counterpart  of  the  noble  savage.  The  supposed  discovery  of  the 
poems  of  Ossian  fell  in  with  this  strain  of  sentiment,  and  created 
an  enthusiasm  for  the  study  of  early  popular  poetry.  Homer  was 
soon  drawn  into  the  circle  of  inquiry."  The  ancient  doubts  and 
modern  repetitions  of  them  had  prepared  the  way ;  Vico,  Black- 
well,  Herder,  Wood  (see  above,  §  n),  D'Aubignac,  and  Heyne 
(see  ab.ove,  §  9)  had  reinvigorated  the  ancient  suggestions  with 
modern  critical  and  historical  methods.  The  recent  discovery  of  a 
completely  annotated  manuscript  of  the  Iliad  (Codex  Venetus  454, 
ed.  Villoison,  1788)  had  renewed  the  interest  in  Homer.  "  Every- 
thing in  short  was  ripe  for  the  reception  of  a  book  that  brought 
together,  with  masterly  ease  and  vigour,  the  old  and  the  new 
Homeric  learning,  and  drew  from  it  the  historical  proof  that 
Homer  was  no  single  poet,  writing  according,  to  art  and  rule,  but 
a  name  which  stood  for  a  golden  age  of  the  true  spontaneous 
poetry  of  genius  and  nature "  (Art.  Classics,  Encyc.  Brit.). 

This  book  was  F.  A.  Wolf's  Prolegomena  ad  Homerum,  etc. 
(1795),  which  has  already  been  described  (see  above,  §  1 1).  With 
this  work  began  an  emphatic  attempt  to  show  that  the  poems  are 
not  the  work  of  one  man,  but  that  they  are  composed  of  many 


I,  A]  THE  HOMERIC  EPICS  671 

anonymous  lays  of  great  age  that  have  been  added  together  to 
produce  long  poems.  In  other  words,  the  adherents  of  this  theory 
(the  Lieder-Theorie)  suppose  that '  Homer '  was  either  one  minstrel 
or  several  minstrels,  who  put  together,  with  little  change,  old 
traditional  songs  and  ballads,  using  the  popular  materials  of  these 
songs  in  the  composite,  reproductive  fashion  of  minstrels,  not  as 
a  modern  original  poet  —  say  Tennyson  —  would  use  the  sources 
for  an  historical  poem.  This  theory  has  been  pushed  to  an  absurd 
extreme.  German  critics  in  particular  have  attempted  to  divide, 
subdivide,  and  resubdivide  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  into  original, 
separate  songs  and  fragments  of  songs,  until  the  poems  appear 
like  the  ingenious  exercises  of  a  Bedlamite.  These  critics  explain 
every  slight  difficulty  of  the  text  and  many  imaginary  ones  by 
supposing  that  a  union  of  different  songs  without  a  pruning  of 
their  discrepancies  reveals  itself  in  the  difficulty.  Not  so  much 
to  Wolf  himself,  but  to  his  follower  Lachmann  and  to  Lachmann's 
followers,  must  the  absurdities  of  this  method  of  criticism  be 
charged.  See  further  on  these  theories  in  §  10,  r,  B. 

Out  of  the  method,  however,  one  great,  positive  result  has 
developed,  —  the  change  of  the  point  of  view  of  criticism  from 
the  a  priori  and  '  rule-giving '  to  the  historical.  Modern  scholars 
recognize  that  in  the  Homeric  epics,  as  in  other  natural  epics,  the 
final  form  is  the  culmination*  of  the  songs  of  many  centuries,  and 
that  these  songs  were  gathered  in  cycles  dealing  with  the  national 
heroes.  According  to  some  a  'Homer'  was  the  genius  who 
shaped  or  poetized  one  or  more  of  these  cycles,  deriving  not  so 
much  from  the  material  as  from  the  inspiration  of  the  earlier  songs. 
From  these  ^ong-aggregates  or  individual  poetic  cores  it  is  another 
step  to  the  finished  epic,  —  a  step  that  consists  of  the  artistic 
welding  and,  in  large  degree,  retelling  of  the  stories  of  the  cycles. 
This  step  usually  is  taken  by  some  one  or  two  or  three  great 
poets  at  a  time  when  the  conditions  of  anonymous,  communal 
authorship  are  giving  way  to  a  higher  and  more  self-conscious 
narrative  art.  According  to  some,  this  is  where  the  '  Homer ' 
first  appears.  As  the  opponents  of  the  Lieder-Theorie  have  shown 


6/2  •  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

(see  Lang,  above,  §  1 1 ),  the  art  of  the  Homeric  poems  is  not  that 
of  a  minstrel-cycle. 

The  student  will  find  summaries  of  the  discussion  of  the  nature 
and  growth  of  the  Homeric  poems,  or  the  '  Homeric  Question,' 
as  the  discussion  has  come  to  be  known,  in  the  works  of  Whibley, 
Browne,  and  Jebb  already  mentioned,  and  in  D.  B.  Monro's  article 
in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  See  also  A.  Shewan,  Recent 
Homeric  Literature  (in  Classical  Philology,  7:  190.  1912). 

References.  The  following  list  of  the  chief  works  contributing  to 
the  discussion  may  prove  helpful :  L.  Adam,  Der  Aufbau  der  Odyssee 
durch  Homer,  den  ersten  Rhapsoden  und  tragischen  Dichter  (Wiesbaden: 
1911),  —  not  a  strong  work;  V.  Be"rard  (cited  below,  under  B),  —  the 
first  twelve  books  of  the  Odyssey  an  adaptation  of  a  Phoenician  story, 
the  last  twelve  belonging  to  another  poem ;  T.  Bergk,  Griechische  Lit- 
teraturgeschichte  (vol.  I.  Berlin:  1872);  G.  Bernhardy,  Grundriss  der 
griechischen  Litteratur,  etc.  (3d  ed.,  vol.  II,  Pt.  I.  Halle:  1877);  G. 
Bertrin,  La  question  home"rique  (Paris  :  1 898) ;  T.  Blackwell  (see  above, 
§  n);  F.  Blass,  Die  Interpolationen  in  der  Odyssee,  a  late  and  admira- 
ble defense  of  the  unity  of  the  Homeric  poems  (Halle :  1904);  H.  Bonitz, 
The  Origin  of  the  Homeric  Poems,  —  directed  against  the  unity  of 
authorship  (1860.  English  translation  by  L.  R.  Packard.  N.Y. :  1880); 
A.  Bougot,  Etude  sur  1'Iliade  d'Homere,  an  important  work  (Paris: 
1888);  M.  Bre"al,  Pour  mieux  connaitre  Homere  (Paris:  1906); 
H.  Browne,  Handbook  of  Homeric  Study,  —  see  p.  168  for  Browne's 
own  via  media  in  the  discussion  (Lond. :  1905) ;  P.  Cauer,  Grundfragen 
der  Homerkritik,  an  attempt  to  discover  the  relative  age  of  par^s  of  the 
poems  by  the  application  of  archaeological  tests,  —  a  method  at  present 
very  popular  (2d  ed.  1909);  M.  Cesarotti,  Prose  edite  e  inedite,  ed., 
G.  Mazzoni  (Bologna:  1882),  p.  395  Letter  to  Wolf,  p.  183  Digression 
on  the  Prolegomena  —  cf.  Finsler,  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit,  p.  465 ; 
W.  Christ,  Iliad  (Miinchen :  1884;  see  the  Prolegomena),  and  Homer 
und  die  Homeriden  (Miinchen:  1884.  2d  ed.  1885):  Christ  adheres 
to  the  theory  of  an  original  kernel  of  the  poem  that  dealt  with  the 
story  of  Achilles  alone  (the  Achilleid  theory;  see  Grote,  §11),  but 
modifies  it  by  finding  in  this  Achilleid  a  collection  of  popular  lays 
rather  than  a  carefully  organized,  artistic  poem :  he  is  followed  by 
Croiset  in  his  Hist,  de  la  litt.  grecque,  vol.  I,  Chap.  IV  (1890);  E.  Drerup, 
Die  Anfange  der  hellenischen  Kultur,  Homer  (Miinchen:  1903;  Italian 
translation,  with  additions,  1910),  —  a  separatist  work;  by  the  same, 


I,  A]  THE  HOMERIC  EPICS  6/3 

Das  fiinfte  Buch  der  liias,  Grundlagen  einer  homerischen  Poetik 
(Paderborn :  1913);  L.  Erhardt,  Die  Entstehung  der  homerischen 
Gedichte  (Leipz. :  1894);  A.  Fick,  on  the  theory  of  Aeolic  origin, — 
see  his  Odyssey  (1883)  and  Iliad  (ist  half,  1885);  Friedlander,  Die 
homerische  Kritik  von  Wolf  bis  Grote  (Berlin  :  1853) ;  W.  Geddes,  The 
Problem  of  the  Homeric  Poems  (Lond. :  1 878),  —  a  strong  and  ingenious 
argument  in  support  of  Grote's  conclusions ;  A.  van  Gennep,  La  ques- 
tion d'Homere  (Paris:  1909),  —  against  the  separatists;  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone, Studies  on  Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age  (3  vols.  Oxford: 
1858);  G.  Grote,  History  of  Greece,  Part  I,  Chap.  XXI  (vol.  II,  p.  160. 
ist  ed.  Lond.:  1848;  see  also  Part  I,  Chap.  XVII,  for  a  comparison 
of  Greek  and  Teutonic  myths),  —  for  Grote's  theory  of  an  Achilleid 
see  above,  §  1 1  ;  J.  G.  J.  Hermann,  Dissertatio  de  Interpolationibus 
Homeri  (1832.  In  Opusc.  V,  52.  Leipz.:  1834;  and  ibid.,  VI,  Pt.  I, 
p.  70,  and  VIII,  11),  —  an  early  modifier  and  harmonizer  of  the  views 
of  Wolf  and  his  opponent,  Nitzsch ;  O.  Immisch,  Die  innere  Entwick- 
lung  des  griechischen  Epos  (Leipz.:  1964);  R.  C.  Jebb,  in  the  work 
already  mentioned,  is  in  substantial  agreement  with  Leaf  (see  below); 
E.  Kammer,  Zur  homerischen  Frage  (Konigsberg:  1870),  and  Die 
Einheit  der  Odyssee  (Leipz.:  1873);  A.  Kirchhoff,  Die  Composition 
der  Odyssee  (Berlin :  1 869),  and  his  edition  of  the  Odyssey  (Berlin : 
1859;  2d  ed.  1879),  —  the  first  to  make  a  thorough  application  of 
the  Wolfian  hypothesis  to  the  Odyssey;  H.  A.  T.  Kochly,  Iliadis 
Carrnina  XVI  Restituta  (Turin:  1861),  —  Wolfian;  R.  von  Kralik, 
Homeros.  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Geschichte  und  Theorie  des  Epos  (Ravens- 
burg:  1910),  —  unscientific;  K.  Lachmann,  Betrachtungen  iiber  Homers 
Ilias,  —  one  of  the  chief  works  of  the  separatists  and  in  large  part 
responsible  for  the  extremes  to  which  their  theory  has  been  carried 
(two  papers,  1837,  1841;  3d  ed.  Berlin:  1874;  see  also  Lachmann's 
similar  work  on  the  Nibelungenlied,  cited  below,  xi,  c;  Lachmann's 
work  on  Homer  is  cited  also  in  §  n);  A.  Lang,  Homer  and  the  Epic, 
where  the  student  will  find  a  resumt  (Chapter  II)  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  forerunners  of  Wolf,  and  several  chapters  (III-V)  devoted  to  a 
summary  and  criticism  of  Wolf's  theory  (for  this  and  other  works  by 
Lang  see  above,  §  1 1 ) ;  G.  Lange,  Versuch  die  poetische  Einheit  der 
Ilias  zu  bestimmen  (Darmstadt:  1826),  an  attempt  to  show  that  the 
contradictions  of  the  poems  were  due  to  the  nature  of  naive  creative 
genius ;  J.  F.  Lauer,  Litterarischer  Nachlass,  Gesch.  der  homerischen 
Poesie  (Berlin:  1851);  L.  Laurand,  A  propos  d'Homere,  progres  de  la 
critique  (Paris:  1913);  W.  Leaf  (see  above,  §  u),  —  a  detailed  separa- 
tion of  the  Iliad  into  its  supposed  parts,  accepting  the  Achilleid  theory 


674  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

with  modifications;  J.  van  Leeuwen,  Commentationes  Homericae  (Ley- 
den:  1911),  —  a  converted  separatist;  F.  Lillge,  ^Composition  und 
poetische  Technik  der  Aio/u^Sous  'ApwrTcox.  Ein  Beitrag  zum  Verstandnis 
des  homerischen  Stiles  (Gotha :  191 1);  J.  W.  Mackail,  Lectures  on  Greek 
Poetry  (Lond. :  1910);  D.  B.  Monro,  Homer's  Odyssey  (Oxford  :  1901), 
—  defending  the  unity  of  the  poem ;  D.  Mulder,  Die  Ilias  und  ihre 
Quellen  (Berlin:  1910),  —  the  Iliad  the  work  of  one  poet;  W.  Miiller, 
Homerische  Vorschule  (2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1 836),  a  popularization  of  Wolf ; 
W.  Mure,  A  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1854;  see  vol.  I,  and  II,  Bk.  II,  Chaps.  II- 
XVII);  G.  Murray,  The  Rise  of  the  Greek  Epic  (Oxford:  1907;  2d 
ed.  1911),  —  insists  upon  the  existence  of  a  'traditional  book,'  —  also 
the  same  author's  Ancient  Greek  Literature,  mentioned  in  the  Appen- 
dix; B.  Niese,  Die  Entwicklung  der  horn.  Poesie  (Berlin:  1882),  and 
Der  horn.  Schiffskatalog,  etc.,  on  the  spurious  character  of  the  Catalogue 
(Kiel:  1873;  cf.  T.  W.  Allen,  in  the  Classical  Review,  20:  ig3ff.); 
G.  W.  Nitzsch,  Beitrage  zUr  Geschichte  der  epischen  Poesie  der 
Griechen  (Leipz.:  1862),  —  see  above,  §11;  by  the  same,  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Odyssey,  Bks.  I-XII  (Hannover:  1826-1840),  and 
De  Historia  Homeri,  etc.  (Hannover:  1830-1837);  but  his  chief  work 
is  the  Sagenpoesie  der  Griechen  (1852):  in  the  words  of  Jebb, 
Nitzsch  was  responsible  for  "  the  first  effective  reaction  against  the 
Woman  theory";  H.  F.  F.  Nutzhorn,  Die  Entstehungsweise  der  horn. 
Gedichte  (Leipz. :  1869);  F.  A.  Paley,  Iliad  (2  vols.  Lond.:  i866ff.; 
see  vol.  I,  pp.  xi-li,  and  II,  v-lviii),  — "  Paley's  Paradox"  was  a  con- 
tention that  the  mass  of  mythological  lays  concerned  with  the  Trojan 
war  was  not  edited  in  the  present  form  of  the  epics  until  after  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century  B.C.  ;.  C.  Robert,  Studien  zur  Ilias, 
an  attempt  to  distinguish  strata  of  composition  in  the  Iliad  by  the 
combined  application  of  archaeological  and  philological  tests  (Berlin : 
1901);  C.  Rothe,  Die  Ilias  als  Dichtung  (Paderborn  :  1910),  —  contra- 
dictions and  differences  in  diction  not.  an  argument  against  unity  of 
authorship,  as  witness  poems  whose  authors  are  known ;  O.  Seeck,  Die 
Quellen  der  Odyssee  (Berlin:  1887);  K.  Sittl,  Die  Wiederholungen  in 
der  Odyssee  (Miinchen :  1882);  A.  Smyth.  Composition  of  the  Iliad 
(Lond.:  1914),  —  directed  against  the  separatists;  F.  M.  Stawell, 
Homer  and  the  Iliad  (Lond.:  1909),  —  a  core  with  later  additions; 
H.  Steinthal,  Ueber  Homer  und  insbesondere  die  Odyssee  (in  Zeitschr, 
fur  Vps.,  7 :  i  -88) ;  V.  Terret,  Homere.  Etude  historique  et  critique, 
an  attempt  to  defend  the  unity  of  authorship  (Paris:  1899);  J.  A.  K. 
Thomson,  Studies  in  the  Odyssey  (Oxford :  1914);  G.  Vico(see  above, 


I,  B]     •  THE  HOMERIC  EPICS  675 

§  11);  R.  Volkmann,  Geschichte  und  Kritik  der  Wolfschen  Prolegomena 
zu  Homer  (Leipz. :  1874);  F.  G.  Welcker,  Der  epische  Cyclus  (very 
important:  see  above,  §  11);  U.  von  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  Homer- 
ische  Untersuchungen  (I  Die  Composition  der  Odyssee.  II  Homerische 
Vorfragen.  Berlin  :  1884;  see  above,  §  n);  F.  A.  Wolf,  the  originator 
of  the  modern  Homeric  question  (see  above,  §  n  ;  cf.  J.  D.  Giirtler, 
below,  Hi,  c) ;  R.  Wood  (see  below,  and  above,  §  1 1 ).  For  the  attitude 
of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Wieland,  and  Friedrich  and  A.  W.  Schlegel  toward 
the  separatist  theory,  see  Finsler,  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit,  465-472.  For 
,the  general  histories  of  Greek  literature  see  below,  Appendix :  consult 
especially  Bergk,  Bernhardy,  K.  O.  Miiller,  and  Ulrici.  For  linguistic 
testimony  see  the  writings  of  T.  W.  Allen ;  also  the  Appendixes  to 
Miss  Stawell's  Homer  and  the  Iliad  (1909);  two  articles  by  Professor 
J.  A.  Scott  (Classical  Philol.,  5  :  41  ;  Classical  Review,  24:  8);  and 
many  of  the  works  already  cited. 

B.  The  Homeric  Age.  The  development  of  epic  literatures  is 
so  intimately  related  to  political  an$  social  conditions  that  the 
study  of  those  conditions  constitutes  one  of  the  most  successful 
approaches  to  the  understanding  of  the  character  and  evolution 
of  the  epic.  The  student  will  rriap  out  the  successive  social  and 
political  changes  that  have  attended  the  development  of  a  particular 
epic  literature.  He  will  note,  for  instance,  the  conditions  under 
which  the  epic  lays  first  originate ;  the  changed  conditions  under 
which  these  lays  are  sung  by  the  courtly  bards  of  a  later,  and  often 
other,  civilization ;  he  will  observe  how  the  original  scale  of  the 
poems  is  widened  under  the  new  conditions,  how  the  story  of 
a  small  barbarian  chieftain  may  become  the  story  of  a  conqueror 
of  a  nation,  and  how  the  insignificant  band  of  the  chieftain's 
retainers  may  swell  to  an  army  of  myriads.  With  the  results  of 
one  such  study  in  mind,  he  will  pass  to  a  comparative  study  of 
the  political  and  social  presuppositions  of  other  epic  literatures ; 
and  from  the  basic  results  he  may,  if  dauntless,  endeavor  to  draw 
up  a  typical  account  of  the  development  of  epic  materials  from 
their  beginnings  to  their  culmination  in  an  Iliad,  a  Chanson  de 
Roland,  or  a  Nibelungenlied.  Compare  above,  §  10,  n.  This 
typical  development,  if  it  can  once  be  established,  will  indicate 


676  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

the  law  of  epic  evolution.  For  the  investigation  of  the  Homeric 
field  from  this  point  of  view  the  following  list  of  works,  most  of 
them  concerned  with  archaeological,  social,  political,  and  economic 
backgrounds,  will  be  helpful.  Special  attention  should  be  paid  to 
the  great  pre-Homeric  Minoan  culture,  recently  revealed  by  exca- 
vations in  Crete,  for  this  long-buried  civilization  throws  much  light 
on  the  provenience  of  the  Homeric  Achaeans.  Nor  should  the 
student  forget  that  all  the  older  treatises  (before  1900)  on  early 
Greek  culture  must  be  rewritten  in  the  light  of  this  new  knowl-- 
edge.  —  References  on  the  relation  between  Greek  and  Germanic 
epic-backgrounds  are  appended  to  the  notes  on  the  Nibelungenlied 
(p.  754,  below). 

References.  I.  Bekker,  Homerische  Blatter  (Bonn :  1872);  E.  Belzner, 
Homerische  Probleme.  I  Die  kulturellen  Verhaltnisse  der  Odyssee  als 
kritische  Instanz  (Leipz. :  1911);  V.  Berard,  Les  Pheniciens  et  l'Odysse"e 
(2  vols.  Paris:  1902-03;  cf. 'P.  Champault,  Pheniciens  et  Grecs  en 
Italic  d'apres  rOdysse"e.  Paris:  1906);  A.  Biese,  Die  Entwicklung  des 
Naturgef iihls  bei  den  Griechen  (Kiel :  1 882  ;  cf .  W.  P.  Begg,  Develop- 
ment of  Taste,  Chap.  Ill ;  also,  H.  Motz,  Ueber  die  Empfindung  der 
Naturschonheit  bei  den  Alten.  Leipz. :  1865);  J.  S.  Blackie,  Homer  and 
the  Iliad  (1866),  and  On  the  Theology  of  Homer  (in  Horae  Hellenicae 
etc.  Lond. :  1874);  P.  Bohse,  Die  Moira  bei  Homer  (Berlin:  1893); 
E.  Burnouf,  Otfried  Muller  et  les  origines  de  la  poe"sie  helle'nique  (in 
Rev.  des  Deux  Mondes,  Oct.  i,  1866);  H.  von  Brunn,  Die  Kunst  bei 
Homer(Miinchen:  1868);  E.  Buchholz,  Die  homerischen Realien (Leipz. : 
1871-75;  I  Welt  und  Natur;  II  Oeffentliches  und  privates  Leben; 
III  Gotterlehre,  Psychologic,  Ethik);  S.  Butler,  The  Authoress  of  the 
Odyssey  (Lond. :  1897);  L.  Campbell,  Religion  in  Greek  Literature  (see 
above,  §8);  P.  Cauer,  Grundfragen  der  Homerkritik  (Leipz.:  1895; 
2d  «d.  1909);  H.  M.  Chadwick,  The  Heroic  Age,  —  very  important 
(see  above,  §  n);  A.  Clerke,  Familiar  Studies  in  Homer  (Lond. :  1892); 
W.  Dorpfeld,  Troja  und  Ilion  (2  vols.  Athens:  1902);  E.  Drerup, 
as  cited  above,  under  A ;  L.  Dyer,  Studies  of  the  Gods  in  Greece  (Lond. : 
1891);  Sir  A.  J.  Evans,  The  Nine  Minoan  Periods,  a  summary  sketch 
of  the  characteristic  stages  of  Cretan  civilization,  from  the  close  of  the 
neolithic  to  the  beginning  of  the  iron  age  (Lond.:  1914),  —  also  Art. 
Crete,  Archaeology,  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  and  references  given  there  to  other 
articles  by  Evans ;  L.  R.  Farnell,  The  Cults  of  the  Greek  States  (5  vols. 


l,  B]  THE  HOMERIC  EPICS  677 

Oxford:  1896-1909);  P.  Gardner,  New  Chapters  in  Greek  History 
(Lond. :  1892),  Chap.  V  Recent  Discoveries  and  the  Homeric  Poems; 
by  the  same,  The  Principles  of  Greek  Art  (N.  Y. :  1914),  Chap.  XVI,  on 
relation  of  painting  and  epic  poetry ;  W.  E.  Gladstone  (see  above,  §  8) ; 
H.  R.  Hall,  The  Oldest  Civilization  of  Greece  (Lond.:  1901);  by  the 
same,  Aegean  Archaeology  (Lond.  and  N.  Y. :  1915);  Miss  J.  E.  Harri- 
son, The  Myths  of  the  Odyssey  (Lond. :  1882) ;  W.  Helbig,  Das  homer- 
ische Epos  aus  den  Denkmalern  erlautert  (2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1887);  D.  G. 
Hogarth,  Ionia  and  the  East  (Oxford:  1909);  and  the  Art.  Aegean 
Civilization,  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  which  gives  further  references ;  R.  C.  Jebb, 
Homeric  and  Hellenic  Ilium  (in  Jour.  Hel.  Studies,  II,  7),  and  Homeric 
Troy  (in  Fortn.  Rev.,  N.S.  XXXV,  433);  Arbois  de  Jubainville,  La 
civilisation  des  Celtes  et  celle  de  1'epopde  home'rique  (being  vol.  II  of 
the  Cours  de  litterature  celtique.  1899);  H.  Jordan,  Der  Erzahlungsstil 
in  den  Kampfscenen  der  Ilias  (Breslau  :  1905);  E.  Kammer,  Ein  asthe- 
tischer  Kommentar  zu  Homers  Ilias  (3d  ed.  Paderborn  :  1906);  A.  G. 
Keller,  Homeric  Society  (N.Y. :  1902);  A.  Lang  (see  above,  §  11); 
W.  C.  Lawton,  Art  and  Humanity  in  Homer  (N.Y.:  1896);  W.  Leaf, 
Homer  and  History  (Lond.:  1915);  G.  Murray  (see  above,  §  n);  J.  L. 
Myres,  The  Dawn  of  History  (Home  Univ.  Library,  N.Y. :  1911), — 
most  suggestive ;  C.  F.  von  Nagelsbach,  Homerische  Theologie  (3d  ed. 
Niirnberg:  1884);  W.  C.  Perry,  The  Women  of  Homer  (N.Y. :  1898); 
E.  Quinet,  De  1'histoire  de  la  poe"sie  (CEuvres  completes,  vol.  IX.  Paris  : 
n. d. ;  see  also  Bk.  V  of  L'Esprit  nouveau,  in  vol.  XXVII);  W.  Reichel, 
Uber  homerische  Waff  en  (Wien:  1894);  W.  Ridgeway,  The  Early  Age 
of  Greece  (Cambridge:  1901);  C.  Robert,  Studien  zur  Ilias  (Berlin: 
1901),  and  Topographische  Probleme  der  Ilias  (in  Hermes,  42  :  78-1 12. 
1907);  H.  Schliemann,  Ithaka,  der  Peloponnes,  und  Troja  (Leipz. :  1869), 
Trojanische  Alterthumer  (Leipz.:  1874),  Ilios(N.Y.:  1 88 1 ),  Troja  (N.Y. : 
1884),  and  Tiryns  (N.Y. :  1885);  C.  Schuchhardt,  Schliemann's  Exca- 
vations, a  convenient  epitome  of  Schliemann's  massive  and  confusing 
volumes  (trans,  from  the  German  by  Eugenie  Sellers.  Lond.:  1891); 
T.  D.  Seymour  (see  above,  §  r  i);  T.  T.  Timayenis,  Greece  in  the  Times 
of  Homer  (N.Y.:  1885);  J.  A.  K.  Thompson,  Studies  in  the  Odyssey 
(Oxford  Press:  1914);  C.  Tsountas  and  J.  I.  Manatt,  The  Mycenaean 
Age  (Boston  :  1897),  2d  ed.  (1914),  with  new  chapters  on  pre-Mycenaean 
archaeology  and  Crete ;  W.  S.  Tyler,  The  Theology  of  the  Greek  Poets 
(Boston  :  1 867) ;  W.  F.  Warren,  Homer's  Abode  of  the  Dead  (Boston  : 
1883),  and  Homer's  Abode  of  the  Living  (Boston :  1 885);  E.  Weissenborn, 
Leben  und  Sitte  bei  Homer  (Leipz. :  1901  ;  trans,  by  G.  C.  Scoggjn  and 
C.  G".  Burkitt,  Weissenborn's  Homeric  Life.  N.Y. :  1903);  R.  Wood, 


6/8  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

An  Essay  on  the  Original  Genius  and  Writings  of  Homer,  etc.  (Dublin  : 
1775;  trans,  into  German,  Frankfurt:  1773,  from  an  earlier,  privately 
printed  English  edition,  1 769,  that  was  without  the  appendix  describing 
the  Troad),  —  the  first  book  seriously  to  raise  the  question  whether  the 
composer  of  the  Homeric  poems  used  the  art  of  writing,  and  in  this 
respect  a  forerunner  of  Wolf's  Prolegomena  (cf.  Blackwell,  above,  §  II, 
and  see  Jebb's  Homer,  Boston:  1904,  pp.  105,  107). 

Texts  and  Commentaries.  The  chief  editions  of  the  Greek  texts  are 
as  follows  :  Editio  princeps,  Demetrius  Chalcondylas  (Florence  :  1488); 
the  Codex  Venetus  or  Verietus  A,  Villoison  (Venice :  1 788) ;  Wolf,  Iliad 
(Halle:  1 794),  and  Iliad  and  Odyssey  (4  vols.  Leipz. :  1804+);  Heyne, 
Iliad  (Leipz.:  1802  +  );  Dindorf  and  Franke  (Leipz. :  1826+);  Bekker 
(2  vols.  Bonn:  1858);  Kirchhoff,  Odyssey  (Berlin :  1859.  2d  ed.  1879); 
Nauck  (Berlin:  1874  +  );  Hentze,  for  Teubner  (1883);  Christ,  Iliad 
(Miinchen:  1884);  D.  B.  Monro  and  T.  W.  Allen  (Oxford :  1902-12). 
Most  convenient  for  English-speaking  students  are  the  annotated  edi- 
tions of  Merry  and  Riddell  (Od.  I-XII),  Monro  (Od.  XIII-XXIV), 
Leaf  (II.),  Ameis  and  Hentze  (II.  and  Od.). 

The  great  commentary  of  Eustathius,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  contains  a  vast  number  of  excerpts 
from  earlier  writers  concerning  the  language  and  matter  of  the  poems : 
editio  princeps  (Rome:  1542  +  );  ed.  by  G.  Stallbaum  (Leipz.:  1825  +  ). 
—  The  Scholia,  or  explanatory  notes  of  early  grammarians,  have  been 
edited  by  W.  Dindorf  and  E.  Maas  (II.  Oxford:  1875  +  ;  Od.  Oxford: 
j  855).  —  For  concordances  see  Seber's  Index  Homericus  (Oxford :  1 780), 
Prendergast's  concordance  to  the  Iliad  (Lond. :  1875),  and  Dunbar's  to 
the  Odyssey  (Oxford  :  1880),  Ebeling's  Lexicon  Homericum  (1874-85), 
and  Gehring's  Index  Homericus  (1891). 

English  Translations.  Verse  translations  of  the  Iliad  by  Chapman 
(1598-1611),  Pope  (1715),  Cowper  (1791),  W.  Munford  (1846),  F.  W. 
Newman  (1856),  Lord  Derby  (1864),  Worsley  and  Connington,  who  used 
the  Spenserian  stanza  (1865),  W.  C.  Bryant  (1870),  C.  B.  Cayley  (1877), 
and  partial  translations  by  Way,  Cummings,  etc.,  etc.  The  best  transla- 
tion into  English  prose,  and  at  the  same  time  the  best  translation  for  the 
use  of  the  English  student  who  cannot  read  the  original,  is  that  of  Lang, 
Leaf,  and  Myers.  The  translation  of  the  Iliad  in  Bonn's  Library  by 
E.  H.  Blakeney  (Lond.:  1909)  is  also  usable.  Verse  translations  of 
the  Odyssey  by  Chapman  (1614-15),  Pope  (1725),  Worsley  (1861), 
W.  C.  Bryant  (1871),  Schomberg  (1879),  William  Morris  (1887),  Way 
(3d  ed.  1904),  and  J.  W.  Mackail  (3  vols.  Lond.:  1903-10).  Those  by 
Morris  and  Mackail  are  the  best  for  the  use  of  the  student ;  but  the  prose 


II,  A]  OTHER  GREEK  EPICS  679 

translations  by  Butcher  and  Lang,  and  by  Palmer,  are  better  still.  The 
student  will  be  interested  in  Matthew  Arnold's  essays  On  Translating 
Homer,  and  in  Newman's  reply,  for  both  of  which  see  above,  under 
Arnold,  §  8. 

For  French,  Italian,  and  German  translations  see  Finsler  as  noted 
above,  §  8. 

II.  Other  Greek  Epics. 

A.  On  Hesiod's  works,  and  their  relation  to  an  ancient  peasant 
poetry,  see  the  histories  of  Greek  literature  'cited  in  the  Appendix. 

B.  On  the  so-called  Cyclic  Poets  (authors  of  epic  poems  on  the 
Trojan  war  and  the  war  against  Thebes,  of  whose  works  only  a 
few  fragments  remain,  and  whose  age  extended  from  the  8th  to 
the  6th  century  B.  c.),  see  the  histories  of  Greek  literature.   For  the 
original  information  concerning  the  epic  cycle,  consult  the  prose 
summaries  in  the  Chrestomathia  of  Eutychius  Proclus,  which  may 
be  found  in  Cod.  239  of  Migne's  edition  of  the  Bibliotheca  of 
Photius ;  the  fragments  have  been  edited  by  H.  Diintzer  (Koln : 
1840)  and  by  G.  Kinkel  (for  Teubner,  Leipz. :   1877);  Welcker's 
work  (cited  above,   §  n)  is  the  chief  treatise  of  historical  and 
critical  nature  upon  these  poets;  a  long  discussion  will  be  found 
in  Chap.  XXI  of  Grote's  History ;  Lange's  Ueber  die  kyklischen 
Dichter  (Mainz:   1837)  is  representative  of  scholarship  in  its  time, 
as  is  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff's  Der  epische  Cyclus  (Homerische 
Untersuchungen.   Berlin:  1884)  of  scholarship  to-day.   T.W.Allen 
gives  a  summary  of  sources  and  authorities  in  his  The  Epic  Cycle 
(Classical  Quarterly,  Jan.  and  April,  1908).    See  also  D.  B.  Monro 
(Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies,  TV.    1883)  and  appendix  to  his  ed.  of 
the  Odyssey  XII I-XXIV  (1900);  E.  Bethe,  Thebanische  Helden- 
lieder    (Leipz.:     189-1);    J.   E.   Sandys,   Hist,    of    Class.    Schol, 
vol.  I,  Chap.    II    (2d   ed.     1906);    J.   B.   Bury,  Ancient   Greek 
Historians,  pp.  2-8  (1909);  articles  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allge- 
meine  Encyklopadie  and  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Real-Encyclopadie. 
Among  the  poems   were   the   Cypria,   Aethiopis,   The    Sack   of 
Troy,  The  Little  Iliad,  Nostoi  (Homeward  Voyages),  Telegonia, 
Thebais,  Epigoni. 


680  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

C.  The  Alexandrian  Epic  is  typified  by  the  Argonautica  of 
Apollonius  of  Rhodes  (194  B.C.),  the  relations  of  which  to  the 
earlier  Homeric  epics,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  later  Aeneid, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  of  peculiar  importance  to  the  student  of 
literary  imitations.  Apollonius,  of  course,  drew  very  largely  from 
Homer ;  and  very  large  was  Virgil's  debt  to  Apollonius.  The 
different  cultural  backgrounds  of  the  ages  of  '  Homer,'  Apollonius, 
and  Virgil  afford  contrasts  that  explain  in  great  part  the  varying 
nature  of  the  three  poems.  In  the  comparative  study  of  the 
Argonautica,  therefore,  lies  an  opportunity  for  furthering  our 
systematic  knowledge  of  the  evolution  of  the  epic;  and  the 
paucity  of  criticism  upon  Apollonius  makes  the  opportunity  all 
the  more  alluring.  The  following  topics  may  prove  suggestive : 
Apollonius  more  of  an  historian  and  antiquarian  than  a  bard, 
and  the  consequent  lack  of  simplicity  and  ease  of  movement  in 
his  poem  (contrast  the  indigenous  folk  epic) ;  the  Argonautica 
as  an  example  of  an  Alexandrian  fin  de  siede  return-to-nature 
movement  (cf.  Theocritus  and  contemporary  sculpture)  senti- 
mentalizing the  heroic  age ;  the  self-consciousness  of  the  poet, 
and  at  the  same  time  his  industry  of  detail  —  as  of  an  historian; 
the  attitude  toward  the  marvellous  as  distinguishing  the  literary 
from  the  so-called  folk  epic  —  full  belief  in  the  latter,  apology  or 
thinly  veiled  scepticism,  or  willing  suspension  of  disbelief,  in  the 
former ;  the  realism  of  the  marvellous  in  Homer,  the  fancifulness 
in  Apollonius ;  the  subordination  of  the  wonderful  to  heroic  action 
in  the  Iliad,  the  fairy-tale  elaboration  of  the  marvellous  in  the 
Argonautica;  the  less  imaginative  and  noble,  but  more  fanciful, 
attitude  of  the  Argonautica  toward  the  gods;  its  development 
of  a  romantic,  unheroic  interest  (Medea-Jason),  with  subjective 
description  of  a  woman's  love  moods  (cf.  the  position  of  woman  in 
the  luxurious  Alexandria  of  Apollonius'  time) ;  the  extent  to  which 
Apollonius  follows  Homer  in  plot,  characterization,  development 
of  situation,  diction,  etc.;  the  quality,  method,  and  extent  of  his 
variation  from  Homer  in  these  respects.  What  generalization  can 
be  made  as  to  the  sort  of  details  copied  from  Homer,  the  methods 


II,  D]  OTHER  GREEK  EPICS  68 1 

of  copying  them,  and  the  manner  of  variation  from  Homer?  In 
other  words,  what  principles  of  imitation  and  variation  can  be 
discovered  ?  Cf .  above,  §  i  o,  iv.  Do  these  principles  hold  for 
the  Aeneid?  for  other  literary  epics  that  derive  from  previous 
folk  epics  ?  from  previous  literary  epics  ? 

The  Teubner  edition  is  by  R.  Merkel  (Leipz.:  1852).  Wellauer's 
edition  contains  the  Scholia  (2  vols.  Leipz.:  1828).  Beck's  edition 
(Leipz. :  1 797),  which  is  incomplete,  contains  a  translation  into  Latin. 
G.  W.  Mooney's  edition  (Lond. :  1912)  has  a  valuable  introduction. 
Of  translations  into  English  that  of  Fawkes  will  be  found  in  Chalmers' 
English  Poets,  vol.  XX  (1810);  that  of  Way  was  published  1901.  The 
Bohn  translation  (in  prose)  is  by  E.  P.  Coleridge  (Lond. :  1 889).  There 
is  a  French  translation  by  H.  de  la  Ville  de  Mirmont  (Bordeaux:  1892), 
and  the  same  author  has  published  an  essay  of  some  comparative  value 
under  the  title  Apollonios  de  Rhodes  et  Virgile,  etc.  (Paris :  1894).  On 
the  same  subject  see  also  R.  Heinze,  Virgils  epische  Technik  (1903). 
A.  Couat's  La  poe"sie  alexandrine  contains  material  on  the  poem  and  its 
author.  See  also  G.  W.  Elderkin,  Aspects  of  the  Speech  in  the  Later 
Greek  Epic  (Baltimore:  1906.  Diss.);  J.  W.  Mackail,  Lectures  on 
Greek  Poetry  (Lond.:  1910);  Susemihl,  Gesch.  d.  griech.  Lit.  in  d. 
alexandrinischen  Zeit. ;  Annales  xxx  de  Bordeaux,  I-XVI. 

D.  Later  Epics.  During  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era 
a  few  curious  epics  were  written  in  Greek.  The  To.  ft-iff  "O^pov  of 
Quintus  Smyrnaeus  (4th  cent.  ?)  has  been  edited  by  Kochly  (Leipz. : 
1850);  by  A.  S.  Way,  with  verse  translation  (Lond.:  1903).  See 
Sainte-Beuve's  fitudes  sur  Virgile  suivies  d'une  etude  sur  Quintus 
Smyrnaeus  (Paris:  1857);  G.  W.  Paschal,  A  Study  of  Q.  Smyr- 
naeus (Chicago:  1904);  Kehmptgow,  De  Q.  Smyrnaei  Fontibus 
ac  Mythopoiia  (Kiel :  1891)  ;  F.  A.  Paley,  Q.  S.  and  the  '  Homer' 
of  the  Tragic  Poets  (1879);  a^so  articles  by  Z.  Zimmermann  (see 
his  ed.,  Teubner,  1891).  Scaliger  preferred  the  Dionysiaca  of 
Nonnus  (possibly  toward  the  end  of  the  fourth  century)  to  Homer, 
but  it  was  not  so  highly  regarded  by  Heinsius  and  Rapin.  It 
has  been  edited  by  Graefe  (2  vols.  Leipz.:  1819-1826),  and  by 
Marcellus,  with  a  French  prose  translation  (1856) ;  see  Ouwaroff, 
Nonnus  von  Panopolis,  etc.  (Petersb.:  1817);  R.  Kohler,  Uber 


682  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§12 

die  Dionysiaka  des  Nonnus  (1853);  I.  Negrisoli,  Studio  critico 
. .  .  Nonnus  (1903);  Baumgartner,  IV,  pp.  69-77.  Tryphiodorus 
(about  the  fifth  century)  wrote  several  epics,  of  which  only  The 
Destruction  of  Troy  remains  (ed.  Wernicke.  Leipz.:  1819).  Of 
the  epics  of  Coluthus  (about  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century) 
we  have  left  the  Rape  of  Helen  (ed.  Bekker.  Berlin :  1 8 1 6 ; 
English  trans,  by  Fawkes,  in  Chalmers'  English  Poets,  vol.  XX). 
The  Hero  and  Leander  of  Musaeus  (perhaps  of  the  fifth  century, 
but  a  great  variety  of  opinion  on  the  matter)  is  edited  by  Dilthey 
(Bonn:  1874;  translated  into  English  by  Fawkes,  Chalmers'  Eng. 
Poets,  XX) ;  see  Schwabe,  De  Musaeo  Nonni  Imitatore  (Tubing. : 
1876).  On  all  of  these  writers  see  Baumgartner,  vol.  IV. 

E.  For  Byzantine  (527-1453)  epic  poetry  see  Krumbacher 
(cited  in  Appendix),  pp.  641-643,  824-884.  Full  bibliographies 
accompany  the  account 

III.  Roman  Epics. 

A.  Absence  of  a  Popular  Epic.   The  student  will  be  interested 
in  trying  to  account  for  the  absence  of  a  popular  epic  in  Roman 
literature.  On  a  possible  "  chant  populaire  "  among  the  Romans,  see 
W.  Y.  Sellar,  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic,  Chap.  II.  (3d  ed.  1889) ; 
Quinet,  Hist,  de  la  poesie,  Chaps.  V,  VI,  and  the  first  footnote 
in  Chap.  VI,  where  the  following  references  for  the  same  subject  are 
given :  Niebuhr's  History  of  Rome,  the  examination  of  the  subject 
by  the  Schlegel  brothers,  Lachmann's  De  Fontibus  Historicis  T. 
Livii  (1822),  Beck's  Epicrisis  Quaestionis  de  Hist.  Rom.,  Petersen's 
De  Originibus  Hist.  Rom.  Dissertatio  (1835),  Wachsmuth's  Hist,  de 
1'etat  romain,  Krause's  Hist.  Lat.  (1835),  and  Blum  (1828).  Other 
material  may  be  derived  from  later  histories  of  Rome,  such  as 
Mommsen's,    and  from   histories  of  Roman  literature,  such  as 
Bernhardy's,  Teuffel's,  Schanz's,  Sellar's,  Ribbeck's,  Wachsmuth's. 
See  Appendix,  below,  and  the  articles  in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Real- 
Encyclopadie  d.  class.   Altertumswissenschaft  (1894  +). 

B.  Early  Epics.    The  student  should  regard  the  nature  of  certain 
epical  literature  preceding  the  Virgilian  epic.    The  names  of  Livius 


Ill,  C]  ROMAN  EPICS  683 

Andronicus,  who  translated  the  Odyssey,  and  of  Naevius  and 
Ennius  indicate  the  field  to  be  explored.  Only  fragments  of  this 
literature  have  survived.  We  also  have  notices  of  other  epics  of 
the  Augustan  Age,  such  as  a  poem  on  the  Amazons  by  Domitius 
Marsus,  a  Sicilian  War  by  Cornelius  Severus,  an  Alexandrian  War 
by  Rabirius,  and  a  Theseis  by  Pedo  Albinovanus ;  and  of  epicists 
the  titles  of  whose  poems  are  lost,  such  as  Ponticus,  Macer, 
Sabinus.  Then,  too,  there  are  the  '  little  epics  "  (epyllia)  found  in 
manuscripts  of  Virgil  and  attributed  to  him  (Culex,  Ciris,  Moretum, 
etc.).  See  the  literary  histories;  also  O.  Haube,  Die  Epen  der 
romischen  Lit.  im  Zeitalter  der  Republik  (2  Pts.  Schrimm :  1895- 
97;  Progr.).  . 

C.  VirgiFs  Aeneid. 

For  Virgilian  bibliography  see  the  histories  of  Schanz  and  Teuffel 
(noted  above,  §  5),  which  also  afford  excellent  introductions  to  the  study 
of  the  Aeneid.  Other  introductions  in  Sellar's  Roman  Poets  of  the 
Augustan  Age :  Virgil  (2d  ed.  1 883),  Nettleship's  Essays  in  Latin  Lit. 
(1884),  Tyrrell's  Latin  Poetry  (1898),  Patin's  Essais  sur  la  poe"sie  latine 
(4th  ed.  1900),  J.  W.  MackaiPs  Latin  Lit.  (3d  ed.  1899),  and  C.  T. 
Cruttwell's  Hist,  of  Rom.  Lit.  See  also  the  works  by  Dryden,  Glover, 
•  Green,  Heinze,  Keble,  F.  W.  H.  Myers,  Pliiss,  Sainte-Beuve,  and 
Shairp,  noted  above,  §  8. 

It  may  be  of  some  aid  to  suggest  here  several  of  the  more 
important  critical  problems  presented  in  the  study  of  the  Aeneid. 
(a)  The  relation  of  the  Aeneid  to  Homer  and  to  Apollonius  of 
Rhodes,  already  mentioned  above.  Many  of  the  usual  problems 
of  Virgilian  study,  especially  those  involving  the  interpretation  of 
the  character  of  Aeneas,  the  justification  of  the  Dido  episode,  the 
formality  of  style,  etc.,  are  illumined  by  noting  the  influence  of 
Apollonius.  Dido  and  Aeneas  should  be  compared  with  their 
prototypes,  the  Medea  and  Jason  of  the  Argonautica,  if  the  stu- 
dent would  fully  understand  the  process  of  imitation  by  which 
the  Virgilian  characters  came  to  be  what  they  are.  See  an  inter- 
esting and  illuminating  remark  to  this  effect  in  Murray's  Ancient 


684  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

Greek  Literature,  p.  381.  (<£)  The  nature  of  the  influences  under 
which  Virgil  produced  his  epic:  a  problem  typical  in  the  genesis 
of  the  artificial  national  epic.  The  influence  of  social  conditions  is 
now  a  matter  of  literary  truism ;  but  Renaissance  criticism  was 
blind  to  the  difference  of  circumstances  under  which  the  Iliad 
and  the  Aeneid  were  produced.  On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be 
said,  by  way  of  caution,  that  the  tendency  of  the  post-Wolfian 
criticism  of  the  e"pic  has  been  to  obscure  the  aristocratic  and 
courtly  surroundings  of  the  poet  who '  finally  gave  to  the  Iliad 
its  artistic  form.  The  Wolfian  separatists  have  betrayed  us  into 
underrating  the  sophistication  of  the  Homeric  poet  by  focusing 
our  attention  on  the  possibility  of  separate  lays  of  popular  origin 
(cf.  Bradley,  as  noted  above,  §  8).  (c}  The  relation  of  the  Aeneid 
to  earlier  versions  of  the  wanderings  of  Aeneas.  (</)  The  presence 
of  meditative  and  philosophical  elements  in  the  poem :  of  impor- 
tance in  determining  the  character  of  the  artificial  epic.  In  what 
way  do  these  -elements  differ  from  the  occasional  reflective  notes 
of  Homer  ?  (e)  The  relation  of  the  poem  to  the  politics  of  Rome : 
an  investigation  of  interest  in  itself,  and  as  a  basis  for  the  com- 
parative study  of  later  artificial  epics  of  national  bearing.  Of 
the  possible  political  bearings  of  the  Iliad  we  can  only  conjec- 
ture. There  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  there  were  no  such 
bearings.  (/")  Similarly,  the  relation  of  the  poem  to  the  religion 
of  Rome,  and  the  indications  of  Virgil's  own  beliefs.  (g)  Green's 
study  of  the  Aeneid  (see  above,  §  8) :  excellent  material  for  a 
careful  critique.  The  poetic  character  of  Green's  critical  insight 
and  his  splendid  assurance  of  statement  have  endowed  the  Aeneid 
with  a  significance  that  must  be  both  carefully  and  sympathetically 
weighed  before  one  can  arrive  at  any  conclusion  regarding  the 
'  artificiality '  of  the  poem.  Sellar's  work  (mentioned  in  §  8)  will 
afford  a  convenient  check  to  the  utterances  of  the  more  enthiisi*  ». 
astic  Green.  Compare  F.  W.  H.  Myers'  celebrated  essay  (also 
cited  in  §  8).  (A)  The  imitations  and  adaptations  of  Emius. 
(/)  Virgilius  amantissimus  vetustatis :  a  study  of  the  antiquarian 
enthusiasm  of  Virgil.  (/)  Special  studies  in  the  Virg'ilian  influence 


Ill,  C]  ROMAN  EPICS  685 

on  later  Latin  epics,  on  the  epic  poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages,  or 
on  individual  European  epics  of  later  date. 

References.  The  following  works  should  be  consulted  by  the  student 
who  wishes  to  inform  himself  of  the  nature  of  Virgilian  criticism: 
S.  Adriano,  II  sentimento  religioso  nell'  Eneide  (Torino:  1898); 
A.  Arndt,  Homer  und  Vergil,  eine  Parallele  (Leipz. :  1874);  E.  Bertrand, 
Virgile  et  Apollonius  de  Rhodes  (Ann.  de  I'unzv.  de  Grenoble,  vol.  10. 
1898);  A.  Biese,  Die  Entwicklung  des  Naturgefiihls  bei  den  Romern 
(Kiel:  1884),  cf.  Begg,  Develpt.  of  Taste,  Chap.  IV;  H.  Belling, 
Studien  iiber  die  Compositionskunst  Vergils  in  der  Aeneide  (Leipz.: 
1899);  C.  A.  Bentfeld,  Der  Einfluss  des  Ennius  auf  Vergil  (Progr., 
Salzb. :  1875);  Boissier,  La  religion  romaine  d'Auguste  aux  Antonins 
(i  884) ;  Nouvelles  promenades  archeologiques,  Horace  et  Virgile  (6th  ed., 
Paris :  1907)  ;•  A.  Bougot,  De  Morum  Indole  in  Virgilii  Aeneide  (Paris : 
1876);  F.  Cauer,  De  Fabulis  Graecis  ad  Romam  Conditam  Pertinentibus 
(Berl.  Stud.,  1:451.  1 884) ;  Die  rom.  Aeneassage  von  Naevius  bis 
Vergilius  (Fleckeis.  Jahrb.,  Supplementbd.  15.  1887);  Comparetti, 
Virgilio  nel  medio  evo  (1872),  Eng.  trans,  by  E.  F.  M.  Benecke,  Vergil 
in  the  Middle  Ages  (1895),  —  a  standard  work  that  traces  the  medieval 
legend  of  Virgil  as  a  magician ;  C.  Conrardy,  De  Vergilio  Apollonii 
Rhodii  Imitatore  (Diss.,  Freib.  i.  Schw. :  1904);  T.  Creizenach,  Die 
Aeneis  .  .  .  im  Mittelalter  (Frankfurt:  1864);  V.  de  Crescenzo,  Studi 
sui  fonti  dell'  Eneide  (Torino :  1902) ;  E.  S.  Duckett,  Influence  of  Alex- 
andrian Poetry  upon  the  Aeneid  (in  Classical  Journal,  11:  333.  1916); 
F.  G.  Eichhoff,  Etudes  grecques  sur  Virgile, —  references  to  Greek 
originals  (Paris:  1825);  H.  R.  Fairclough,  Influence  of  Greek  and 
Roman  Art  on  Vergil  (Proc.  A m.Phil.  Ass.,  35:  Ixix.  1904);  A.  Forste- 
mann,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Aeneasmythus  (Magdeburg :  1 894) ;  F.  P. 
Fulgentius,  Expositio  Virgilianae  Continentiae  secundum  Philosophos 
Moralis,  ed.  R.  Helm  (Teubner,  Leipz. :  1 898),  of  great  weight  in  the 
Middle  Ages  —  it  interpreted  the  Aeneid  as  an  allegory  of  human  life ; 
S.  A.  Geike,  The  Love  of  Nature  among  the  Romans  during  the  later 
Decades  of  the  Republic  and  the  first  Century  of  the  Empire  (1912;' 
cf.  K.  Allen,  The  Treatment  of  Nature  in  the  Poetry  of  the  Roman 
Republic,  Diss.,  Madison,  Wisconsin :  1899);  H.Georges,  Die  politische 
Tendenz  der  Aeneide  (Progr.,  Stuttg. :  1880);  A.  Gercke,  Die  Ent- 
stehung  der  Aeneis  (Berlin:  1913);  Gibbon,  Critical  Observations  on 
the  6th  Book  of  the  Aeneid  (1770),  —  religion  in  Virgil;  J.  D.  Giirtler 
and  S.  F.  W.  Hoffmann,  Fr.  Aug.  Wolf's  Vorlesungen  iiber  die 
Alterthumswissenschaft,  Bd.  Ill  (Leipz.:  1839);  J.  Henry,  Aeneidea, 


686  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

or  Critical,  Exegetical,  and  Aesthetical  Remarks  on  the  Aeneis  (1873- 
79), —  the  author  spent  twenty  years  in  reading  as  many  as  have 
survived  of  the  works  Virgil  could  have  used,  and  in  other  laborious 
preparation  for  this  interesting  and  valuable  book;  also  Henry's  Notes 
of  Twelve  Years'  Voyage  of  Discovery  in  the  First  Six  Books  of  the 
Aeneid  (1853);  C.  G.  Heyne,  De  Carmine  Epico  Verg.;  J.  A.  Hild, 
La  legeride  d'Ene"e  avant  Virgile  (Paris:  1883);  C.  H.  Kindermann, 
De  Fabulis  a  Vergilio  in  Aen.  Tractatis  (Diss.,  Leiden:  1885);  De 
Aeneassage  en  de  Aeneis  (Leiden:  1897);  W.  Kroll,  Studien  iiber 
die  Composition  der  Aen.  (Fleckeis.  Jahrb.,  Supplemented.  27. 
1902);  A.  Liverani,  La  Pietk  di  Enea  (Torino:  1896);  L.  Magnier, 
Analyse  critique  et  litteraire  de  1'Eneide  (Paris:  1844);  Morf,  Notes 
pour  servir  a  1'histoire  de  la  le"gende  de  Troie  en  Italic  (Romania, 
vols.  21,  24.  1892,  1895);  E.  Norden,  Vergils  Aeneis  im  Lichte  ihrer 
Zeit  (Neue  Jahrb.f.  das  klass.  Alteri.,  1901,  p.  249;  c£.  an  article  by 
the  same  author  in  Hermes,  28) ;  B.  L.  D'Ooge,  The  Journey  of  Aeneas 
(Class.  Journ.,  vol.  4.  1908) ;  G.  Ponzian,  In  che  Virgilio  anco  imitando 
Omero  (Padova:  1875);  E.  K.  Rand,  Virgil  and  the  Drama  (Class. 
Journ.,  vol.  .4.  1908);  P.  Richter,  De  Virgilio  Imitatore  Poetarum 
Graecorum  (Diss.,  Rostock:  1870);  R.  Ritter,  Die  Quellen  Vergils  fur 
die  Darstellung  der  Irrfahrten  des  Aeneas  (Progr.,  Nordhausen:  1909); 
F.  X.  M.  J.  Roiron,  Etude  sur  1'imagination  auditive  de  Virgile  (Diss., 
Paris:  1898);  Schwegler,  Romische  Geschichte,  vol.  I  (1853);  M.  S. 
Slaughter,  Virgil,  an  Interpretation  (in  Classical  Journal,  12:  359. 
1917);  Tissot,  Etudes  sur  Virgile  (Paris:  1825-30);  J.  Tollkiehn,  Homer 
und  die  romische  Poesie  (Leipz.:  1900),  —  an  admirable  monograph; 
V.  Ussani,  In  difesa  di  Enea  (Roma:  1896) ;  H.  de  la  Ville  de  Mirmont, 
Apollonios  de  Rhodes  et  Virgile  (Paris:  1894);  F.  M.  A.  de  Voltaire, 
Diet,  philosophique,  Art.  Epope"e,  —  see  the  remarks  on  Virgil,  —  an 
example  of  the  inability  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  appreciate  the  genius 
of  Homer.  Voltaire  praises  Virgil  far  above  Homer  because  the  Aeneid, 
especially  the  fourth  book,  "  est  rempli  de  vers  touchans,  qui  font  verser 
des  larmes  a  ceux  qui  ont  de  1'oreille  et  du  sentiment " ;  H.  Wedewer, 
'Homer,  Virgil,  Tasso( Minister:  1843);  U.  v.  Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, 
Reden  und  Vortrage  (Berlin:  1901),  p.  265;  N.  W.  De  Witt,  The 
Dido  Episode  in  the  Aeneid  of  Virgil  (Chicago  Diss.,  Toronto :  1907); 
Worner,  Die  Sage  von  den  "Wanderungen  des  Aeneas  (Leipz.:  1882). 
For*a  more  complete  and  classified  bibliography  see  Schanz. 

Editions  and  Translations.  Of  the  editions  of  the  Latin  text  it  is 
sufficient  to  mention  those  of  Ribbeck  (use  the  edition  of  1 894  +  )  and 
Hirtzel  (Oxford  Classics.  1900).  Of  annotated  editions  those  of  Papillon 


Ill,  C]  ROMAN  EPICS  687 

•  f 

and  Haigh  (2  vols.  Oxford)  and  Conington  (completed  by  Nettleship) 
are  useful.  The  great  commentaries  of  Donatus  and  Servius  belong  to 
the  end  of  the  4th  century.  There  are  many  translations.  See  an 
essay  in  the  Quart.  Rev.  (July,  1861),  which  deals  especially  with  the 
older  English  translations,  such  as  those  of  Phaer  (of  parts,  1558), 
Stanyhurst  (of  parts,  1582),  Ogilby  (1684),  Dryden  (1697),  etc.;  similar 
essays  by  Conington,  Miscell.  Works,  vol.  I,  and  Tyrrell,  Latin  Poetry, 
Appendix.  The  Earl  of  Surrey's  translation  of  the  second  and  fourth 
books  belongs  to  the  year  1557,  Caxton's  translation  to  1490.  Of 
recent  translations  see  those  of  C.  P.  Cranch  (Boston:  1824).  Coning- 
ton (Lond.:  1873),  William  Morris  (1875),  J.  W.  Mackail  (1885), 
O.  Crane  (N.Y.:  1888),  J.  D.  Long  (Boston:  1900),  C.  J.  Billson 
(1906),  J.  Rhoades  (new  ed.,  1907),  T.  C.  Williams  (1908),  J.  Jackson 
(Oxford  Lib.  of  Translations).  The  Bohn  translation  is  by  Davidson, 
the  Globe  by  J.  Lonsdale  and  S.  Lee.  Of  the  verse  translations,  those 
of  Dryden  and  Morris  are  the  best;  of  the  prose,  those  of  the  Oxford 
Lib.,  Globe,  and  Bohn  editions.  —  Of  modern  French  translations, 
those  of  J.  Delille  and  J.  Michaud  (2d  ed.  Paris:  I'8i3-i4),  Desportes 
(1900),  and  Motteau  (1901)  may  be  mentioned.  —  The  German  trans- 
lation of  J.  H.  Voss  was  issued  in  1822 ;  see  also  the  German  versions 
by  Neuffer  (1816),  Binder  (1857),  Zille  (1863),  and  Hertzberg  (1869),— 
the  best.  —  Italian  versions  by  A.  Caro  (i  888)  and  Angelina  (i  899-1900). 

D.  Epics  of  the  Silver  Age.  Here  the  student  must  consider 
the  literary  epics  of  Lucan  (Pharsalia),  Statius  (Thebais,  Achilleis), 
Valerius  Flaccus  (Argonautica),  Silius  Italicus  (Punica). 

Lucan 's  Pharsalia  is  typical.  It  has  been  edited  by  C.  M. 
Francken,  and  by  C.  E.  Haskin  (Lond.:  1887).  The  Bohn  trans- 
lation is  by  H.  T.  Riley  (Lond.:  1878).  See  R.  Ackermann, 
Lucans  Pharsalia  in  den  Dichtungen  Shelley's  (Zweibriicken : 
1896;  Progr.) ;  W.  E.  Heitland,  the  Introduction  to  Haskin's 
edition ;  F.  Oettl,  Lucans  philosophische  Weltanschauung  (Brixen : 
1888  ;  Progr.)  ;  N.  I.  Singels,  De  Lucani  Fontibus,  etc.  (Lugduni- 
Batavorum :  1884);  M.  Souriau,  De  Deorum  Ministeriis  in  Phar- 
salia (Paris :  1885).  See  also  the  various  literary  histories, 
•  especially  Cruttwell  and  Pinder. 

Other  references  for  these  epics  are:  H.  E.  Butler,  Post- 
Augustan  Poetry;  O.  Haube,  Die  Epen  des  silbernen  Zeitalters 


688  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  '  [§  12 

,  • 

der  romischen  Litteratur  (2  Pts.  Fraustadt :  1886-87;  Progr.) ; 
H.  C.  Lipscomb,  Aspects  of  the  Speech  in  the  Later  Roman  Epic 
(Baltimore:  1907;  Diss.) ;  H.  Patin,  Eludes  sur  la  poesie  latine 
(2  vols.  3d  ed.  Paris:  1883  ;  see  vol.  I,  xi) ;  Summers,  A  Study 
of  the  Argonautica  of  Valerius  Flaccus  (Camb. :  1894);  Legras, 
fitude  sur  la  Thebai'de  de  Stace  (Paris  :  1905)  ;  D.  Nisard,  Poetes 
latins  de  la  De'cadence  (2  vols.  5th  ed.  Paris:  1882). 

E.  On  Claudian  (pb.  c.  408),  the  last  of  the  Roman  poets,  see 
the  literary  histories,  the  Arts.  Claudian  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  and 
Pauly-Wissowa's  Real-Encyclopadie,  and  T.  Hodgkin,  Claudian, 
the  Last  of  the  Roman  Poets  (1875). 

IV.  Latin  Christian  Narrative  Poetry  from  the  second  century 
to  the  time  of  Dante. 

NOTE.  Because  many  students  of  literature  are  but  slightly  familiar -with 
the  literature  of  this  period,  and  because  its  relation  to  later  literary  develop- 
ment is  of  great  importance,  the  following  notes  have  been  expanded  out  of 
proportion  to  the  other  divisions  of  this  section. 

The  most  convenient  English  introduction  to  the  Latin  Christian 
literature  of  the  first  three  centuries  is  G.  Kriiger's  History  of  Early 
Christian  Literature  in  the  First  Three  Centuries  (N.Y.:  1897;  trans, 
by  C.  R.  Gillett).  It  contains  all  the  necessary  critical  paraphernalia, 
including  classified  bibliography.  A.  Harnack's  Geschichte  der  alt- 
christlichen  Litteratur  bis  Eusebius  (Leipz. :  1893)  and  Die  Chronologic 
der  altchristlichen  Litteratur  bis  Eusebius  (Leipz. :  1 897)  are  authori- 
tative for  the  same  period.  For  studies  covering  later  centuries  as  well 
as  the  first  three  the  student  must  turn  to  the  monumental  works  of 
Ebert,  Grober, "and  Manitius.  Adolf  Ebert's  Allgemeine  Geschichte 
der  Literatur  des  Mittelalters  im  Abendlande  (3  vols.  Leipz.:  1874- 
1887;  vol.1,  2d  ed.  1889)  traces  Latin  Christian  literature  to  the 
beginning  of  the  eleventh  century,  but  there  are  omissions  that  must 
be  supplied  from  later  works.  G.  Grober's  Grundriss  der  romanischen 
Philologie  (II,  97-432)  is  very  helpful.  M.  Manitius'  first  work, 
Geschichte  der  christlich-lateinischen  Poesie  bis  zur  Mitte  des  8.  Jahrh. 
(Stuttgart:  1891),  is  now  supplemented  by  his  larger  Geschichte  der 
lateinischen  Literatur  des  Mittelalters  (Th.  I,  von  Justinian  bis  zur 
Mitte  des  zehnten  Jahrh.  Miinchen :  rgri;  being  a  part  of  Iwan 
von  Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertums-Wissenschaft). 
These  books  are  authoritative.  They  may  be  supplemented  by  the 


IVJ  LATIN  CHRISTIAN   NARRATIVE  POETRY          689 

proper  sections  in  the  following  histories  of  Roman  literature :  J.  C.  F. 
Bahr,  Gesch.  der  romischen  Litt.,  vol.  IV  Die  christlich-romische  Litt. 
(2d  ed.  Karlsruhe:  1873);  Teuffel-^Kroll  et  at.,  Gesch.  der  romischen 
Litt.  (6th  ed.,  vol.  Ill,  1913);  M.  Schanz,  Gesch.  der  romischen  Litt. 
bis  zum  Gesetzgebungswerk  des  Kaisers  Justinian  (Part  IV,  3d  ed., 
1914).  C.  T.  CruttwelPs  Literary  History  of  Early  Christianity  (2  vols. 
Lond. :  1893),  A.  Harnack's  celebrated  History  of  Dogma  (trans,  from 
3d  German  ed.  of  author's  Lehrbuch  der  Dogmengeschichte,  7  vols. 
Lond.:  1897-99),  J.  Donaldson's  A  Critical  History  of  Christian  Lit- 
erature and  Doctrine  from  the  Death  of  the  Apostles  to  the  Nicene 
Council  (3  vols.  Lond.:  1864-1866.  i  vol.  in  2d  ed.,  1874;  continued 
only  as  far  as  the  apologists),  O.  Zockler's  Gesch.  der  theologischen 
Litteratur  (Gotha:  1890.  Handb.  der  theolog.  Wissenschaften,  I  Sup- 
plem.),  and  G.  Boissier's  La  fin  du  paganisme,  etude  sur  les  dernieres 
luttes  religieuses  en  Occident  au  4<=  siecle  (2d  ed.  Paris :  1 894)  will 
afford  general  orientation  in  the  field  of  Christian  apology  and  dogma. 
W.  P.  Ker's  The  Dark  Ages  (Lond. :  1 904)  contains  a  valuable  chapter 
on  Latin  authors  from  the  sixth  to  the  eleventh  century.  In  H.  O. 
Taylor's  Classical  Heritage  of  the  Middle  Ages  (N.Y. :  1901)  see 
Chap.  IX  (beginnings  of  Christian  poetry  and  accentual  verse,  Oracula 
Sibyllina,  early  Latin  Christian  poets):  the  bibliographical  notes  on 
this  chapter,  contained  in  the  appendix  of  the  work,  will  be  especially 
valuable  to  the  student  who  wishes  to  gain  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
poetry  of  the  epoch.  For  saints'  legends  see  Caxton's  Golden  Legend 
of  the  Lives  of  the  Saints  (1483),  a  translation  of  Jacopus  de  Voragine's 
Legenda  Aurea  (c.  1275).  On  saints'  legends  see  G.  H.  Gerould, 
Saints'  Legends  (noted  above,  §  n);  H.  Delehaye,  Les  le"gendes  hagio- 
graphiques  (2d  ed.  1906;  English  trans,  by  Mrs.  N.  M.  Crawford, 
The  Legends  of  the  Saints,  1907);  and  other  works  noted  by  Gerould, 
p.  35  iff.  For  further  bibliography  see  the  works  of  Kriiger,  Ebert, 
Manitius,  Grober,  and  Bahr,  as  just  mentioned. 

The  texts  will  be  found  in  the  vast  collection  of  the  Fathers  edited 
by  J.  P.  Migne,  Cursus  Patrologiae  Completus.  I,  Patrologia  Latina 
(221  vols.  Paris:  1844-1864;  continued  for  writers  later  than  1216 
by  Horoy).  See  also  the  Monumenta  Germaniae  Historica  (Hannover: 
1826  +).  Further  references  in  Kriiger,  pp.  8-10  ;  particular  references 
for  individual  authors  may  be  found  in  Kriiger,  Ebert,  and  Manitius, 
as  indicated  below. 

For  English  translations  see  A.  Roberts  and  J.  Donaldson,  Ante- 
Nicene  Fathers,  Translations  of  the  Writings  of  the  Fathers  down  to 
A.D.  325  (24  vols.  Edinb.:  1864-1872;  American  ed.,  by  H.  C.  Cox, 


690  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

with  additions,  10  vols.  N.Y. :  1896);  E.  B.  Pusey,  J.  Keble,  and 
J.  H.  Newman,  A  Library  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Holy  Catholic  Church, 
anterior  to  the  Division  of  the  East  and  West  (Oxford:  1838-1885); 
P.  Schaff  and  H.  Wace,  A  Select  Library  of  the  Nicene  and  Post- 
Nicene  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church  (N.Y.:  1890+). 

Of  the  heroic  poem  proper  there  is  scarcely  an  example  (see 
the  Waltharius)  in  the  Christian  Latin  poetry  of  this  epoch.  But 
the  student  of  later  Christian 'epics  (such  as  VidaV-Ghjistiad,  Du 
Bartas'  Creation,  Tasso's  II  mondo  create,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 
and  Klopstock's  Messias)  will  discern  tendencies  toward  Christian 
epos  in  the  hexameter  biblical  paraphrases  of  the  first  five  or  six 
hundred  years.  For  the  investigation  of  origins  and  of  develop- 
ment of  types,  the  student  of  romances,  of  the  long  didactic  poem, 
or  of  the  allegorical  narrative  will  find  in  Prudentius,  the  most 
decisive  poetic  force  before  Dante,  much  of  value. 

The  influence  of  both  Greek  and  Latin  epic  upon  early  narrative 
and  allegorical  Christian  poems  offers  another  interesting  field  for 
research.  The  study  of  the  kind  and  extent  of  this  influence,  of 
the  characteristic  changes  in  narrative  style,  conception,  and  point 
of  view,  together  with  the  causes  of  such  changes,  will  lead  to 
inductions  significant  not  only  for  the  laws-  of  literary  variation, 
but  also  for  the  essential  traits  of  the  early  Christian  character 
and  world-view.  Is  it  true  that  when  Prudentius  and  Juvencus, 
for  instance,  imitated  Virgil  they  produced  works  "  in  which  the 
convictions,  the  arguments,  the  moralizings  might  be  sincere 
enough,  but  in  which  the  real  poetry  of  Christianity  could  have 
but  little  part"  (Comparetti-Benecke,  Virgil  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
N.Y.:  1895,  p.  160)? 

In  the  following  pages  certain  general  trends  of  narrative  devel- 
opment are  noted,  (i)  The  metrical  paraphrase  of  passages  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  is  one  of  the  earliest  narrative 
forms  to  be  developed.  Beginning  with  slavish  fidelity  to  the 
sources,  it  advances  to  considerable  freedom  and  originality 
(Juvencus,  Victorinus  (?),  Hilarius  of  Aries,  C.  Marius  Victor, 
Sedulius,  Avitus,  Arator,  et  al.}.  (2)  The  allegorical  poem  is  a 


IV,  A]      LATIN  CHRISTIAN  NARRATIVE  POETRY         691 

popular  form  that  shows  comparatively  little  development  (Pru- 
dentius,  Fulgentius  (prose),  et  a/.).  (3)  The  Christian  hero  is 
the  Saint,  and  lives  of  the  saints,  in  both  verse  and  prose,  afford 
the  staple  narrative  interest  of  the  entire  epoch  (Prudentius, 
Paulinus  of  Nola,  Paulinus  of  Pe'rigueux,  Venantius  Fortunatus, 
Alcuin,  Walafrid  Strabo,  Milo,  Heiric,  Flodoard,  and  anonymous 
poems).  (4)  Secular  epical  literature  develops  coincidently  with 
the  secularization  of  the  power  of  the  Church  and  the  rise  of  the 
Carolingian  dynasties  (Hibernicus  Exul,  anon,  poems  of  the  age 
of  Charlemagne,  Walafrid  Strabo,  Ermoldus  Nigellus,  Ekkehard, 
Hrosvitha).  (5)  Narratives  of  visions  of  the  other  world,  of  hell, 
purgatory,  and  paradise,  supplement  the  saints'  legends  and  give 
rise  to  a  distinct  species  of  composition  (Gregory  the  Great, 
Walafrid  Strabo,  and  Ansellus ;  cf.  Dante).  (6)  Lyrical-epic 
forms  arise,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  panegyrical  purpose  of 
the  secular  epics.  (7)  Toward  the  close  of  the  epoch  epical 
narrative  degenerates  to  versified  annals,  with  no  proper  unity 
of  plot  (Poeta  Saxo  and  Abbo).  (8)  Also  toward  the  close  of 
the  epoch  dialogue  is  used  as  a  method  of  narration,  thus  giving 
rise  to  a  dramatic-epical  variety  (Purchard  von  Reichenau,  et  #/.). 

The  development  of  each  of  these  narrative  tendencies  or  sub- 
species, their  interrelation,  their  derivation  from  older  sources 
(especially  Virgil),  and  their  influence  upon  contemporary  and 
later  vernacular  narratives,  are  the  general  topics  for  investigation 
afforded  by  the  Latin  narrative  literature  of  this  period.  The  de- 
termination of  the  relation  of  Dante  to  these  tendencies  or  species 
gives  an  object  and  a  singular  significance  to  such  investigation. 
Finally,  the  uncertainty  of  the  technique  of  plot,  character,  and 
action,  displayed  throughout  the  period,  and  the  confusion  of 
annals,  history,  didacticism,  and  poetry,  which  is  the  immediate 
cause  of  this  uncertain  technique,  suggest  a  study  of  form,  which 
as  yet  has  attracted  but  little  attention. 

A.  From  the  Second  Century  to  the  Time  of  Constantine  (323). 
During  this  period  the  new  religion  was  contending  for  the  right 
to  exist.  Literature,  mostly  pro.se,  is  polemical  and  apologetic. 


692  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

One  poem,  however,  the  De  Ave  Phoenice,  shows  aim  and  con- 
struction, and  is  something  more  than  mere  versifying.  Though 
the  author  makes  such  free  use  of  pagan  myth  as  would  scarcely 
have  been  tolerated  by  the  myth-hating  Christian  leaders  of  the 
day,  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  Arnobius,  it  is  generally  supposed 
that  he  wrote  in  this  period.  The  poem  has  been  attributed  to 
Lactantius  (c.  300) ;  and  it  may  be  compared  with  the  later  and 
longer  Anglo-Saxon  Phoenix,  which  is  based  upon  it  and  is  perhaps 
the  work  of  Cynewulf. 

Texts  and  Monographs.  For  bibliography  see  Kriiger,  317;  Ebert 
I  :  97 ;  Manitius,  G.  c.-l.  P.,  44.  On  the  Phoenix :  R.  Loebe,  In 
Scriptorem  Carminis  de  Phoenice  .  .  .  Observationes  (in  Jhb.  fur  protes- 
tantische  Theologie,  18:  34-65.  1892);  A.  S.  Cook,  The  Christ  of 
Cynewulf,  p.  Ixiii  ff.  For  a  critical  edition  of  the  Old  English  Phoenix 
see  O.  Schlotterose  (in  Banner  Beitrdge  z.  Anglistik,  No.  25,  1908). 

The  concluding  part  of  the  Carmen  Apologeticurh  of  Com- 
modianus  (fl.  c.  250),  who  has  been  called  the  first  Christian  Latin 
poet,  contains  a  description  of  last  things  and  is  important  as 
a  forerunner  of  much  other  descriptive  narration  of  the  same 
theme.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  hexameters  disregard  quantity 
for  accent,  —  an  early  sign  of  the  change  to  romance  prosody. 
Commodianus  is  familiar  with  both  Virgil  and  Lucretius.  His 
work  is  didactic,  but  it  is  maintained  that  some  of  his  forms 
are  original,  —  "  acrostics,  strophes,  rimes,  and  line-formations " 
in  hexameters  (Kriiger,  318). 

Texts  and  Monographs.  See  Kriiger,  217,  320;  Ebert  i:  89; 
Manitius,  G.  c.-l.  P.,  28.  For  the  .period  as  a  whole  see  O.  Bardenhewer, 
Gesch.  der  altkirch.  lit.  (2  vols.  Freiburg  i.  B. :  1902-03). 

B.  From  the  Time  of  Constantine  to  the  Death  of  St.  Augustine 
(430).  During  this  period  the  new  religion  wins  not  only  recogni- 
tion but  supremacy.  The  Church  gradually  becomes  a  strongly 
centralized  institution.  It  is  the  age  of  the  ardent  theology  of 
St.  Augustine ;  the  polemical  fierceness  of  Tertullian  is  no  longer 
necessary.  The  early  anathema  of  pagan  culture  is  modified,  and 
the  Christian  genius  is  enriched  .and  broadened  by  an  assimilation 


IV,  B]       LATIN  CHRISTIAN  NARRATIVE  POETRY          693 

of  Roman  and  other  ancient  laws,  customs,  and  artistic  ideals. 
Attending  this  assimilation  is  a  growth  of  Christian  poetry,  charac- 
terized in  part  by  an  imitation  of  classic  types  and  in  part  by  the 
virtual  creation  of  new  types. 

About  330  Juvencus  completed  what  is  the  first  definitely  dated 
hexameter  Latin  paraphrase  of  biblical  narratives.  His  work,  the 
Evangeliorum  Libri  IV,  is  thus  the  forerunner  not  only  of  Caedmon 
and  Cynewulf  but  also  of  Paradise  Lost  and  the  Messias.  In  the 
exordium  Juvencus  speaks  of  the  fame  of  Homer  and  Virgil,  but 
claims  for  his  own  subject  a  greater  '  diuturnity '  because  he  substi- 
tutes Christian  verity  for  pagan  myths.  Thus  it  is  clear  that 
Juvencus  feels  that  he  has  taken  a  step  —  according  to  him,  a 
long  step  —  toward  perfecting  the  epic  type.  But  he  is  at  pains 
also  to  belittle  the  significance  of  mortal  life  in  comparison  with 
the  life  everlasting,  thus  setting  up  a  Weltanschauung  almost  the 
opposite  of  that  of  Homer  and  Virgil.  In  a  word,  Christian 
spiritualism  has  taken  the  place  of  Homeric  naturalism  as  the 
motivation  of  the  epic  world.  For  the  rest,  his  style  is  simple, 
a  relief  from  the  sophisticated  rhetoric  that  from  the  beginning 
had  invaded  Christian  prose  and  verse  style  alike ;  but  his  hexam- 
eters are  often  wooden  and  uninspired.  With  this  work  may  be 
mentioned  two  contemporary  paraphrases  —  the  De  Sodoma,  the 
Carmen  de  Fratribus  Septem  Macchabeis  attributed  to  Victorinus 
—  and  the  Cento  Vergilianus  of  Proba,  all  of  which  cultivate  with 
more  or  less  freedom  the  epic  handling  of  biblical  subjects. 

The  most  significant  poet  of  the  age  was  Prudentius  (c.  348- 
c.  410).  His  Psychomachia  points  the  contrast  between  Christianity 
and  Paganism  under  an  allegory  of  the  virtues  and  vices,  and  is, 
says  Ebert,  "  the  first  example  of  a  purely  allegorical  poem  in  the 
literature  of  the  Occident."  Its  relation  to  succeeding  allegorical 
poems  is  an  interesting  subject  of  study.  The  poem,  in  spite  of 
its  aesthetic  inferiority,  was  very  popular  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
In'  his  lyrical  epic,  the  Peristephanon,  Prudentius  illustrates  the 
possibilities  of  a  new,  romantic  type.  Here  the  legends  of  the 
martyrs  are  treated  with  such  combination  of  lyric  and  narrative 


694  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

art  that  the  poem  seems  not  far  removed  from  the  popular  metrical 
narratives  of  the  Middle  Ages,  or  even  some  of  the  art  poetry 
of  more  modern  times.  With  it  should  be  contrasted  the  Greek 
romances  and  their  Renaissance  revivals ;  and  several  of  the 
descriptive-narrative  poems  (Carmina  Natalitia  de  S.  Felice)  of 
Paulinus  of  Nola  (Ebert  i  :  302  ff.)  should  be  studied  as  simi- 
lar expressions  from  the  same  general  period.  In  his  didactic 
Hamartigenia,  Prudentius  follows  the  moralizing  tone  of  Horace 
and  Lucretius  as  well  as  the  '  eloquence '  of  Virgil. 

Texts  and  Monographs.  For  Juvencus  see  Ebert  i:  114;  Manitius, 
G.  c.-l.  P.,  55.  On  other  paraphrases  and  the  Virgilian  cento :  Ebert 
i:  122-127;  Manitius,  G.  c.-l.  P.,  51,  1 12,  123.  On  Prudentius:  Encyc. 
Brit.,  nth  ed.,  under  Prudentius;  Ebert  i  :  25 iff.;  Manitius,  G.  c.-l. 
P.,  61  ff.  For  the  influence  of  Prudentius  on  later  writers,  Manitius, 
G.  1.  L.  M.,  Alphabetisches  Register,  under  Prudentius. 

C.  From  the  Death  of  St.  Augustine  (4JO)  to  the  Time  of 
Charlemagne  (j8o). 

To  the  transitional  period  of  Latin  poetry  from  A.D.  350  to  the  time 
of  Charlemagne,  E.  Norden,  Die  lateinische  Literatur  im  Uebergang 
vom  Altertum  zum  Mittelalter  is  a  compendious  guide  (Hinneberg's  Kultur 
der  Gegenwart,  Tl.  I,  Abt.  VIII,  Die  gr.  u.  lat.  Lit.  u.  Sprache,  Berlin  u. 
Leipz.:  1905,  pp.  375-411;  3d  ed.  1912,  p.  483  ff.).  See  also  A. 
Ozanam,  La  civilisation -au  cinquieme  siecle  (Paris  :  1862),  —  beautifully 
written,  but  to  be  used  with  care. 

The  writers  of  the  earlier  part  of  the  period,  to  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century,  continue  without  significant  modification  the 
traditions  of  Christian  poetry  established  in  the  age  of  St.  Augustine 
and  Prudentius.  Metrical  paraphrases  of  biblical  materials  are 
well  to  the  fore,  —  witness  the  Metrum  in  Genesin  of  Hilarius 
of  Aries,  the  Alethia  seu  Commentationum  in  Genesim  Libri  III 
of  C.  Marius  Victor,  the  Carmen  Paschale  of  Sedulius,  and  the 
didactic  narrative  poems  of  Dracontius  and  Avitus.  All  these  are 
in  line  of  descent  from  Juvencus,  though  Avitus  shows  a  degree 
of  independence  of  his  sources  that  might  easily  have  marked 
a  new  step  in  development  had  not  the  barbarian  invasions  arrested 


IV,  C]       LATIN  CHRISTIAN  NARRATIVE  POETRY          695 

all  growth.  During  the  same  years  the  romantic  saints'  legends 
were  multiplied  and,  in  the  hexameters  of  Paulinus  of  Perigueux's 
Vita  Martini,  they  developed  a  wider  scope.  The  Eucharisticos 
Deo  sub  Ephemeridis  Meae  Textu  of  Paulinus  of  Pella  appears 
to  be  a  verse  variety  of  the  prose  autobiography. 

For  further  notices  and  for  bibliography  see  Ebert  i:  357-409; 
Manitius,  G.  c.-l.  P.,  157-348. 

During  the  second  part  of  the  period,  from  about  550  to  the 
age  of  Charlemagne,  ancient  society  finally  disappeared  in  the 
welter  of  the  'Byzantine  wars  and  the  Lombard  invasion,  and 
Christian  society  took  its  place.  The  power  of  the  papacy  in- 
creased rapidly,  and  the  energies  of  the  Church  were  bent  not 
upon  apology  and  polemic,  but  upon  spreading  its  authority  among 
the  barbaric  peoples  of  England,  Germany,  and  France.  The  dis- 
appearance of  ancient  culture,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  temporal 
aggrandizement  of  the  papacy,  on  the  other,  were  unfavorable  to 
the  development  of  Christian-Latin  literature.  As  a  result  this 
division  of  our  period,  though  it  was  longer  by  almost  a  century 
and  a  half  than  the  earlier  portion,  produced  fewer  authors  and 
fewer  works.  The  De  Actibus  Apostolorum  of  Arator  is  a  para- 
phrase in  hexameters,  with  mystical  and  allegorical  digressions  and 
interpretations.  Arator  may  -be  said  to  have  been  the  last  Roman 
poet  of  Italy.  Flavius  Cresconius  Corippus,  who  resided  in  some 
small  town  of  north  Africa,  celebrated  the  Moorish  wars  and  the 
deeds  of  a  certain  Johannes  in  an  epic  of  eight  books.  Venantius 
Fortunatus,  the  last  Roman  poet  among  the  Franks,  composed 
another  Vita  Martini,  and  he  makes  it  evident  in  the  beginning 
of  his  poem  that  he  regards  his  production  as  in  the  line  of  epic 
descent  from  Juvencus,  Sedulius,  Prudentius,  and  others. 

For  bibliography  see  Ebert  I  :  514-542;  Manitius,  G.  c.-l.  P.,  366- 
376,  438-470;  by  the  same,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  162-181. 

D.  The  Carolingian  Renaissance  (780-814).  The  revival  of 
literature  that  took  place  in  the  Prankish  dominion  of  Charlemagne 
was  the  outcome  of  altered  conditions,  ecclesiastical,  academic, 


696  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC       •  [§  12 

political.  The  new  literature  arose  not  from  the  Church,  as 
hitherto,  but  from  the  palace  schools  of  Charlemagne,  which  owed 
their  character  to  Anglo-Saxon  learning  and  Alcuin,  the  prelate 
and  scholar,  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  Italian-Longobardic  erudi- 
tion and  Paulus  Diaconus,  the  historian,  on  the  other.  The  new 
poetry  was  of  the  court,  and  was  inspired  by  the  revival  of  the 
imperium  in  the  person  of  the  king.  These  circumstances  favored 
a  decided  secularity  of  literary  tone, — a  change  in  Christian  Latin 
literature,  little  hindered  by  a  church  that. was  itself  busily  engaged 
in  strengthening  and  extending  the  arm  of  secular  power. 

In  studying  this  secular  tendency  in  the  narrative  poetry  of  the 
age  it  is  proper  to  consider  whether  the  secular  epic  of  Rome 
exerted  a  greater  influence  than  the  Christian  poems  of  Juvencus 
and  his  followers.  The  chief  pagan  sources  were,  perhaps,  Virgil 
and  Ovid;  the  Christian,  Fortunatus,  and  also  Fulgentius — whose 
allegorizing  way  is  especially  discernible  in  the  poetry  of  Theodulf. 
The  extent  of  the  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Latin  authors  in  this 
age  demands  further  study.  Alcuin,  for  instance,  in  one  of  his 
poems,  gives  us  a  list  of  the  manuscripts  over  which  he  presided 
at  the  library  of  the  York  monastery,  and  Theodulf  includes  in 
a  poem  a  list  of  his  favorite  authors. 

In  content  and  manner  the  narrative  poems  frequently  seem 
to  anticipate  subsequent  developments  within  the  type.  Though 
Alcuin's  hexameter  Vita  S.  Willibrordi  is  perhaps  negligible,  yet 
his  De  Sanctis  Eboracensis  Ecclesiae  is  a  forerunner  of  the  versi- 
fied chronicle.  Compare  Aedilvulf's  poem  on  the  history  of  his 
monastery  (see  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  552).  In  their  epical  cele- 
bration of  contemporary  wars,  the  Versus  ad  Karolum  Imperatorem 
of  a  certain  Hibernicus  Exul  (Dungal?)  and  the  anonymous  Carmen 
de  Carolo  Magno  faintly  adumbrate  a  national  epic  poetry.  In  the 
first  the  legend  of  Troy  is  mentioned.  The  second  clearly  shows 
the  influence  of  Fortunatus  and  of  Virgil,  and  is  characterized  by 
a  picturesque  style  and  love  of  color :  it  displays  a  strong  interest 
in  the  marvellous,  and  in  the  persons  of  the  pope  and  the  emperor 
brings  into  connection  the  secular  and  religious  interests  of  the 


IV,  D]      LATIN  CHRISTIAN  NARRATIVE  POETRY         697 

age.  A  still  more  popular  note,  and  therein  suggestive  of  the 
popular  epic  lay,  is  found  in  the  mourning  songs  (epical-lyric) 
in  rhythmic  —  not  quantitative  —  iambic  trimeters  that  bewail  the 
death  of  one  of  Charlemagne's  generals  and  the  fall  of  the  city 
of  Aquileja  (see  Ebert  2:  86-91).  And  Angilbert's  triumphal 
song  in  celebration  of  Pepin's  victory  over  the  Avars  is  said  to 
suggest  the  movement  and  spirit  of  the  later  romances.  It  is 
written  in  rhythmic  trochaic  tetrameter.  The  student  should  also 
note  the  popularity  of  the  eclogue  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne 
(Ebert  2  :  64  ff.). 

Texts  and  Monographs.  See  the  bibliographical  notes  in  Ebert  2 : 
12-35,  56-69,  85-91  ;  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  278-280,  370-374,  543- 
547.  On  Alcuin  see  C.  J.  B.  Gaskoin,  Alcuin :  His  Life  and  his  Work 
(Lond. :  1903);  Monnier,  Alcuin  et  Charlemagne  (Paris:  1863);  J.  B. 
Mullinger,  The  Schools  of  Charles  the  Great  and  the  Restoration  of 
Education  in  the  gth  Century  (Lond.:  1877);  K.  Werner,  Alkuin  und 
sein  Jahrhundert  (Paderborn :  1 876).  Special  mention  may  be  made  here 
of  two  important  collections  of  texts :  Die  handschrif  tliche  Ueberlieferung 
der  lateinischen  Dichtungen  aus  der  Zeit  der  Karolinger  (in  Neues  Archiv 
der  Gesellschaft  fur  altere  deutsche  Gesch.,  1879);  Poetae  Latini  Aevi 
Carolini  (in  Monum.  Germ.  Hist.). 

E.  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Carolingian  Renaissance,  from  the 
death  of  Charlemagne  to  the  accession  of  Otto  the  Great  (814- 
936).  The  confused  and  uncertain  political  conditions  of  this 
period  (division  of  the  Prankish  Kingdom,  attacks  of  the  Danes, 
Normans,  Magyars,  and  Saracens,  and  the  rise  of  feudalism)  were 
attended  by  a  gradual  decline  in  literary  endeavor.  The  most 
productive  branch  of  literature  was  theological.  But  the  main 
streams  of  Christian  epical  expression  may  still  be  traced.  The 
versified  lives  of  saints,  usually  from  a  prose  original,  are  exempli- 
fied in  the  anonymous  St.  Gall,  in  the  St.  Othmar  (both  in  rhymes), 
in  short  lives  (in  hexameter)  by  Walafrid  Strabo,  the  most  gifted 
poet  of  the  age,  in  the  Vita  St.  Amandi  of  Milo,  the  Vita  St.  Germani 
of  Heiric,  and  lives  by  Hucbald  of  St.  Amand.  These  should  be 
compared  with  the  prose  lives  of  the  period,  which  may  be  traced 
through  Ebert  (vols.  2,  3)  and  Manitius.  The  influence  of  the  plot 


698  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

technique  of  both  prose  and  verse  lives  upon  the  vernacular 
Christian  epic,  especially  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  is  of  considerable 
importance  (see  Smithson  as  cited  above,  §  1 1).  The  secular  epical 
story,  the  rise  of  which  under  Charlemagne  has  just  been  noted 
above,  is  represented  in  this  age  by  the  De  Imagine  Tetrici  of 
Walafrid  Strabo  and  the  De  Gestis  Caesaris  (or  In  Honorem 
Hludovici  Imperatoris)  of  Ermoldus  Nigellus,  both  somewhat 
insincere  in  their  celebration  of  the  not  resplendent  glories  of 
Louis  the  Pious.  Ermoldus'  production  is  noteworthy  on  two 
accounts:  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  Latin  epical  poems  to  refer 
to  the  Saracens ;  and  by  its  representation  of  William,  Count 
of  Toulouse,  as  an  heroic  leader.it  is  related  to  the  Carolingian 
romance  cycle  of  Guillaume  d'Orange,  called  by  the  trouveres 
the  geste  of  Garin  de  Monglane. 

Texts  and  Monographs.  Walafrid  Strabo's  lives  of  the  saints  have 
been  edited  by  Diimmler  (Mon.  Germ.  Hist.  Poet.  Lat.  II,  1 884,  p.  259  ff.). 
Bibliography  for  these  and  other  lives  :  Ebert  2  :  277-292,  3  :  188  ff. ; 
Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  302-315,  577-580,  588-592.  For  the  secular 
epic  of  Walafrid  Strabo  and  Ermoldus  Nigellus  see  Ebert  2 :  145-146, 
154-155,  170-176;  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  302-314,  522-557;  fora 
more  complete  bibliography  of  Walafrid  see  Potthast,  Bibliotheca  Hist. 
Med.  Aevi,  Berlin:  1894,  iiO2ff. ;  Walafrid's  works  may  be  found  in 
Migne's  Patrologia  Latina,  113,  114.  Ermoldus'  poem  is  in  the  2d  vol. 
of  the  Monum.  Germ.  Hist.  Scriptores,  p.  464  ff.;  and  has  been  edited 
by  Diimmler,  Poetae  Latini  Aevi  Carolini,  vol.  II  (Berlin:  1881-1884). 
On  the  cycle  of  Guillaume  d'Orange  see  Gautier,  Epopees  franc., 
vol.  IV  (2d  ed.,  1 882) ;  P.  Becker,  Die  altfranz.  Wilhelmsage,  etc.  (Halle : 
1896),  and  Der  sudfranz.  Sagenkreis,  etc.  (Halle:  1898);  J.  Be"dier, 
Le"gendes  dpiques,  vol.  I  (1908);  also  articles  by  Jeanroy  in  Romania, 
vols.  25,  26,  and  by  Suchier  in  vol.  32. 

The  secular  narratives  of  the  later  part  of  this  period  are,  with 
one  exception,  but  little  more  than  versified  annals.  Poeta  Saxo's 
Annales  de  Gestis  Caroli  Magni,  written  between  888  and  891, 
follows  earlier  annals,  especially  the  famous  prose  chronicle  of 
Einhard  (Vita  Karoli  Magni),  to  which  it  adds  some  poetic  color- 
ing. But  in  place  of  plot  and  motive  it  is  content  to  arrange  its 


IV,  E]      LATIN  CHRISTIAN  NARRATIVE  POETRY         699 

materials  in  mere  annalistic  fashion,  with  a  decade  to  each  book. 
The  De  Bellis  Parisiacae  Urbis  of  the  Frankish  writer  Abbo, 
composed  at  about  the  same  time,  is  vivid  and  full  of  informa- 
tion, but  also  annalistic  in  construction.  The  exception  referred 
to  above  is  the  anonymous  Gesta  Berengarii  Imperatoris,  written 
in  Italy  between  912  and  924:  the  author  somewhat  artistically 
selects  for  his  panegyric  appropriate  gesta,  and  so  attains  a  certain 
unity  of  effect. 

For  bibliography  of  these  three  poems  see  Ebert  3:  125-144; 
Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  583-588,  632-635.  For  other  minor  epical 
poems  of  this  period  see  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  598-609. 

One  other  of  Walafrid's  narrative  works,  the  Liber  de  Visionibus 
Wettini,  deserves  special  attention  as  a  pioneer  in  the  field  of 
medieval  metrical  stories  of  visions  of  the  other  world.  See, 
however,  the  fourth  book  of  Gregory  the  Great's  prose  Dialog! 
(Ebert  i  :  547-548)  and  the  rhymed  Vision  composed  by  Ansellus 
(Ebert  3:  175).  The  history  of  such  Visions,  culminating  in 
Dante's  Commedia,  affords  a  fascinating  study,  which  may  be 
extended  backward  through  the  underworld  adventures  of  the 
old  epic  heroes. 

See  C.  Fritzsche,  Die  lateinischen  Visionen  des  Mittelalters  bis  zur 
Mitte  des  1 2.  Jahrh.,  in  Roman.  Forsch.,  vols.  2,  3  ;  E.  Becker,  Medieval 
Visions  of  Heaven  and  Hell  (Baltimore:  1899);  W.  H.  Schofield,  Eng. 
Lit.  from  the  Norman  Conquest  (1906),  pp.  397-403,  and  the  bibli- 
ography p.  484 ;  A.  F.  Ozanam,  Dante  et  la  philosophic  catholique  au 
3e  siecle,  5th  ed. ;  K.  Borinski,  Ueber  poetische  Vision  und  Imagina- 
tion, ein  historisch-psychologischer  Versuch  anlasslich  Dantes  (1897). 
For  some  of  Dante's  apocalyptic  predecessors  see  Grandgent,  Dante 
(1916),  pp.  199-223;  and  for  biblical  and  early  post-biblical  visions, 
Gayley,  Plays  of. our  Forefathers  (1907),  pp.  228-278.  Other  works 
noted  below,  vi,  A,  References. 

For  rhythmical  epical  songs  of  contemporary  and  biblical  sub- 
jects, see  Ebert  2  :  311  ff.  The  relation  of  these  Latin  rhythmical 
(accentual)  songs  to  vernacular  epical  poetry  is  an  important  topic. 
See  Du  Me'ril,  Poe'sies  populaires  latines  ante'rieures  au  XIP 


700  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

siecle  (Paris:  1843);  Ker,  Dark  Ages;  et  al.  —  The  student  of 
the  eclogue  will  find  material  in  this  period,  as  in  the  previous 
(see  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  pp.  279,  550,  572,  590,  etc.). 

F.  The  Age  of  Otto  the  Great  and  his  Immediate  Successors 
(936-1000).  Although  the  disintegration  of  empires  and  the 
rise  of  feudalism  during  the  ninth  century  resulted  in  a  political 
and  linguistic  confusion  that  at  first  was  unfavorable  to  literary 
production,  yet  by  the  end  of  the  century  this  very  confusion  was 
already  the  source  of  new  inventions  and  endeavors.  Professor 
Ker  speaks  of  "  the  polyglot  experimental  character  of  literature, 
the  great  variety  of  tastes,  the  immense  possibilities  of  new 
discovery,  the  intercourse  of  different  languages  at  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century "  (Dark  Ages,  p.  221,  Note).  The  rise  of 
German  power,  also,  under  Henry  the  Fowler  and  Otto  the 
Great,  and  the  birth  under  German  auspices  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire,  were  the  occasion  of  a  renewed  interest  in  literature, 
inasmuch  as  the  new  court  emulated  the  court  of  Charlemagne 
in  all  its  former  glory,  —  literature  and  the  arts  included.  Among 
the  great  schools  of  the  time,  the  most  famous  were  those  of 
St.  Gall,  Fulda,  Tours,  and  Corvey.  The  new  imperial  interests 
and  the  variety  of  the  educational  influences  of  the  tenth  century 
(Roman,  Romance,  and  Greek)  are  well  typified  in  the  character 
and  schooling  of  Otto  III,  whose  learning  was  such  that  he  was 
called  "  the  wonder  of  the  world  "  the  while  he  dreamed  of  unit- 
ing all  peoples  under  his  rule  (see  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.,  article 
Germany,  vol.  XI,  p.  837). 

Under  the  influence  of  these  German  imperialisms  we  note 
some  access  of  vigor  in  the  Latin  epical  literature  of  the  north. 
The  Waltharius  of  Ekkehard  of  St.  Gall  is  "  the  most  important 
poem  of  the  tenth  century "  and  one  of  Germany's  chief  epics. 
In  it  may  be  studied  side  by  side  pagan  subject,  Christian  ideals, 
and  Virgilian  influence  upon  descriptions  of  battle.  The  poem 
may  well  be  called  an  art  epic ;  both  its  subject  and  its  manner 
are  nobly  conceived.  The  study  of  it  calls,  of  course,  for  that 
of  other  forms  in  which  the  Walter  saga  has  appeared :  Thidreks 


IV,  F]      LATIN  CHRISTIAN  NARRATIVE  POETRY         701 

Saga,  chaps.  241-244,  and  Skaldskaparmal ;  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Waldere  fragment ;  the  Scottish  ballads  of  Earl  Brand  and 
Erlinton  (cf.  F.  J.  Child,  Eng.  and  Scott.  Pop.  Ballads,  i  :  88  ff.). 
—  An  admirable  example  of  the  new  experiments  of  the  age  is 
found  in  the  beast  epic  Ecbasis  Captivi,  the  oldest  medieval  poem 
of  its  kind,  with  which  should  be  compared  the  Aesopic  and  other 
animal  fables  of  antiquity,  the  Physiologus,  or  Bestiary,  of  the 
Christian  Fathers,  and  the  great  epic  of  Reynard  the  Fox.  —  To 
these  examples  of  Latin  narrative  originating  in  Germany  may 
be  added  the  eight  religious  narratives,  in  leonine  hexametrical 
distichs,  of  the  nun  Hrosvitha  of  Gandersheim  ;  the  same  author's 
verse  chronicle,  Carmen  de  Gestis  Oddonis,  in  which  the  Roman 
epic  is  taken  as  a  model,  and  her  poem  on  the  history  of  her 
convent ;  also  the  poems  of  Walther  von  Speier  and  Purchard 
von  Reichenau  (note  the  dialogue  used  as  a  narrative  method, 
and  compare  the  Gesta  Apollonii  mentioned  by  Ebert  3  :  330 ; 
see  Ebert  3  :  333-342).  For  the  tenth-century  Latin  version  of 
the  Gesta  Apollonii,  see  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  614-616.  —  In 
France,  the  Latin  poetry  of  the  tenth  century  is  less  important 
than  the  vernacular.  Ebert  refers  to  the  Haager  fragment,  a 
Charlemagne  story  which  Gaston  Paris  believed  to  be  a  trans- 
lation from  a  chanson,  and  to  the  epical  saints-legend  of  Flodoard, 
De  Triumphis  Christi  (Ebert  3  :  349-351,  354-357).  —  For  prose 
lives  of  the  saints,  see  Ebert  3  :  394  ff.,  446  ff. ;  G.  H.  Gerould, 
Saints'  Legends  (Boston:  1916). 

Texts  and  Monographs.  The  Waltharius  has  been  edited,  with  a 
translation  into  German,  by  J.  V.  Scheffel  and  A.  Holder  (Stuttgart : 
1874);  for  bibliography  see  Ebert  3  :  265-276;  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M., 
609-614;  Encyc.  Brit.,  under  Waltharius.  On  the  beast  epic  see  Foulet, 
as  noted  above,  §  1 1  ;  J.  Jacobs,  The  Fables  of  Aesop  (1889) ;  F.  Storr's 
article,  Fable,  in  Encyc.  Brit.;  Laucherts,  Gesch.  des  Physiologus 
(Strassburg :  1889);  E.  Peters,  Der  griechische  Physiologus  und  seine 
orientalischen  Uebersetzungen  (Berlin:  1898);  Ebert  3:  276-285; 
Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  616-619;  further  under  Foulet.  On  Hrosvitha: 
Ebert  3:  285-314;  Manitius,  G.  1.  L.  M.,  619-632;  article  Hrosvitha 
in  Encyc.  Brit.  • 


702  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

G.  Eleventh  to  the  Fourteenth  Century. 

Particularly  helpful  is  Grober's  Ubersicht  iiber  die  lateinische  Lit. 
von  der  Mitte  des  6.  Jahrh.  bis  1350  (in  his  Grundriss  der  roman.  Philol., 
II,  I  (Strassburg:  1902).  An  attempt  toward  a  general  view  of  the 
period  is  contained  in  the  history  of  Christian  Greek  and  Latin  litera- 
ture by  the  Jesuit  savant  Alexander  Baumgartner  (Die  lateinische  und 
griechische  Lit.  der  christlichen  Volker,  Freiburg:  1900,  being  vol.  IV 
of  the  author's  Gesch.  der  Weltliteratur),  which  extends  from  the  be- 
ginnings of  Christian  literature  up  to  the  Latin  poems  of  Pope  Leo  XIII 
(ob.  1903).  Among  older  works  see  Polycarp  Leyser's  Historia  Poetarum 
et  Poematum  Medii  Aevi(i  721).  Quadrioand  Blankenburg-Sulzer  supply 
lists  of  Latin  writers  under  heads  pertaining  to  the  literary  types.  For  a 
brief  first  view  of  the  field  see  the  first  chapter  of  Saintsbury's  Flourish- 
ing of  Romance  (Lond. :  1897),  or  pp.  517-520  of  E.  Norden's  Die 
lateinische  Lit.  im  Ubergang  vorh  Altertum  zum  Mittelalter  (in  Hinne- 
berg's  Kultur  d.  Gegenwart,  Tl.  I,  Abt.  VIII.  3d  ed.  1912).  Among 
works  dealing  with  special  portions  of  the  field,  vols.  III-VI  of  Tiraboschi's 
Storia  della  lett.  ital.  (Milano :  1823),  and  the  second  and  third  vols. 
(F.  Novati,  Origini  della  lingua;  N.  Zingarelli,  Dante)  of  the  Storia  lett. 
d'  Italia  scritta  da  una  societa  di  professori,  may  be  consulted  for  the 
Italian  division ;  for  the  German  portion,  R.  Koegel,  Gesch.  der  deut- 
schen  Lit.  bis  zum  Ausgange  des  Mittelalters  (Strassburg:  1897);  also 
Koberstein,  Geiger,  and  Voigt  (as  below).  For  the  French  portion,  see 
the  vols.  of  the  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  of  the  Congregation  of  St.  Maur 
(Ed.,  P.  Paris) ;  for  the  Spanish,  Amador  de  los  Rios,  Historia  crftica  de 
la  lit.  espanola  (1861+);  for  the  English,  vol.  Ill  of  Henry  Morley's 
English  Writers  (3d  ed.  Lond.:  1893),  Chap.  II  of  W.  H.  Schofield's 
Eng.  Lit.  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  Chaucer  (N.Y. :  1906),  and 
T.  Wright,  Biographia  Britannica'  Literaria,  Anglo-Norman  Period 
(Lond. :  1 846).  Among  works  on  the  general  history  of  the  civilization 
and  culture  of  the  period,  see  A.  Bartoli,  I  precursori  del  Rinascimento 
(Firenze:  1876);  L.  Geiger,  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in  Italien 
und  Deutschland  (1882);  G.  Giesebrecht,  De  Litterarum  Studiis  apud 
Italos  Primis  Medii  Aevi  Saeculis  (Berlin :  1845);  H.  H.  Milman,  Hist. 
of  Latin  Christianity  (8  vols.  N.Y.:  1860);  J.  E.  Sandys,  A  Hist,  of 
Classical  Scholarship  from  the  6th  Cent.  B.  c.  to  the  End  of  the  Middle 
Ages  (Cambridge :  1 903) ;  H.  O.  Taylor,  The  Mediaeval  Mind  (2  vols. 
Lond. :  1911);  G.  Voigt,  Die  Wiederbelebung  des  classischen  Alterthums 
(2  vols.  3d  ed.  Berlin:  1893).  A  concise  list  of  historical  works  is 
appended  to  H.  W.  C.  Davis'  Medieval  Europe  (Home  Univ.  Library). 


V,  A]  FRENCH  EPICS  703 

V.  French  Epics. 

• 
A.    Chanson  de  Roland. 

There  are  several  bibliographical  guides  to  material  on  the  Chanson 
de  Roland.  See  J.  Bauquier,  Bibliographic  de  la  Chanson  de  Roland 
(Heilbronn :  1877);  Petit  de  Julleville,  La  Chanson  de  Roland,  traduction 
nouvelle,  etc.  (Paris:  1878;  pp.  30-45);  L.  Gautier,  Les  epopees  fran- 
Qaises  (2d  ed.  4  vols.  Paris:  1878-94;  see  vol.  Ill,  pp.  494-591, 
—  vol.  Ill  is  dated  1880);  K.  Nyrop,  Den  oldfranske  Heltedigtning 
(Copenh. :  1883  ;  see  pp.  464-469.  This  work  has  been  translated  into 
Italian  by  E.  Gorra,  Storiadell'  epopea  f rancese,  1888);  Korting,  Encykl., 
etc.  (1886;  3:  329-331);  E.  Seelmann,  Bibliographic  des  altfranzosi- 
schen  Rolandsliedes  (Heilbronn:  1888);  L.  Gautier,  Bibliographic  des 
Chansons  de  Geste  (Paris:  1897).  This  last  has  been  reprinted,  with 
additions  that  bring  it  down  to  1906,  by  J.  Geddes,  Jr.  (La  Chanson  de 
Roland.  N.Y. :  1906;  pp.  Ixxxix-clvi).  The  student  will  find  the 
most  important  part  of  the  critical  paraphernalia  for  the  Roland  in 
this  reprint,  and  its  repetition  here  would  be  an  uncalled-for  labor.  For 
a  complete  bibliography  of  works  up  to  1 888,  consult  Seelmann  as  noted. 
See  further  the  bibliography  at  the  head  of  B,  below. 

The  two  most  interesting  and  important  questions  concerning 
the  Roland  are  (a)  how  did  the  poem  arrive  at  its  present  form  ? 
and  (3)  why  did  its  growth  stop  when  it  reached  its  present 
form  ?  The  development  of  the  poem  from  popular  beginnings, 
the  changes  of  culture  through  which  it  passed,  the  retelling  by 
later  ages  on  a  broader  historical  scale  and  with  greater  artistic 
skill,  are  facts  that  find  their  parallel  in  other  epic  literatures ;  and 
they  are  of  very  great  value  because  of  the  parallelism,  for  they 
provide  material  for  establishing  the  principles  of  the  earlier  stages 
of  epic  development  But  to  just  what  stage  of  Greek  epic  de- 
velopment the  Roland  in  its  present  form  is  analogous  is  a  question 
that  has  not  been  finally  answered.  Does  it  correspond  to  the 
courtly  minstrel  lay  that  perhaps  developed  just  before  '  Homer' 
put  his  hand  to  the  final  telling  of  the  stories  of  the  remote  past  ? 
Or  is  it  the  analogue  of  the  Iliad  in  its  present  form,  the  differ- 
ences of  conception  and  treatment  as  between  the  two  epics  being 
due  merely  to  the  accident  of  greater  or  less  poetic  genius  in  the 


704  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

respective  '  shapers '  ?  The  student  need  not  despair  of  gaining 
further  insight  into  this  question;  for  though  there  has  been 
much  investigation  of  the  Roland,  and  some  of  that  of  a  compara- 
tive nature,  systematic  comparison  may  yet  be  pushed  to  more 
definite  results.  —  The  comparison  of  the  cultural  strata  revealed 
in  the  archaeology  of  the  Roland  and  the  Iliad  should  afford 
material  aid  toward  establishing  the  relative  position  of  the  poems 
in  the  history  of  epic  development  (compare  Chadwick's  Heroic 
Age,  cited  above,  §  1 1). 

Editions  6f  the  French  text  are  by  Michel  (ed.  princeps,  1837;  also 
1869);  Ge"nin  (1850);  Th.  Muller  (Gottingen  :  1851,  etc.  The  3d  ed., 
1878,  is  regarded  as  standard) ;  Bohmer  (Halle :  1872) ;  Gautier  (8th  ed. 
Tours:  1881  ;  also  standard,  —  with  translation  into  modern  French 
opposite  the  ancient  text);  Cle"dat  (1885);  Stengel,  standard,  and  the 
best  for  the  general  student  (1900  +  ).  Some  of  the  translations  into 
modern  French  are  as  follows :  in  prose,  by  Ge"nin  and  by  Gautier ;  in 
verse,  by  J  6nain  ( 1 862),  Petit  de  Julleville ( 1 8 7 1 ),  A.  d' Avril  (4th  ed. ,  1 880). 
English  translations:  by  Mrs.  Marsh  (Lond. :  1853);  J.  O'Hagan,  in 
verse  (Lond. :  1 880),  with  an  interesting  literary  introduction ;  L.  RabHlon, 
in  verse  (N.Y. :  1885);  Isabel  Butler,  in  prose  (Boston:  1904).  The 
most  recent  translation  is  by  Leonard  Bacon  (Yale  Univ.  Press,  and 
Oxford  Univ.  Press:  1914),  in  ballad  metres  of  swinging  rhythm  and 
vigorous  spirit.  The  introduction  treats  of  the  literary  characteristics  of 
the  poem  and  the  controversy  concerning  the  personality  of  the  author. 
German  translations  by  Hertz  (Stuttgart:  1861),  E.  Muller  (Hamburg: 
1891),  Schmilinsky  (Halle:  1895). 

References.  The  following  list  indicates  some  of  the  more  important 
treatises  bearing  upon  the  subject,  —  see  especially  those  of  G.  Paris, 
Rajna,  Nyrop,  and  Gautier :  M.  Arnold,  Essays  in  Criticism,  2d  Series, 
The  Study  of  Poetry  (Lond. :  1888) ;  A.  d' Avril,  La  Chanson  de  Roland, 
Introd.  (Paris:  1865);  R.  Bauer,  Ueber  die  subjectiven  Wendungen  in 
den  altfrz.  Karlsepen,  etc.  (Frankfurt  a.  M.:  1889);  J.  Bddier,  Les 
le"gendes  dpiques,  as  noted  above,  §  n,  —  very  important;  I.  Bekker, 
Vergleichung  homerischen  und  altfranzosischen  Sitten  (in  Monatsbe- 
richte  der  Berliner  Akademie,  1886,  pp.  133,  316,  465,  577,  634,  741): 
cf.  articles  by  the  same  author  (ibid.,  1 867,  pp.  429-444,  68 1  -689,  730- 
740);  G.  Brueckner,  Das  Verhaltnis  des  franzosischen  Rolandsliedes 
zur  Turpinischen  Chronik,  etc.  (Rostock:  1905);  V.  Crescini,  Orlando 
nella  Chanson  de  Roland,  etc.  (Bologna :  1880) ;  Diehl,  Die  Rolandssage 


V,  A]  FRENCH  EPICS  705 

in  der  altfrz.  Poesie  (Marienwerder :  1867);  H.  Drees,  Der  Gebrauch 
der  Epitheta  ornantia  im  altfrz.  Rolandsliede  (Miinster :  1883);  T.  Eicke, 
Zur  neueren  Literaturgeschichte  der  Rolandsage  in  Deutschland  und 
Frankreich  (Leipz. :  1891);  L.  Gautier,  as  above;  by  the  same,  L'idee 
religieuse  dans  la  poe'sie  e"pique  du  moyen  age  (Paris :  1 868) ;  J.  Geddes, 
Jr.,  as  above;  F.  Gdnin,  La  Chanson  de  Roland  (Paris:  1850;  pp.  vi- 
xv);  P.  Graevell,  Die  Characteristik  der  Personen  im  Rolandslied 
(Heilbr.:  1880);  W.  M.  Hart,  Ballad  and  Epic  (see  §  1 1,  above);  C.  T. 
Hoeft,  Franc,  Franceis  und  Franc  im  Rol.  (Strassburg:  1891);  W.  P. 
Ker,  Epic  and  Romance  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1908 ;  see  Chap.  V,  a  valuable 
chapter,  and  Index);  S.  Luce,  Le  genie  frangais  dans  la  Chanson  de 
Roland  (in  Rev.  contemp.,  15:  630-645);  F.  B.  Luquiens,  The  Re- 
construction of  the  Original  Chanson  de  Roland  (reprinted  from  the 
Transactions  of  the  Connecticut  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
vol.  XV,  111-136,  July  1909);  A.  R.  Marsh,  an  admirable  introduction 
for  the  English  student,  cited  above,  §  1 1  ;  G.  Merlet  and  E.  Lintilhac, 
Etudes  litte'raires  sur  les  classiques  frangais  (new  ed.  2  vols.  Paris: 
1899-1900;  see  vol.  II);  L.  de  Monge  (serf  above,  §  8);  Nyrop's  im- 
portant work,  already  noted;  G.  Paris,  Hist.  poe"tique  de  Charlemagne 
(Paris:  1865;  new  ed.,  1905),  —  invaluable;  by  the  same,  La  Chanson 
de  Roland  et  les  Nibelungen  (in  Rev.  germanique,  25  :  292-302) ;  by 
the  same,  La  litt.  frangaise  au  moyen  age  (3d  ed.  Paris:  1905;  see 
§§  33-37'  or  PP-  55-65,  and  cf.  above,  §§  5,  1 1),  —  all  works  by  G.  Paris 
are  important ;  Petit  de  Julleville,  La  Chanson  de  Roland,  histoire,  analyse, 
etc.  (Paris :  1 894) ;  F.  Picco,  Rolando  nella  storia  e  nella  poesia  (Torino : 
1901);  P.  Rajna,  La  rotta  di  Roncisvalle  nella  letteratura  cavalleresca 
italiana  (Bologna:  1871);  by  the  same,  Le  fonti  dell'  Orlando  Furioso 
(Firenze :  1876);  by  the  same,  Le  origini  dell'  epopea  francese  (1884), 
—  all  of  prime  importance ;  F.  Scholle,  Der  Stammbaum  der  altfrz.  und 
altnord.  Uberlief.  der  Rol.,  etc.  (Berlin:  1889);  E.  Souvestre,  Causeries 
historiques  et  litte'raires,  3e  se"rie  (Paris:  1861);  F.  Settegast,  Quellen- 
studien  zur  gallo-romanischen  Epik  (Leipz.:  1904);  A.  Volta,  Storia 
poetica  di  Orlando  (Bologna :  1 894) ;  F.  Ziller,  Der  epische  Styl  des 
altfrz.  Rolandsliedes  (Magdeburg:  1883);  N.  Zingarelli,  L'  unita  della 
Chanson  de  Roland  (in  Rivista  d"1  Italia,  Oct.  1907);  K.  Zutavern, 
Ueber  die  altfrz.  epische  Sprache  (Heidelberg:  1885). —  For  the  Roland 
in  Italy,  see  the  Italian  works  just  mentioned.  For  the  German  Rolands- 
lied,  see  Paul's  Grundriss  (2d  ed.,  2:1,1 72) ;  Golther  (in  Zeitschr.  f. 
deut.  Alterthum,  27:  70  ff.);  Gautier,  Epope'es  (III,  546-547,  Note); 
Paris,  Hist,  poetique,  etc.,  p.  iiSff. ;  Geddes,  as  cited  above  (see 
pp.  Ixix,  cxl-cxlii);  B.  Baumgarten,  Stilistische  Untersuchungen  zum 


706  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

deutschen  Rolandsliede.  The  text  of  the  German  Roland  has  been 
edited  by  W.  Grimm  (Ruolandes  Liet.  Gottingen :  1 838),  and  by  Bartsch 
(Deut.  Dicht.  des  M.A.,  III.  1874).  —  For  the  Roland  in  the  Nether- 
lands, Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  England,  Spain,  and  Italy,  see  Geddes, 
pp.  Ixx-lxxx,  cxliii-clx. 

Much  material  on  the  Roland  is  contained  in  the  periodicals.  Only 
a  very  few  typical  references  can  be  mentioned  here :  Herrigs  Archiv, 
48:  291;  Rev.  critique,  1869,  2:  173;  Revue  germanique,  25:  292; 
Romania,  2:  329,  480;  7:  435;  n:  400,  570;  12:  113;  Roman. 
Forsch.,  I  :  429, 452 ;  Zeitschr.f.  rom.  Phil.,  4  :  371,  583  ;  9 :  204.  For 
further  guide  to  the  periodicals,  see  Petit  de  Julleville,  Paris,  Gautier,  and 
the  references  to  bibliographies  given  at  the  beginning  of  this  division. 

For  references  on  the  institution  of  chivalry,  see  in  this  section,  below, 
vi,  E,  under  Tasso. 

B.    Other  Chansons  de  Geste. 

For  titles,  texts,  and  general  bibliography,  consult  Gautier,  Biblio- 
graphic and  Les  epopees,  G.  Paris,  La  litt.  franc,aise  (pp.  285-290), 
Saintsbury,  The  Flourishing  of  Romance  (pp.  38-43,  following  Gautier, 
and  giving  a  partial  roster  of  the  Chansons  that  have  been  printed), 
Nyrop,  Demogeot,  and  Constans,  —  as  listed  and  described  in  the  ref- 
erences below.  See  also  Korting,  Encykl.,  etc.,  3:  312-336.  Refer, 
in  addition,  to  the  bibliography  given  above  in  connection  with  the 
Troubadours  (see  §  6,  vu,  B),  for  relations  between  their  lyric  and 
the  epical  Chansons.  In  addition  to  the  bibliographical  works  listed 
at  the  head  of  vu  in  §  6,  consult :  U.  Chevalier,  Repertoire  des  sources 
historiques  du  moyen  age  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.  in  4.  Paris:  1905-07); 
A.  Molinier,  Les  sources  de  1'histoire  de  France  des  origines  aux  guerres 
d'ltalie  (5  vols.  Paris:  1901-06);  E.  Langlois,  Table  des  noms  propres 
de  toute  nature  compris  dans  les  Chansons  de  Geste  imprimdes  (Paris : 
1904). 

Most  of  the  studies  that  have  concerned  themselves  with  this 
field  have  aimed  to  establish  texts,  trace  sources  and  borrowings, 
and  show  international  distribution  of  themes.  The  general  facts 
that  there  was  much  borrowing  and  that  the  distribution  of  the 
themes  was  extensive  are  of  importance  because  they  confirm  the 
supposition  that  in  the  evolution  of  the  epic  such  conditions  gener- 
ally occur  and  constitute  a  stage.  And  the  methods  of  borrowing 
are  important  in  so  far  as  they  show  the  specific  laws  of  the  epic 


V,  B]  FRENCH  EPICS  707 

growth  at  this  particular  stage.  But  when  the  historian  contents 
himself,  as  too  often  has  been  the  case,  with  the  mere  results  of 
Fingerfertigkeit,  the  upshot  is  but  the  gossip  of  investigation. 
There  is  room  for  significant  endeavor  in  the  correlation  of  the 
chanson  stage  with  those  that  precede  and  succeed  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  folk  epic.  Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
union  of  lyrical  and  epical  qualities  in  the  Chansons.  Is  this 
union  characteristic  of  the  chanson  stage  in  other  literatures  ? 
If  so,  how  is  it  related  to  the  consciousness  of  the  age  ?  And 
from  what  change  of  circumstances  does  the  epical  consciousness 
as  such  develop  ? 

Editions.  See  the  publications  of  the  Socie"te*  des  anciens  textes 
frangais  and  the  series  called  Les  anciens  poetes  de  la  France.  For 
detailed  bibliography  of  texts  see  the  guides  already  noted  at  the  head 
of  this  division  and  of  §  6,  ,vn,  B. 

References.  The  following  works  are  representative  of  what  has 
been  done  by  way  of  criticism  upon  the  Chansons :  the  anthologies  of 
K.  Bartsch  and  others  (see  ab'ove,  §  6,  vu,  B,  general  anthologies); 

E.  Altner,  Uber  die  Chastiements  in  den  altfranzosischen  Chansons  de 
Geste  (Leipz. :   1885);  J.  Altona,  Gebete  und  Anrufungen  in  den  Ch. 
de  Geste  (1883);    J.  Be"dier,   Les  legendes  e"piques,  as  noted  above, 
under  Chanson  de  Roland ;  I.  Bekker,  Gegeniiberstellung  homerischer 
und  altfrz.  Sitte  und  Ausdrucksweise  (in  Monatsberichte  d.  Berl.  Akad. 
d.  Wissenschaften,  1865-66;  and  a  similar  article  in  the  vol.  for  1867); 

F.  Castets,  Recherches  sur  les  rapports  des  Chansons  de  Geste  et 
de   1'epopee   chevaleresque   italienne    (in    Rev.  d.   langues    romanes, 
vols.  27  ff.) ;    L.   Constans,   Chrestomathie  de  1'ancien  •  frangais,   IXe- 
XVe   siecles   (Paris:    1906;    see   pp.  6-18);    W.   D.   Crabb,    Culture 
History  in  the  Chanson  de  Geste  —  Aymeri  de  Narbonne  (Univ.  of 
Chicago  Press) ;  E.  Cre"pet,  ed.,  Les  poetes  frangais,  etc.  (4  vols.   Paris : 
1861  ;  see  vol.  I  Table  des  Matieres,  Pre"liminaires ;  Les  Chansons  de 
Geste;    Les  Chansons;  etc.);  J.  Demogeot,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  frangaise 
(22d  ed.   Paris :  1 886 ;  see  Chaps.  VI I-X,  and  the  bibliography,  pp.  691- 
692) ;  G.  Doutrepont,  La  litt.  fr.  a  la  cour  des  dues  de  Bourgogne  (in 
Bibliotheque  du  XVe  siecle,  vol.  VIII.  Paris:    1909);   E.  Faral,  Les 
jongleurs    en    France    au   moyen    age    (in    Bibliotheque    de    ricole 
des    hautes    ttudes,    Sc.   hist,    et    philol.,    187.    1910);     Fauriel,    De 
Porigine   de   Pe'pope'e   chevaleresque    du   moyen   age   (Paris:     1832); 


708  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

E.  Freymond,  Jongleurs  und  Menestrels  (Halle:  1883);  L.  Gautier, 
Bibliographic  des  Chansons  de  Geste  (see  above,  under  A,  and  below, 
under  Petit  de  Julleville);  by  the  same,  Les  e"popees  fr.  (vol.  Ill, 
pp.  494-591  ;  see  above,  §  u);  vfor  Grober,  see  above,  §  1 1  ;  E.  Hen- 
ninger,  Sitten  und  Gebrauche  bei  der  Taufe  und  Namengebung  in  der 
altfrz.  Dichtung  (Halle:  1891);  C.  d'Hericault  (see  above,  §  n); 
W.  P.  Ker,  Epic  and  Romance  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1 908) ;  G.  Kurth,  Hist. 
poe"tique  des  Mdrovingiens  (Paris,  etc. :  1893);  Abbe  de  La  Rue,  Essais 
historiques  sur  les  bar  des,  les  jongleurs  et  les  trouveres  normands  et 
anglo-normands  (3  vols.  Caen:  1834);  H.  Massing,  Die  Geistlichkeit 
im  altfrz.  Volksepos  (Darmstadt:  1904.  Diss.);  C.  J.  Merk,  Anschau- 
ungen  iiber  die  Lehre  und  das  Leben  der  Kirche  im  altfrz.  Heldenepos 
(in  Beihefte  z.  Zeitschr.  f.  roman.  Phil.,  No.  41.  1914);  P.  Meyer 
(see  above,  §  1 1 ) ;  L.  Moland,  Origines  litte'raires  de  la  France,  etc. 
(Paris:  1862);  K.  Nyrop,  Oldfranske  Heltedigtning,  a  very  important 
and  reliable  work  (1883.  For  an  Italian  translation  see  above,  §  n); 
G.  Paris,  La  poe"sie  du  moyen  age  (2  vols.  Paris :  1 903-06) ;  by  the 
same,  La  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age  (see  §§  18-42,  and  cf.  above,  §§  5,  1 1); 
by  the  same,  Poemes  et  le"gendes  du  moyen  age  (4th  ed.  Paris:  1912), 
—  important  and  reliable;  P.  Paris,  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  (Paris: 
1852;  vol.  XXII,  pp.  259-755);  a  short  and  convenient  list  of  "  livres 
re"ellement  indispensables,"  by  Gautier,  in  Petit  de  Julleville's  Hist,  de 
la  langue  et  de  la  litt.  fr.  (see  vol.  I,  pp.  168-170.  Paris:  1896.  See 
pp.  49-170  of  the  same  vol.  for  a  general  account  of  the  Chansons, — 
one  of  the  best  accounts  the  student  can  consult) ;  E.  Quinet,  De  1'hist. 
de  la  poe"sie  (CEuvres  completes,  vol.  IX.  Paris:  n.  d.);  by  the  same, 
Rapport  sur  les  e"pope"es  franchises  du  XII*  siecle  (Paris:  1831); 
P.  Rajna,  I  reali  di  Francia,  a  valuable  work  (Bologna:  1872);  by 
the  same,  and  a  still  more  important  work,  Le  origini  dell'  epopea 
francese  (Firenze:  1884;  see  above,  §  n);  G.  Saintsbury,  The  Flour- 
ishing of  Romance  (N.Y.:  1897;  see  pp.  22-85);  W.  Scheffler, 
Geschichte  der  frz.  Volksdichtung  und  Sage  (Leipz. :  1883-85); 
R.  Schroder,  Glaube  und  Aberglaube  in  der  altfrz.  Dichtung  (Er- 
langen :  1886);  H.  Theodor,  Die  komischen  Elemente  in  den  altfrz. 
Chansons  de  Geste  (in  Beihefte  z.  Zeitschr.  f.  roman.  Phil.,  No.  48. 
J913);  J-  L.  Uhland,  Uber  das  altfrz.  Epos  (in  Gesammelte  Schriften 
zur  Geschichte  der  Dichtung  und  Sage.  Herausg.  von  Holland.  8  vols. 
Stuttgart:  1865-73  ;  see  vol.  IV,  p.  327 ff.);  C.  Voretzsch,  Die  franzo- 
sische  Heldensage  (Heidelberg:  1894);  an  article  by  the  same  author 
in  Philolog.  Studien.,  Festgabe  fur  E.  Sievers  (1896).  Much  material 
will  be  found  in  the  periodicals. 


V,  C]  FRENCH  EPICS  709 

C.  Epical  Romances :  P  Epopee  Antique.  Interesting  examples 
of  the  assimilation  of  foreign  stories  into  the  literature  of  a  nation 
are  furnished  by  certain  epical  romances  of  portentous  length 
dealing  with  subjects  of  antiquity.  To  the  fact  that  in  France 
this  assimilation  took  place  when  the  national  epopee  had  already 
achieved  its  ripest  utterance  is  due  in  part,  at  least,  the  absence 
of  epic  vigor  in  these  later  romances.  The  relations  of  the  Epopee 
Antique,  and  the  Epopee  Courtoise  (see  below),  to  the  Chansons 
de  Geste,  and  the  accounting  for  those  relations  in  terms  of 
development  and  epical  variation,  are  difficult  subjects. 

References.  For  detailed  bibliography  of  the  various  cycles  of  the 
£pope"e  Antique  (cycles  of  Thebes,  Troy,  Alexander,  etc.),  and  of  the 
individual  poems  as  well,  consult  in  the  following  list  the  works  by 
G.  Paris  (Litt.  fr.,  pp.  290-292)  and  Petit  de  Julleville.  Representa- 
tive studies  are :  D.  Comparetti,  Virgilio  nel  medio  evo  (Livorno :  1870. 
English  trans,  by  E.  F.  M.  Benecke.  Lond. :  1908.  See  above,  §  n); 
L.  Constans,  La  tegende  d'CEdipe,  etc.  (Paris:  1881);  R.  de  Derned, 
Ueber  die  den  altfrz.  Dichtern  bekannten  epischen  Stoffe,  etc.  (Erlangen : 
1887),  with  which  should  be  used  the  work  of  similar  title  by  Birch- 
Hirschfeld  (see  above,  §  6,  vn,  B)  ;  H.  Dunger,  Die  Sage  vom  trojani- 
schen  Kriege,  etc.  (Dresden:  1869);  E.  Faral,  Recher.  sur  les  sources 
lat.  des  contes  et  romans  court.  (Paris:  1913),  —  influence  of  Ovid, 
priority  of  '  antique '  romances ;  M.  Gaster,  Ilchester  Lectures  on 
Greeko-Slavonic  Literature  and  its  Relation  to  the  Folk-Lore  of  Europe 
(Lond. :  1887) ;  E.  Gorra,  Testi  inediti  di  storia  trojana  (Torino :  1887 ; 
see  the  introduction) ;  A.  Graf,  Roma  nella  memoria  e  nelle  immagina- 
zioni  del  medio  evo  (Torino :  1 882) ;  W,  Greif ,  Die  mittelalterlichen 
Bearbeitungen  der  Trojanersage  (Marburg:  1886);  F.  H.  von  der 
Hagen,  Der  Roman  von  Konig  Apollonius  in  seinen  verschiedenen 
Bearbeitungen  (Berlin:  1878);  A.  Joly,  Benoit  de  Sainte-More  et  le 
Roman  de  Troie,  etc.  (2  vols.  Paris:  1870-71);  G.  Kdrting,  Dictys 
und  Dares,  etc.  (Halle:  1874);  P.  Meyer,  Alexandre  le  Grand  dans 
la  litte"rature  franchise  du  moyen  age  (2  vols.  Paris:  1886);  G.  Paris, 
.La  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age,  §§43-52,  —  this  and  the  following  work 
present  excellent  rhume's  of  the  subject;  Petit  de  Julleville,  vol.  I, 
pp.  1 71-253,  with  bibliography  of  the  most  important  works  on  pp.  252- 
253;  E.  Rohde,  Der  griechische  Roman  (Leipz. :  1876),  an  admirable 
work,  suggestive  of  questions  as  to  the  relation  of  the  Greek  romance 


710  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

development  and  the  French  romance  poems  to  the  epic  literatures  of 
the  two  nations;  G.  Saintsbury,  The  Flourishing  of  Romance  (N.Y. : 
1897;  see  Chap.  IV,  pp.  148-186).  Further  references  in  Betz- 
Baldensperger,  La  litt.  compare'e,  essai  bibliographique,  p.  282  ff. 
(2d  ed.  Strasbourg:  1904). 

For  the  romances  of  adventure^  the  first  of  which  seem  to  have 
been  written  under  the  influence  of  the  romances  of  antiquity  and 
from  which  the  knight-errantry  of  the  Breton  romances  is  absent, 
see  G.  Paris,  Litt.  fr.  §§  65-71,  Mediaeval  French  Lit.  pp.  70—73  ; 
Petit  de  Julleville  and  Saintsbury,  as  noted  above. 

D.  Epical  Romances:  r Epopee  Courtoise.  The  romances  of 
this  division  are  largely  of  Celtic-Breton  derivation,  and  the 
variations  in  subject  and  poetic  conception  as  compared  with 
the  other  materials  of  French  epical  romance  afford  striking 
problems  of  analysis,  comparison,  and  classification.  With  the 
epical  romances  of  Arthurian  themes  the  student  should  compare 
the  contemporary  lyric  of  courtoisie,  already  noticed  (see  above, 
§  6,  vn,  B).  He  should  note,  also,  the  remarks  on  the  relation 
of  the  metrical  romances  to  the  national  epic  that  occur  below 
(xi,  c ;  ix,  D). 

References.  Only  works  of  general  importance,  relating  to  all  the 
cycles,  can  be  mentioned  here.  For  detailed  bibliography  of  the 
various  cycles  and  individual  poems,  see  in  the  following  list  the  works 
by  G.  Paris  (Litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age,  pp.  293-297),  Petit  de  Julleville, 
and  Ward.  Representative  studies  are :  A.  C.  L.  Brown,  Iwain,  a 
Study  in  the  Origins  of  Arthurian  Romance  (Boston:  1903;  in 
[Harvard]  Studies  and  Notes  in  Philology  and  Literature,  vol.  VIII); 
C.  V.  Langlois,  La  socie'te'  franc;,  au  XII Ie  siecle  d'apres  dix  romans 
d'aventure  (Paris:  1904);  G.  de  La  Rue  (see  above,  under  B);  A.  Nutt, 
Studies  on  the  Legend  of  the  Holy  Grail  (Lond.:  1888);  W.  A.  Nitze, 
The  Old  French  Grail  Romance,  Perlesvaus,  etc.  (Baltimore:  1902),  a 
good  example  in  English  of  the  modern  monographs  upon  the  various 
French  romances;  G.  Paris,  Litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age,  §§  53-71 ;  P.  Paris,. 
Les  romans  de  la  table  ronde  (5  vols.  Paris:  1868-77),  and  Gaston 
Paris,  the  same,  in  vol.  XXX  of  the  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  (Paris : 
1888);  Petit  de  Julleville,  vol.  I,  pp.  254-344,  with  the  bibliography 
of  the  most  important  works  on  pp.  340-344;  G.  Saintsbury,  The 


V,  E]  FRENCH  EPICS  /I  I 

Flourishing  of  Romance,  Chap.  Ill,  pp.  86-147;  Villemarque",  Les 
romans  de  la  table  ronde  et  les  contes  des  anciens  Bretons  (Paris : 
1859);  H.  L.  D.  Ward,  Catalogue  of  Romances  in  the  Department 
of  Manuscripts  in  the  British  Museum  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1 883-93).  See 
further  Betz-Baldensperger,  La  litt.  comparee,  essai  bibliographique, 
pp.  22-31  (Strasbourg:  1904). 

E.  Later  French  Epics.  Aside  from  the  metrical  romances,  the 
student  should  notice,  as  also  belonging  to  the  close  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  animal-epic  of  Reynard  (ed.  by  E.  Martin,  Le  Roman 
de  Renard,  Strasbourg  and  Paris,  1882-1885),  the  Roman  de  la 
Rose,  and  various  religious  and  didactic  poems.  See  the  works 
of  Aubertin,  G.  Paris,  Gautier,  Lanson,  already  mentioned;  and 
J.  Bedier,  Les  fabliaux,  etudes  de  litt.  populaire  et  de  1'histoire 
litt.  du  moyen  age  (Paris:  1895);  L.  Sudre,  Les  sources  du 
Roman  de  Renart  (Paris:  1893);  the  masterly  and  definitive 
comparative  study  of  Reynard  literature  by  Lucien  Foulet,  Le 
Roman  de  Renard  (Paris :  1914.  See  under  Foulet,  §  n,  above) ; 
E.  Langlois,  Origines  et  sources  du  Roman  de  la  Rose  (Paris: 
1891).  In  the  sixteenth  century  should  be  noted  Ronsard's  Fran- 
ciade  (see  A.  Binet,  Vie  de  Pierre  Ronsard,  in  Archives  curieuses 
de  1'hist.  de  France,  Paris  :  1834-40  ;  and  the  CEuvres  de  Ronsard, 
—  ed.  Marty-Laveaux,  Paris:  1857-67,  —  and  in  Bibl.  Elze'v., 
Paris:  1857-67)  and  Du  Bartas'  Judith  and  La  Sepmaine,  ou 
la  creation  en  sept  journe'es,  —  poems  of  the  new  '  classical ' 
tendencies  represented  by  the  Pleiade  (see  G.  Pellissier,  La  vie 
et  les  oeuvres  de  Du  Bartas,  Paris :  1883  ;  P.  Weller,  J.  Sylvester's 
englische  Uebersetzung  d.  relig.  Epen  d.  Du  Bartas,  1902  ;  A.  H. 
Upham,  French  Influence  in  Eng.  Lit.,  Chap.  IV,  N.  Y. :  1908; 
and  Du  Bartas'  CEuvres,  Paris:  1593).  On  Ronsard  and  Du 
Bartas  see  Tilley,  Lit.  of  the  French  Renaissance.  At  this  point ' 
the  imitation  of  the  classical  epics  takes  the  place  of  the  more 
native  and  original  attempts  we  have  heretofore  noticed.  In  the 
next  century  this  imitative  rage  achieved  its  climax  of  tiresome 
artificiality  in  Le  Moyne's  Saint-Louis,  Desmarets  de  Saint-Sorlin's 
Clovis,  Scude'ry's  Alaric,  the  Charlemagne  of  Louis  le  Laboureur, 


712  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§12 

Perrault's  Saint-Paulin,  and  Chapelain's  La  Pucelle  d'Orleans 
(see  Finsler,  Homer  in  der  Neuzeit,  pp.  157-163,  174-175; 
J.  Duchesne,  Histoire  des  poemes  epiques  frangais  du  17"  siecle, 
Paris:  1870;  R.  Reumann,  Georges  de  Scude'ry  als  Epiker, 
Diss.  Leipz. :  1911).  These  gradually  gave  way  to  the  prose 
romances  of  La  Calprenede,  Madeleine  Scudery,  etc.  To  the 
same  century  belong  the  burlesque  epics  of  Paul  Scarron  (Virgile 
travesti)  and  Boileau  (Le  lutrin) ;  and  at  the  close  of  the  cen- 
tury appeared  Fenelon's  prose  epic,  Tele'maque.  To  the  following 
century  belong  Marmontel's  translation  of  the  Pharsalia,  and 
Voltaire's  Henriade.  The  pseudo-epics  of  the  Empire  may  be 
represented  by  the  Philippe-Auguste  of  Parseval  de  Grandmaison  ; 
for  others,  see  the  works  of  Dumesnil,  Campenon,  and  Luce  de 
Lancival.  In  the  nineteenth  century  also  belong  the  Jocelyn  and 
La  chute  d'un  ange  of  Lamartine,  and  Hugo's  La  legende  des 
siecles.  For  the  bibliography  of  these  later  epics  the  student  is 
referred  to  the  histories  of  French  literature  listed  below  in  the 
Appendix. 

VI.  Italian  Epics. 

Included  in  the  series  Storia  dei  generi  letterari  italiani  are  two 
helpful  works,  —  F.  Foffano's  II  poema  cavalleresco  (Milano :  1 904)  and 
A.  Belloni's  II  poema  epico  e  mitologico  (1911  ?).  Of  the  aid  offered 
by  the  various  histories  of  Italian  literature  the  student  should  avail 
himself  largely.  These  histories,  with  an  indication  of  their  relative 
importance,  are  listeS  in  the  Appendix;  but  it  may  be  said  here  that 
the  student  who  cannot  read  Italian  will  find  excellent  aid  in  the 
history  in  German  by  Gaspary  and  its  English  translation  by  Oelsner 
(consult  vol.  II  of  the  German  ed.  of  1884,  Chap.  XX  Chivalrous 
Poetry,  Pulci  and  Boiardo;  XXIV  Ariosto ;  XXVIII  Heroic  Poetry 
in  the  Sixteenth  Century;  and  vol.  I  for  Dante),  and  in  the  history 
in  French  by  Hauvette  (1906).  The  histories  of  Sismondi  (trans, 
by  Roscoe)  and  Symonds  present  valuable  insights.  Garnett's  is 
brief  but  admirable.  None  of  the  following  is  of  much  value : 
L.  Frigeri,  Principii  della  nuova  epopea  italiana  (Mantova:  1879); 
D.  Giovanni,  Della  poesia  epica  in  Italia  nel  secoli  XVI  e  XVII  (in 
Eff.  Sic.,  May-June,  1876);  A.  Graf,  Epopea  in  Italia  (in  his  Letture 


VI,  A]  ITALIAN  EPICS  713 

per  le  giovinette.  V,  fasc.  2).  The  student  of  literary  movements  in 
relation  to  cultural  conditions  will  find  very  suggestive  F.  Loise's 
Histoire  de  la  podsie  mise  en  rapport  avec  la  civilisation  en  Italic 
(Bruxelles :  1 895).  The  same  student  will  naturally  require  the  aid 
of  general  histories  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  inasmuch  as  the  work 
of  Boiardo,  Ariosto,  and  Tasso  falls  into  relation  with  that  period.  He 
will  find  a  bibliography  of  such  histories  in  Korting  (Encykl.  1886. 
3 :  698-699).  Especially  helpful  are  J.  Burckhardt's  Die  Cultur  der 
Renaissance  in  Italicn  (3d  ed.  Leipz. :  1877),  E.  Gebhart's  Les  origines 
de  la  Renaissance  en  Italic  (Paris:  1879),  W.  Pater's  The  Renaissance 
(suggestive  and  subjective,  appreciative),  Symonds'  Renaissance  in  Italy 
(see  above,  §  8),  and  the  masterly  work  of  G.  Voigt,  Die  Wiederbelebung 
des  classischen  Alterthums  oder  das  erste  Jahrh.  des  Humanismus 
(2  vols.  3d  ed.  Berlin  :  1893).  Further  references  of  a  general  sort  are 
listed  at  the  head  of  vm  in  §  6,  above. 

A.  Dante. 

For  bibliographical  aids  see  Colomb  de  Batines,  Bibliografia  dantesca 
(Prato  :  1845-48);  G.  J.  Ferrazzi,  Manuale  dantesco  (5  vols.  Bassano  : 
1863-77);  J.  Petzholdt,  Bibliographia  Dantea (2d  ed.  Dresden:  1880); 
Korting,  Encykl.,  3:  716-719(1886).  For  a  full  and  modern  bibliog- 
raphy the  student  cannot  do  better  than  consult  G.  A.  Scartazzini's 
Prolegomeni  della  Divina  Commedia  (Leipz. :  1 890),  his  Dante- 
Handbuch  (Leipz.:  1892.  English  trans,  by  A.  J.  Butler,  A  Com- 
panion to  Dante.  Lond. :  1 893),  and  his  Dantologia  (Milano :  1 894). 
See  also  T.  W.  Koch,  Catalogue  of  the  Dante  Collection  presented 
by  W.  Fiske  (2  vols.  Pt.  I  Dante's  Works;  Pt.  II  Works  on  Dante. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. :  1898-1900);  W.  C.  Lane,  catalogues  of  the  Dante 
collections  of  Harvard  University  and  the  Boston  Public  Library.  For 
Dante  dictionaries,  see  D.  G.  Poletto,  Dizionario  dantesco,  etc.  (7  vols. 
Sienna:  1885  +  );  P.  Toynbee,  A  Dictionary  of  Proper  Names  and 
Notable  Matters  in  the  Works  of  Dante  (Oxford:  1898,  1914).  An 
indispensable  aid  to  the  study  of  Dante,  containing  much  bibliography 
under  various  heads,  is  G.  A.  Scartazzini's  Enciclopedia  dantesca, 
Dizionario  critica  e  ragionata  di  quanto  concerne  la  vita  e  le  opere  di 
Dante  Alighieri  (3  vols.  3d  vol.  by  A.  Fiammazzo.  Milano:  1896- 
1905).  A  concordance  to  all  the  works  has  been  prepared  by  E.  A.  Fay 
(Cambridge,  Mass. :  1 888  ;  Lond. :  1 894). 

For  the  English  reader  the  best  introduction  to  Dante  as  the  embodi- 
ment of  the  Middle  Ages,  as  social,  political,  philosophical,  and  religious 
thinker,  spokesman  of  the  medieval  temper  and  poet  of  the  Divine 


714  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§12 

Comedy,  is  C.  H.  Grandgent's...  Dante  (Master  Spirits  of  Literature 
Series.  N.  Y. :  1916).  Other  excellent  brief  introductions  in  English 
to  the  study  of  Dante,  and  to  the  study  of  the  studies  of  Dante,  are 
Scartazzini's  scholarly  Companion  to  Dante,  noted  above ;  the  popular 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dante  by  J.  A.  Symonds  (4th  ed.  Lond. : 
1906);  A.  J.  Butler's  Dante,  his  Times  and  Work  (Lond.:  1895);  and 
E.  G.  Gardner's  Dante  (in  the  Temple  Primer  Series.  Lond.:  1900). 
For  a  more  extensive  introduction,  see  the  reference  under  F.  X.  Kraus, 
below.  R.  W.  Church's  Dante,  An  Essay  (1878)  and  M.  F.  Rossetti's 
A  Shadow  of  Dante  (1884)  are  helpful  interpretations  of  Dante's 
thought,  temper,  and  art.  For  readers  of  Italian  and  French  F.  Flamini's 
Awiamento  allo  studio  della  D.  C.  (Livorno:  1909)  and  H.  Hauvette's 
Dante,  introduction  a  I'e'tude  de  la  D.  C.  (Paris :  191 1)  are  valuable. 

The  Divina  Commedia  offers  many  interesting  problems  to  the 
student  of  epic  literature.  In  its  nature,  apocalyptic  and  auto- 
biographical,—  in  its  form,  narrative,  —  in  its  interpretative  re- 
quirement, literal,  allegorical,  moral,  anagogical,  —  it  is  so  original 
as  compared  with  the  epics  of  antiquity,  and  yet  so  brought  into 
relation  with  them  by  Dante's  use  of  Virgil  as  a  source  of  poetic 
inspiration  and  as  a  chief  character  in  the  poem  itself,  that  the 
student  finds  himself  confronted  with  a  most  striking  variation  in 
poetic  type-development.  Indeed,  one  who  is  still  hypnotized  by 
the  old  '  rule-giving '  poetics  and  by  the  conception  of  the  literary 
type  as  static  will  forthwith  deny  the  title  of  epic  to  this  strange 
poem.  Thus  A.  J.  Butler  writes : 

The  Commedia,  though  often  classed  for  want  of  a  better  description 
among  epic  poems,  is  totally  different  in  method  and  construction  from 
all  other  poems  of  that  kind.  Its  "  hero  "  is  the  narrator  himself ;  the 
incidents  do  not  modify  the  course  of  the  story ;  the  place  of  episodes 
is  taken  by  theological  or  metaphysical  disquisitions ;  the  world  through 
which  the  poet  takes  his  readers  is  peopled,  not  with  characters  of  heroic 
story,  but  with  men  and  women  known  personally  or  by  repute  to  him 
and  those  for  whom  he  wrote.  Its  aim  is  not  to  delight,  but  to  reprove, 
to  rebuke,  to  exhort ;  to  form  men's  characters  by  teaching  them  what 
courses  of  life  will  meet  with  reward,  what  with  penalty,  hereafter ;  "to 
put  into  verse,"  as  the  poet  says,  "  things  difficult  to  think "  (Art. 
Dante,  Encyc.  Brit.). 


VI,  A]  ITALIAN  EPICS  715 

Such  criticism  will  seem  to  many  even  more  retrospective  than 
Addison's. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  who  believe  that  variation  in  type  is 
the  dynamics  of  literary  development  will  make  light  of  Butler's 
cruxes.  The  scientific  student  will  at  once  observe  that  widely 
asthis  poem  differs  from  the  great  epics  of  the  past  it  still  derives 
in  no  slight  degree  from  them,  and  is  in  line  with  certain  charac- 
teristics of  epic  tradition  as  modified  by  Latin  Christianity.  He 
will,  with  combined  feelings  of  relief  and  curiosity,  indulge  the 
hypothesis  that  in  the  Divine  Comedy  the  epic  type  develops  in 
a  new  and  distinct  direction  —  is,  in  short,  reshaped,  revivified  — 
while  it  still  performs  its  peculiar  function.  The  day  of  Roman 
copying  of  the  epic  forms  and  ideas  of  a  dead  civilization  was 
transcended.  A  new  civilization,  that  of  medieval  Christian  Europe, 
had  perpetuated  its  spiritual  character  in  a  form  that  necessarily 
and  characteristically  varied  from  the  older  forms.  The  student 
must  be  at  pains  to  show  how  in  this  particular  instance  the 
variation  of  form  grew  up,  why  it  was  necessary,  and  in  what 
way  it  was  the  characteristic  expression  of  the  new  age.  No 
such  entirely  new  problem  has  been  so  far  encountered  in  this 
conspectus  of  the  theory  and  history  of  the  epic.  In  studying  the 
Roman  epics  criticism  is  concerned  with  modifications  of  an  older 
type  still  cherished  with  respectful  conservatism.  With  the  Divina 
Commedia  the  type  has  been  abandoned  altogether,  or  it  has 
entered  upon  an  entirely  new  stage  of  development,  even  if  none 
but  Dante  was  capable  of  achievement.  That  not  a  few  authorities 
are  of  this  opinion  will  appear  from  the  discussion  in  §7,1,  above, 
and  the  References  in  §  8. 

There  are,  of  course,  those  who  hold  that  the  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  recognizing  this  hypothesis  are  insuperable.  For  them 
nothing  remains  but  the  older  premises  and  the  older  style  of 
criticism.  If,  however,  we  assume  for  the  moment  that  the  new 
point  of  view  is  at  any  rate  worthy  of  consideration,  —  that  Dante 
has  discovered  such  a  way  of  writing  an  epic  poem  that  he  is  not 
limited  to  the  presentations  of  history  or  tradition,  but  draws  upon 


716  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§12 

his  most  peculiar  and  subtle  intellectual  experiences,  —  interesting 
questions  present  themselves  for  solution :  How  does  it  happen 
that  a  poem  so  created,  lacking  the  objectivity  and  traditional 
character  which  render  the  '  folk  epic '  the  idealized  expression  of 
the  society  of  its  day,  does  nevertheless  just  as  adequately  per- 
form the  epic  function  for  the  society  of  the  fourteenth  century 
in  Europe  ?  Or  is  the  Commedia  more  restricted  in  its  social 
scope  than  was  the  Iliad,  or  even  the  Aeneid  ?  Is  it  concerned 
with  spiritual  matters  to  the  exclusion  of  political,  moral  to  the 
exclusion  of  military  ?  One  who  has  read '  the  poem  will  scarcely 
answer  in  the  affirmative.  There  is  a  host  of  questions  to  be 
disposed  of  before  one  can,  with  the  dignity  of  real  knowledge, 
pronounce  upon  these  matters.  It  must  be  clear  to  the  thinking 
student  that,  in  spite  of  all  that  has  been  written  upon  Dante,  an 
adequate  study  of  his  epic  in  the  spirit  of  comparative  inquiry  has 
yet  to  be  made. 

The  more  specific  problems  in  the  historical  study  of  the  Divina 
Commedia  lie  in  determining  (i)  the  relation  of  the  poem  to 
previous  Christian  Latin  literature  of  (a)  knowledge,  including 
science  and  Roman  Catholic  philosophy  and  theology,  (£)  vision 
and  mysticism,  involving  a  comparison  with  non-Christian  visions 
of  the  other  world,  and  (c)  didacticism,  ethical  and  religious; 
(2)  the  relation  of  the  poem  to  ancient,  especially  Roman  classical 
and  post-classical,  literature ;  (3)  the  relation  to  troubadour  (Pro- 
venc.al)  poetry  of  love ;  and  (4)  the  relation  to  contemporary 
politics.  The  allegorical  character  of  the  poem  is  also  to  be  com- 
pared with  the  allegorical  method  as  practised  in  the  several 
classes  of  literature  just  noted.  For  Christian  Latin  literature 
see  above,  iv,  and  §  6,  iv-vi ;  for  troubadour  poetry,  above,  v, 
and  §  6,  vn. 

Editions.  The  editio  princeps  is  that  of  Foligno,  etc.  (1472).  The 
four  oldest  editions  have  been  reprinted  by  Lord  Vernon  and  Panizzi 
(Le  prime  quattro  edizioni  della  Divina  Commedia  letteralmente  ristam- 
pate.  Lond. :  1858).  The  first  Aldine  ed.  appeared  in  1502.  G.  A. 
Scartazzini's  great  scholarly  edition,  with  the  '  Leipzig  Commentary,' 


VI,  A]  ITALIAN  EPICS  717 

appeared  at  Leipzig  between  1874  ar>d  1890  —  rev.  ed.,  by  G.  Vandelli, 
1911.  A.  Lubin's  edition  was  published  in  1881.  A  convenient  edition 
is  that  of  A.  J.  Butler,  The  Hell,  Purgatory,  Paradise  of  D.  A.,  edited 
with  prose  translations  and  notes  (3  vols.  Lond. :  1 885  etc.).  Casini's 
edition,  with  his  valuable  commentary,  is  available  in  the  5th  ed. 
(Firenze:  1895;  rev.  ed.,  1903).  See  also  Ricci's  edition  (Milano: 
1897)  and  Tommaso  Casini's  (Firenze:  1903).  A  readily  obtainable 
edition,  with  English  prose  translation  facing  the  Italian  text,  is  that  in 
the  Temple  Classics  Series  (ed.  by  Oelsner;  translations  by  Carlyle, 
Okey,  and  Wicksteed.  3  vols.  Lond.:  1899).  The  editions  and  com- 
mentaries of  Fraticelli  and  Bianchi  are  rather  antiquated.  The  best 
complete  edition  of  the  entire  works  of  Dante  is  the  '  Oxford  Dante ' 
(Tutte  le  opere  di  D.  A.,  nuovamente  rivedute  nel  testo  dal  Dr.  E.  Moore. 
3  vols.  Oxford:  1894  and  1897;  3d  ed.,  1904),  or  C.  H.  Grandgent's, 
rev.  ed.,  1913. 

Translations,  (a)  English :  In  general,  on  earlier  translations  into 
English,  see  P.  Toynbee,  English  Translations  of  Dante,  I4th  to  I7th 
centuries  (in  Journal  of  Comparative  Literature,  I  :  345-365),  and  a 
similar  article  covering  the  translations  of  the  i8th  century  (in  Mod. 
Lang.  Rev.,  \  :  9-24).  The  chief  translations  of  the  igth  century  are 
those  of  H.  Boyd,  in  verse  (1802),  Gary,  in  verse  (1814:  The  Vision, 
1913,  repr.  Everyman's  Library;  The  Divine  Comedy,  rev.  ed.  1914), 
J.  A.  Carlyle,  the  Inferno,  in  prose  (1849),  I.  C.  Wright,  in  verse 
(4th  ed.  1857),  Longfellow,  in  verse  (1867  +  ),  Plumptre,  in  verse 
(1886-87),  J.  A.  Wilstach  (1888),  Norton,  in  prose  (1892),  Tozer,  in 
prose  (1904),  C.  G.  Wright,  Purgatorio,  in  verse  (1905),  and  H.  Johnson, 
in  verse  (Yale  Univ.  Press).  The  student  of  metrical  effect  will  be 
interested  in  Musgrave's  translation  of  the  Inferno  in  the  Spenserian 
stanza,  and  in  Hazelfoot's  use  of  the  terza  rima.  Very  convenient 
editions  for  practical  use  are  those  of  Butler,  and  Oelsner  (Temple 
Classics  Series),  mentioned  above,  (b)  French :  the  translation  of 
Lammenais  is  standard,  (c)  German:  King  John  of  Saxony  (1839-49), 
Blanc  (1864),  Eitner  (1865),  C.  Witte(i865),  Bachenschwanz  (1867-69), 
Notter  (1873),  Bartsch,  which  is  the  best  for  the  student  (1877). 

References.  From  the  almost  endless  number  of  works  upon  Dante 
and  the  Commedia,  the  following  are  selected  as  of  especial  importance 
to  the  student  of  the  epic :  G.  Agnelli,  Topocorografia  del  viaggio 
dantesco  (Milano:  1891);  Brother  Azarias,  Spiritual  Sense  of  the 
Divina  Commedia  (in  his  Phases  of  Thought  and  Criticism,  1892); 
K.  Borinski,  Ueber  poetische  Vision  und  Imagination,  ein  historisch- 
psychologischer  Versuch  anlasslich  Dantes  (Halle:  1897),  a  brilliant 


718  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  t§12 

piece  of  psychological  analysis  that  will  be  of  indirect  aid  to  the  his- 
torical student;  W.  B.  Carpenter,  The  Spiritual  Message  of  Dante 
(Harvard  Univ.  Press) ;  V.  Capetti,  L'anima  e  1'arte  di  Dante  (Livorno : 
1907);  D.  Comparetti,  Virgil  in  the  Middle  Ages  (trans,  by  E.  F.  M. 
Benecke.  Lond. :  1908;  see  Pt.  I,  Chaps.  XI V-XV);  A.  Counson, 
Dante  en  France  (in  Roman.  Forsch.,  21  :  i.  1908);  M.  Dods,  Fore- 
runners of  Dante  (Edinb. :  1903),  an  account,  popular,  not  exhaustive, 
of  some  of  the  more  important  visions  of  the  unseen  world,  from 
Gilgamesh  to  St.  Christina  (compare  above,  iv,  E)  :  on  the  originality 
of  Dante's  vision,  see  F.  Cancellieri,  Osservazioni  sopra  1'  originalita 
della  D.  C.  di  Dante  (Roma:  1814),  which  Dods  calls  the  first  serious 
assailant  of  Dante's  originality;  see  also  similar  works  by  Ozanam 
and  Labitte,  and  an  answer  by  Ugo  Foscolo  in  the  Edinb.  Rev.,  30 : 
Sept.  1818;  A.  Farinelli,  Dante  e  la  Francia  dall'eta  media  al  secolo 
di  Voltaire  (Milano:  1908);  K.  Federn,  Dante  and  his  Time  (Lond.: 
1902);  F.  Flamini,  I  significati  reconditi  della  Commedia  di  Dante 
(2  vols.  Livorno:  1903-04);  U.  Foscolo,  Discorso  sul  testo  della 
Commedia  di  Dante  (in  the  author's  Opere,  vol.  Ill,  p.  87 ff.  1825); 
E.  G.  Gardner,  Dante  and  the  Mystics  (Lond.:  1913);  R.  Garnettj 
History  of  Italian  Literature  (N.  Y. :  1900),  which,  within  a  small  space 
(see  Chap.  IV),  contains  so  much  that  is  valuable  and  stimulating  that 
it  may  be  mentioned  here  as  well  as  above;  C.  H.  Grandgent,  Dante 
and  St.  Paul  (in  Romania,  31  :  14.  1902);  W.  T.  Harris,  Spiritual 
Sense  of  Dante's  D.  C. ;  F.  Hettinger,  Dante's  D.  C.,  its  Scope  and 
Value  (trans,  by  H.  S.  Bowden.  Lond.:  1887),  Roman  Catholic  point 
of  view,  inaccurate,  yet  useful ;  G.  P.  Huntington,  Comments  of  John 
Ruskin  on  the  Divina  Commedia  (Boston :  1903);  F.  X.  Kraus,  Dante, 
sein  Leben  und  sein  Werk,  sein  Verhaltniss  zur  Kunst  und  zur  Politik 
(Berlin:  1897),  —  a  monumental  work,  which,  if  taken  in  conjunction 
with  Scartazzini's  Dizionario,  furnishes  the  advanced  student  with  a 
very  thorough  apparatus  for  approaching  the  study  of  Dante :  see 
notice  of  Kraus  above,  §  9 ;  L.  O.  Kuhns,  Treatment  of  Nature  in  Dante 
(Lond.:  1897),  and  by  the  same,  Dante  and  the  English  Poets  (N.Y. : 
1904),  —  both  very  light  and  superficial;  E.  Moore,  Contributions  to 
the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  D.  C.  (Cambridge:  1889);  by  the  same, 
Dante  and  his  early  Biographers  (Lond.:  1890);  by  the  same,  Studies 
in  Dante  (3  vols.  Oxford:  1896-1903),  —  Professor  Moore  is  one  of 
the  leading  authorities  for  the  study  of  Dante ;  L.  F.  Mott,  Dante  and 
Beatrice  (1892);  G.  Negri,  Ed.,  Arte,  scienza  e  fede  ai  giorni  di  Dante 
(Milano:  1901);  Oelsner,  Influence  of  Dante  on  Modern  Thought 
(1895);  several  works  by  F.  D' Ovidio,  which  can  be  easily  found  in 


VI,  B]  ITALIAN  EPICS  719 

any  good  Dante  collection ;  Ozanam,  Dante  et  la  philosophic  catholique 
(1845);  W.  H.  V.  Reade,  The  Moral  System  of  Dante's  Inferno 
(Oxford:  1909);  L.  Rocca,  Di  alcuni  commenti  della  D.  C.  composti 
nei  primi  vent'anni  dopo  la  morte  di  Dante  (Firenze :  1891);  D.  G. 
Rossetti,  Dante  and  his  Circle  (Lond. :  1892);  G.  Saintsbury,  Dante 
and  the  Grand  Style  (in  Essays  and  Studies  by  Members  of  the  English 
Association,  vol.  Ill,  1912);  G.  Santayana,  Three  Philosophical  Poets 
(in  Harvard  Studies  in  Comparative  Literature.  Vol.  I.  Cambridge : 
1901);  F.  W.  J.  von  Schelling  (see  p.  686  of  the  work  cited  above, 
§  8) ;  E.  C.  Stedman,  The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry  (see  above, 
§  8) ;  P.  Toynbee,  Dante  in  English  Literature  from  Chaucer  to  Gary 
(2  vols.  N.Y. :  1909),  a  far  more  valuable  book  than  that  by  Kuhns 
mentioned  above ;  H.  F.  Tozer,  An  English  Commentary  on  the  D.  C. 
(Lond.:  1901);  K.  Vossler,  Die  gottliche  Komodie,  Entwickelungs- 
geschichte  und  Erklarung  (2  vols.  in  4.  Heidelberg:  1907-10);  P.  H. 
Wicksteed,  Dante,  Six  Sermons;  C.  Witte,  Essays  on  Dante,  etc. 
(Lond. :  1 898) ;  N.  Zingarelli,  Dante  (in  Storia  letteraria  d'  Italia. 
Milano  :  n.  d.).  Much  of  varied  value  of  a  critical  nature  will  be  found 
in  the  several  periodicals  devoted  to  the  study  of  Dante :  see  the  Bul- 
lettino  della  Societa  Dantesca  Italiana  (ed.  by  M.  Barbi),  the  Dante 
Society  Reports  (1882+),  the  Giornale  Dantesco  (ed.  by  Count  G.  L. 
Passerini),  and  the  Jahrbuch  der  deutschen  Dante-Gesellschaft  (4  vols. 
Leipz. :  1867-77).  The  Nation  (N.  Y.)  always  contains  careful  reviews 
of  the  chief  works  on  Dante  as  they  appear.  For  references  on  the 
influence  of  Dante  upon  the  various  European  literatures,  see  Betz- 
Baldensperger,  La  litte*rature  comparee,  essai  bibliographique  (2d  ed. 
Strasbourg:  1904),  p.  161  ff. 

B.  Petrarch,  Boccaccio,  and  the  Humanists.  During  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  the  resuscitation  of  the  classics  bore 
in  various  ways  upon  the  development  of  the  epic.  In  1339,  two 
years  before  his  coronation  as  laureate  marked  the  opening  of  the 
Renaissance,  the  greatest  of  the  humanists,  Petrarch,  had  produced 
in  Latin  hexameters  his  epic  of  Scipio  Africanus,  entitled  Africa. 
Some  thirty  years  later,  under  the  patronage  of  Petrarch  and 
Boccaccio,  Leo  Pilatus  manufactured  from  the  Greek  the  first 
complete  Latin  version  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey  (in  prose; 
see  Romania,  29 :  403  ff.  1900).  Poggio  Bracciolini  (1380-1459), 
by  his  exhumation  of  Silius  Italicus  and  Valerius  Flaccus, 


/2b  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

contributed  to  the  movement  texts  for  critical  and  comparative 
study.  The  example  of  Petrarch  in  the  construction  of  original 
Latin  poetry  was  followed, 'but  after  a  long  interval,  by  Francesco 
Filelfo  (1398-1481),  who  in  his  adulatory  and  in  part  satirical 
poem,  the  Sforziade,  written  primarily  in  honor  of  Francesco 
Sforza,  aimed  to  produce  a  modern  Iliad.  The  poem,  like -others 
of  its  kind,  "  was  still-bom,  but  it  possessed  some  of  the  character- 
istics of  new  Italian  literature."  Filelfo's  younger  contemporary, 
Basinio  Basini,  indited  a  similar  Latin  heroic  poem  in  laudation  of 
Sigismondo  Malatesta.  A  Latin  translation  of  part  of  the  Iliad  was 
made  by  the  great  humanist  and  critic  Laurentius  Valla  (1407-57). 
A  much  finer  translation  in  Latin  hexameters,  begun  by  Marsuppini, 
was  carried  in  1470  through  four  more  books  by  the  sixteen-year- 
old  genius,  Angelo  Poliziano,  —  friend  of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  and 
teacher  of  humanism  to  the  schoolmasters  of  Europe.  These  are 
but  a  few  indications  of  classical  influences  which,  both  in  detail 
and  full  scope,  offer  to  the  student  a  most  interesting  field  of 
investigation. 

In  Italian,  meanwhile,  the  geographical  epic,  Dittamondo,  of 
Fazio  degli  Uberti,  and  the  moral  Quadriregio  of  Frezzi,  both  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  exemplify  the  uninspired  and  tiresome 
imitation  of  Dante.  The  epic  parts  of  Petrarch's  Trionfi,  on  the 
other  hand,  —  a  poem  written  just  before  the  laureate's  death 
(1374),  —  display  in  mature  development  the  qualities  of  sad  sin- 
cerity and  sublimity  prophesied  by  the  youthful  Africa,  and  are 
food  for  study  in  the  historical  investigation  of  the  course  of  epic 
poetry.  As  influencing  the  career  of  religious  allegory  the  poem 
has  been  the  subject  of  numerous  theses.  Of  the  same  century 
were  Boccaccio's  Teseide  (1341)  —  the  first  Italian  heroic-romantic 
epic,  the  first,  also,  to  employ  the  ottava  rima,  of  which  Tasso  and 
Ariosto  were  to  make  use — #nd  his  Filostrato  (1344-50).  On 
the  former  poem  Chaucer  drew  for  his  Knight's  Tale,  on  the 
latter  for  his  Troilus.  To  the  fifteenth  century  belong  the  parodies 
of  the  poetry  of  chivalry,  beginning  with  the  Ciriffo  Calvaneo  of 
Luca  Pulci  and  providing  the  earliest  masterpiece  of  epopea 


VI,  C]  ITALIAN  EPICS  721 

cavallaresca  in  the  ironic  romantic  epic  of  Roland,  his  paladins, 
his  foes,  and  his  loyal  giant,  —  the  Morgan te  Maggiore  (1460-82) 
of  Luigi  Pulci. 

On  the  Morgante,  see  the  following :  L.  Einstein,  L.  Pulci  and 
the  Morgante  Maggiore  (in  Litterarhist.  Forsch.,  No.  22.  1902); 
J.  Hiibscher,  on  the  sources  (edition  of  the  anonymous  Orlando),  in 
Stengel's  Ausgaben  und  Abhandlungen,  No.  LX  (Marburg:  1886); 
F.  Foffano,  II  Morgante  di  L.  P.  (Torino:  1891);  by  the  same,  II 
disegno  del  Morgante  (in  Giorn.  storico,  16:  368);  P.  Rajna,  Arts. 
in  the  Propugnatore  during  the  years  1869  and  1871,  on  the  sources; 
B.  Sanvisenti,  L'  Astarotte  viaggiatore  nel  Pulci  e  un  suo  probabile 
fonte  (in  Biblioth.  delle  scuole  ital,,  8:  13;  cf.  Rajna  in  Rassegna 
bibliog.,  8:  i);  R.  Truffi,  Di  una  probabile  fonte  del  Margutte  (in 
Giorn.  stor.,  22  :  200);  G.  Volpi,  Note  critiche  sul  Morgante  (Modena : 
1894);  by  the  same,  an  Art.  in  the  Giorn.  storico,  1890,  p.  361  ff . ; 
by  the  same,  the  edition  in  three  volumes  (Firenze:  1900-1904).  For 
general  works  on  the  Orlando  '  matter,'  see  below,  under  Ariosto.  — 
On  the  Ciriffo,  see  the  reprint  by  E.  Audin  (Firenze:  1834),  and 
L.  Mattioli,  Luca  Pulci  e  il  Ciriffo  (Padova:  1900). 

C.  Boiardo. 

For  general  works  on  the  history  of  the  Orlando  legend,  see  below, 
under  Ariosto. 

The  student  of  the  epic  is  fortunate  in  having  at  hand  for  the 
study  of  the  development  of  the  type  from  national  to  artificial 
and  literary  stages  a  group  of  poems  like  the  Chanson  de  Roland, 
the  Orlando  Innamorato  of  Boiardo,  the  Orlando  Furioso  of 
Ariosto,  and  many  intermediate  forms.  Stages  of  change  or  varia- 
tion in  form,  content,  and  method  of  composition  may  aptly  be 
traced  from  the  French  originals  of  the  Roland  legend  through 
various  early  adaptations  by  Italian  minstrels  and  poets  until  we 
come  to  Pulci,  Boiardo,  and  Ariosto.  The  student  should  endeavor 
to  measure  these  variations  and  to  determine  at  what  point  or  in 
what  way  the  romantic  Italian  epics  vary  so  much  and  so  charac- 
teristically from  the  Chanson  de  Roland  and  other  so-called  '  folk 
epics '  that  they  should  be  denominated  a  sub-type  or  separate 
type,  — the  romances  of  chivalry  (cf.  P.  Rajna,  Fonti  dell'  Orlando 


722  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

Furioso,  2d  ed.,  p.  18,  and  the  discussion  of  the  question  by  Italian 
critics  of  the  Renaissance,  noted  above,  §  9).  A  complete  under- 
standing of  the  differences  in  form  and  selection  of  material  of 
these  French  epical  and  Italian  romantic  poems  would  afford  no 
little  insight  into  the  laws  that  govern  epical  growth  and  decay. 
Zumbini's  work,  mentioned  below  (under  Ariosto),  and  Grober's 
Grundriss  are  of  aid  in  suggesting  the  materials,  and  a  few  of 
the  particular  problems,  of  such  a  study  as  that  implied.  —  Further- 
more, the  imitation  by  Boiardo  and  Tasso  of  the  classical  epic 
brings  into  view  another  major  force  in  the  development  of 
the  type. 

Editions  and  Translations.  The  first  complete  edition  of  the  Orlando 
Innamorato  appeared  in  1495.  Berni's  rifacimento  of  the  original  text 
destroys  much  of  its  value,  especially  for  the  student.  The  best  editions 
are  those  of  A.  Panizzi  (Lond. :  1830),  Stiavelli  (Roma:  1894),  and 

F.  Foffano  (3  vols.,  Bologna:   1906-07).    Translations:  An  English 
translation  of  three  books,  in  verse,  was  made  by  R.  T[oft]  in  1598; 
the  prose  version  of  W.  S.  Rose  was  made  from  Berni's  rifacimento, 
and  contains  some  portions  in  the  verse  form  of  the  original  (Edinb. 
and  Lond. :   1 823).   There  exist  a  French  prose  version  by  F.  de  Rosset 
(Paris:    1619),  the  well-known,  freely  altered  version  by  Le  Sage, — 
Roland   1'amoureux  (1716),  —  and  an   extract   by  Comte   de   Trissan 
(Paris:   1804).    For  German  translations,  see  those  of  Gries  (Stuttgart: 
1835-39)  and  Regis  (Berlin:   1840). 

References.  There  are  comparatively  few  references  on  Boiardo. 
His  life  is  written  by  A.  Panizzi,  in  the  second  vol.  of  Panizzi's  edition 
of  the  Orlando  Innamorato  di  Bojardo :  Orlando  Furioso  di  Ariosto 
(9  vols.  Lond.:  1830-34).  For  the  essay  in  the  first  vol.,  see  above, 
§11.  The  commentary  of  G.  Stiavelli  (Roma  :  1 894)  is  valuable.  Essays 
by  G.  Ferrari,  P.  Rajna,  A.  Luzio,  C.  Tincani,  and  others,  dealing  with 
various  aspects  of  the  poem,  are  contained  in  the  Studi  su  M.  M. 
Boiardo  (ed.  by  N.  Campanini.  Bologna:  1894).  See  also  G.  Albini, 
M.  M.  Boiardo  (in  Nuova  antol.,  142);  G.  Bertoni,  Nuovi  studi  su 
M.  M.  Boiardo  (Bologna:  1904);  P.  Rajna,  L' Orlando  Innamorato 
del  Boiardo  (in  Vita  italiana  del  Rinascimento,  Milano:  1 899);  G.  Razzoli, 
Per  le  fonti  dell'  Orl.  Innam.  (Milano :  1901 ;  cf.  Giorn.  stor.,  40  :  223); 

G.  Searles,  Boiardo's  Orl.  Innam.  und  seine  Beziehungen  zur  altfran- 
zosischen    erzahlenden    Dichtung   (Leipz. :     1901;    cf.    Giorn.    star,, 


VI,  D]  ITALIAN  EPICS  723 

39:    155).    Other  references  in  D'Ancona  and  Baccl,  Manuale,  II, 

2d  ed.,   149,  note. 

• 

D.  Ariosto. 

For  bibliography,  see  G.  B.  Bolza,  Manuale  ariostesco  (Venezia :  i  868) ; 
G.  J.  Ferrazzi,  Bibliografia  ariostesca  (Bassano :  1881);  Korting,  Encykl., 
3:  706  (1886);  also  G.  Melzi,  Bibliografia  dei  romanzi  cavallereschi 
italiani  (Milano:  1865),  for  continuations  of  the  Orlando  Furioso.— 
On  the  origin  and  development  of  the  Roland  legend  see  the  works  of 
G.  Paris,  P.  Rajna,  K.  Nyrop,  and  L.  Gautier  mentioned  above  under 
v,  A  ;  also  F.  Castets,  Recherches  sur  les  rapports  des  chansons  de  geste 
et  de  1'e'pope'e  chevaleresque  italienne  (in  Rev.  des  langues  romanes, 
27  ff.;  cf.  Romania*,  15:  626,  17:  145);  V.  Crescini,  Orlando  nella 
Chanson  de  Roland  e  nei  poemi  del  Bojardo  e  dell' Ariosto  (Bologna: 
1880);  G.  Ferrario,  Storia  ed  analisi  degli  antichi  romanzi  di  cavalleria 
(Milano:  1829);  F.  Foffano,  Rinaldo  da  Montalbano  nella  letteratura 
romanzesca  italiana  (Venezia :  1 891 ) ;  by  the  same,  II  poema  cavalleresco 
(Milano:  1904,  being  vol.  II  of  Storia  dei  generi  letterari  italiani); 
H.  Morf,  Vom  Rolandslied  zum  Orlando  Furioso  (in  Deutsche  Rund- 
schau, June,  1898;  reprinted  in  Aus  Dichtung  und  Sprache  der 
Romanen,  Strassburg:  1903):  P.  Rajna,  Uggieri  il  Danese  nella  lett. 
romanzesca  degli  Italiani  (in  Romania,  2,  3,  4) ;  by  the  same,  Ricerche 
intorno  ai  Reali  di  Francia  (Bologna:  1872;  cf.  G.  Paris  in  Romania, 
7).  J.  D.  M.  and  Mary  A.  Ford's  Romances  of  Chivalry  in  Italian  Verse, 
selections  edited  with  introduction  and  notes  (N.Y.:  1904),  may  be 
mentioned  as  a  brief  introductory  survey  in  English. 

With  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  fairly  complete  by  1508,  one 
of  the  most  splendid  creations  of  the  Renaissance,  —  not  burlesque 
but  smiling  and  artistic,  more  seriously  conceived  and  more  classi- 
cally modelled  than  the  Innamorato,  —  the  fantastic  epic  of  chivalry 
attains  its  flower. 

On  the  whole,  then,  the  tendency  toward  seriousness  was  decidedly 
strong  in  Ariosto,  and  necessarily  so,  since  he  was  seeking  to  bring  the 
medieval  romance  of  chivalry  into  the  category  of  the  classic  epic,  with 
which  the  revival  of  learning  had  acquainted  the  modern  world.  The 
trend  was  toward  the  genuine  epic  now,  and  was  to  continue  that  way 
until  Tasso's  Gerusalemme  Liberata  could  become  a  fact.  Ariosto's 
striving  to  reach  the  goal  is  obvious  in  his  intentional  and  felicitous 
combination  of  elements  from  the  ancient  classic  world  with  those  from 


724  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

the  medieval  world  of  Charlemagne  and  Arthur  inherited  by  him.  Classic 
is  the  title  of  his  work,  which  certainly  harks  back  to  the  Hercules  Furens 
of  Seneca ;  so  is  the  purpose  which  he  unfolds  at  the  outset ;  and  so  is 
his  invocation.  As  Virgil  exalted  the  Gens  Julia,  so  he  celebrates  the 
race  of  Este,  which,  to  be  sure,  Boiardo  had  already  begun  to  flatter. 
The  nuptials  of  Aeneas  and  Lavinia  suggested  to  him  those  of  Ruggiero 
and  Bradamante.  The  position  of  Roland  is  ...  that  of  the  Achilles  of 
the  Iliad :  the  death  of  Rodomonte  parallels  that  of  Turnus.  In  the 
numerous  episodes,  too,  ancient  classic  story  revives,  as  is  instanced  by 
the  exposure  to  the  sea-monster  of  Angelica  and  Olympia,  by  the  base 
desertion  of  the  latter,  and  by  the  expedition  of  Cloridano  and  Medoro 
(Ford,  as  cited,  xxxii-xxxiii). 

Among  the  imitations  of  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso  were  Luigi 
Alamanni's  Girone  il  Cortese  (1548)  and  Bernardo  Tasso's 
Amadigi  (publ.  1560);  for  others,  see  Garnett,  p.  153.  Among 
the  parodies  were  the  Orlandino  of  Aretino,  and  a  poem  of  the 
same  name  (1526)  by  Teofilo  Folengo. 

.Editions  and  Translations.  The  editio  princeps  of  the  Orlando 
Furioso  was  published  at  Ferrara,  1516;  see  the  editions  of  Molini 
(1821),  Panizzi  (Lond. :  1830),  Gioberti  (1846),  Camerini  (1869; 
loth  ed.,  1900),  Casella  (1877+),  Romizi  (1901),  Papini  (1903).— 
Translations:  English,  by  Sir  John  Harington  (Lond.:  1633-34), 
J.  Hoole  (1807),  W.  S.  Rose  (Bohn's  Lib.  1823);  French,  by 
M.  A.  Mauzy  (1839),  C.  Hippeau  (1880),  F.  Reynard  (1880);  Ger- 
man, by  W.  Heinse  (1782),  Gries  (1804-09),  Streckfuss  (1818 +), 
Gildemeister  (1883). 

References.  The  following  works  will  be  of  aid :  J.  B.  Bolza, 
Ariost's  Nachahmung  der  Alten  (in  Jahrb.fiir  roman.  und  engl.  Lit., 
4 :  1 6  ff.  1 862) ;  R.  W.  Bond,  Ariosto  (in  Quart.  Rev.,  208  :  1 25-1 54) ; 
G.  Carducci,  Su  Ludovico  Ariosto  e  Torquato  Tasso  (in  the  author's 
Opere,  vol.  XV.  20  vols.  Bologna:  1889-1909);  by  the  same,  the 
Prefazione  to  the  edition  of  the  O.  F.  illustrated  by  G.  Dore'  (Milano: 
1 899) ;  G.  A.  Cesareo,  La  fantasia  dell'  Ariosto  (in  his  Critica  Militante, 
Messina:  1907);  V.  Crescini,  Orlando  nella  Chanson  de  Roland  e  nei 
poemi  del  Bojardo  e  dell' Ariosto  (Bologna:  1880);  R.  E.  N.  Dodge, 
Spenser's  Imitations  from  Ariosto  (in  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  1897); 
L.  Donati,  L' Ariosto  e.  il  Tasso  giudicati  dal  Voltaire  (Halle:  1889), 
cf.  G.  Carducci,  L' Ariosto  e  il  Voltaire  (in  Opere,  vol.  X,  p.  i29ff.); 
W.  Everett.  The  Italian  Poets  since  Dante  (N.Y.:  1904);  F.  Flamini, 


VI,  E]  ITALIAN  EPICS  725 

II  Cinquecento,  p.  65  ff.,  bibliography  pp.  533-534 ;  E.  G.  Gardner, 
The  King  of  Court  Poets,  A  Study  of  the  Work,  Life  and  Times  of 
L.  Ariosto  (Lond. :  1906);  W.  von  Humboldt,  Uber  Goethe's  Hermann 
und  Dorothea,  §§  xxi-xxvi  (see  above,  §8);  L.  O.  Kuhns,  The 
Great  Poets  of  Italy  (Boston :  1903);  by  the  same,  Some  Verbal  Resem- 
blances in  the  O.  F.  and  the  Divine  Comedy  (in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  10); 
G.  Maruffi,  La  Divina  Commedia  considerata  quale  fonte  dell'  Orlando 
Furioso  e  della  Gerusalemme  Liberata  (Napoli:  1903);  'L.  de  Monge 
(see  above,  §  8);  H.  Morf,  Vom  Rolandslied  zum  Orlando  Furioso  (in 
Deutsche  Rundschau,  June,  1898);  A.  Piumati,  La  vita  e  le  opere 
di  L.  Ariosto  (Torino:  1886);  E.  Proto,  Spigolature  ariostesche  (in 
E.  Percopo's  Studi  di  lett.  ital.,  Napoli:  1903,  and  in  Rassegna  crit. 
della  lett.  ital.,  XIII,  145-159);  P.  Rajna,  Le  fonti  dell'  O.  F.  (Firenze: 
1876;  2d  ed.,  1900),  a  very  valuable  and  scholarly  work;  A.  Romizi, 
Le  fonti  latine  dell'  O.  F.  (Torino :  1 896) ;  F.  W.  J.  von  Schelling  (p.  669 
of  the  work  cited  above,  §  8);  A.  W.  Schlegel  (vol.  XIII,  pp.  243-288, 
of  the  Sammtliche  Werke.  Ed.  by  E.  Bocking.  Leipz. :  1 847) ; 
A.  Scrocca,  Saggio  critico  sull'  O.  F.  (Napoli :  1 889) ;  A.  Volta,  Storia 
poetica  di  Orlando  studiata  in  sei  poemi  (Bologna:  1894);  B.  Zumbini, 
La  pazzia  d'  Orlando  (in  Studi  di  lett.  ital.,  Firenze :  1894). 

E.   Tasso. 

For  bibliography,  see  Kdrting,  Encykl.,  3:  743-746  (1886),  and 
various  works  and  articles  by  A.  Solerti,  noticed  by  Flamini  (see 
below),  p.  580. 

The  classical  inspiration  had  meanwhile  evinced  itself  in  such 
poems  as  the  Latin  epic  of  Vida,  the  Christias  (1535),  and  in  a 
classicizing  failure  at  an  epic  by  Trissino,  the  Italia  Liberata 
(1547-48)  —  the  first  Italian  epic  in  blank  verse.  In  1562,  the 
eighteen-year-old  Torquato  Tasso  attempted  in  his  Rinaldo  to 
reduce  the  romantic  presuppositions  and  chaotic  episodes  of 
chivalry  to  Aristotelian  rules  of  unity  and  action,  but  with  little 
success,  for  the  material  did  not  lend  itself  to  serious  treatment. 
With  his  Gerusalemme  Liberata,  of  which  the  first  copy  was 
finished  in  1575,  he  achieved,  however,  a  serious  poem  of 
romantic  subject  in  lofty  and  classical  style  —  the  best  heroic 
of  Italy. 


726  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

Since  the  Gerusalemme  Liberate  is  on  the  one  hand  a  romance 
of  chivalry,  and  on  the  other  a  classical  and  heroic  epic,  some 
questions  may  here  be  asked  concerning  its  relation  to  both  these 
kinds,  and  concerning  the  poetic  presuppositions  and  limitations 
of  chivalry  as  an  institution. 

Is  the  relation  of  Tasso's  masterpiece  to  the  verse-romances 
homologous  with  that  of  the  Iliad  to  earlier  minstrel  lays,  or  with 
that  of  the  Chanson  de  Roland  to  its  popular  forerunners  ?  In 
what  respects  is  the  Gerusalemme  a  variation  of  the  type  of  epic 
established  by  Boiardo  and  Ariosto  ?  Is  such  variation  purely  a 
matter  of  the  idiosyncrasy  of  the  author,  or  has  it  any  significant 
relation  to  the  character  of  the  times?  What  elements  of  story- 
material  and  mode  of  conception  and  poetic  expression  differ- 
entiate this  poem  from  the  ancient  epic  ?  How  may  the  presence 
of  such  elements  be  shown  as  natural  and  inevitable  in  view 
of  the  nature  of  the  civilization  of  the  Renaissance?  Can  such 
elements  be  regarded  as  constant,  essential,  differencing  elements 
of  the  Renaissance  epic  as  a  whole?  What  of  the  epic  character 
of  the  institution  of  chivalry  ?  Is  its  military  basis  a  bond  of  unity 
with  the  military  character  of  the  ancient  epic?  Is  its  moral 
equivocacy  a  sophistication  of  the  moral  crudity  of  the  communal 
epic  ?  Does  it  necessarily  involve  the  romantic  epic  in  a  variation 
that  leads  to  a  loss  of  vitality  in  the  type?  Is  the  courtoisie  of 
chivalry  an  element  that  saps  rather,  than  increases  the  energy 
of  the  epic  as  a  literary  growth  ?  What  relation  has  the  unwieldy, 
episodical  nature  of  the  romantic  epic  to  the  confused  and  inde- 
terminate, complex  Renaissance  genius  ?  Is  the  earlier  epopea  caral- 
leresca  of  the  Italians  the  acme  and  close  of  the  spiritual  period 
that  it  expresses?  or  is  Tasso's  heroic  and  more  classical  epic 
of  romance?  Is  either  at  all  comparable  in  this  respect  to  the 
Homeric  epic?  Has  the  influence  of  either  on  the  further  de- 
velopment of  the  epic  been  comparable  to  that  of  the  ancient 
epics  ? 

Editions  and  Translations.   The  revised  and  authorized  edition  of  the 
Gerusalemme  Liberata  appeared  at  Parma,  in  1581.    For  unauthorized 


VI,  E]  ITALIAN  EPICS  727 

editions,  etc.,  see  U.  Guidi,  Annali  delle  edizioni  e  delle  versioni  della 
G.  L.  e  d' altri  lavori  al  poema  relativi  (Bologna:  1868).  The  best 
modern  edition  is  by- A.  Solerti  and  coadjutors  (3  vols.  Firenze:  1895- 
96);  others  by  Ferrari  (1890),  Camerini  (1898),  Carbone  (1870).  —  For 
a  list  of  translations  into  various  languages,  see  G.  J.  Ferrazzi,  Torquato 
Tasso  (1880),  p.  330  ff.  The  standard  English  translation  is  that  of 
Fairfax  (1600 ;  ed.  by  Henry  Morley,  1889).  There  is  an  earlier  transla- 
tion by  Richard  Carew  of  Antony  (i  594).  For  16th-century  translations, 
see  E.  Koeppel  in  Anglia,  n:  333.  1889;  12:  103.  1890;  13: 
42.  1891.  J.  H.  Wiffen's  translation  (1824-25;  new  ed.,  1883)  is  im- 
portant; see  also  versions  by  C.  L.  Smith  (1876-79)  and  Sir  John 
Kingston  James  (1884).  Translations  of  parts  were  made  by  H.  Hooke 
(1738),  by  Brooke,  and  by  Layng,  and  of  the  whole  by  J.  Hoole  (1762). 
French  translations  may  be  noted  as  follows :  Mirabaud(i724);  Le  Brun, 
the  best  (1774);  Baour,  next  to  the  best  (1796);  Desserteaux,  not  very 
literal,  but  popular  (1855);  Duchemvin  (1856);  Albert  (1868).  The 
standard  German  translation  is  that  of  J.  D.  Gries  (1800).  Duttenhofer's 
version  (1840)  is  also  well  done.  See  other  versions  by  Heinse  (1785), 
Schindel  (1800),  and  Malm  (1835). 

References.  On  the  attempts  to  write  epics  in  the  classical  vein  see 
Flamini,  Compendio  di  storia  lett.  ital.,  pp.  144-146,  and -appended 
bibliog.,  p.  356(1914);  also  the  larger  histories.  OnTrissino:  Spingarn's 
Lit.  Crit.  in  Ren.,  p.  112  (1899),  Ciampolini's  Un  poema  eroico  nella 
prima  metk  del  cinquecento  (Lucca:  1881),  Ermini's  L' Italia  Liberata 
di  G.  G.  Trissino  (Roma :  1895),  and  F.  Capalbo's  Le  fonti  cavalleresche 
dell'  Italia  Liberata,  etc.  (Cosenza:  1906). 

The  following  works  deal  with  Tasso  and  the  Gerusalemme  Liberata : 
A.  Belloni,  Gli  epigoni  della  Gerusalemme  (Padova:  1893);  W.  Boulting, 
Tasso  and  his  Times  (Lond. :  1907);  V.  Cherbuliez,  T.  Tasso  (in 
Rev.  d.  Deux  Mondes,  CXXI,  418);  V.  Crescini,  T.  Tasso  (Padova: 
1895);  G.  J.  Ferrazzi,  Torquato  Tasso,  Studi  biografici-critici-bibliogranci 
(Bassano :  1880);  F.  Flamini,  II  Cinquecento,  p.  497  ff.,  with  bibliog- 
raphy on  pp.  580-582 ;  R.  Garnett,  Hist,  of  Italian  Lit.  (see  Appendix), 
Chap.  XVIII,  —  multum  in  parvo;  Hallam,  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of 
Europe;  E.  J.  Hasell,  Tasso  (1882);  G.  Mazzoni,  Della  G.  L.,  etc. 
(in  his  Tra  libri  e  carte.  Roma:  1887);  E.  de  Malde,  Le  fonti  della 
G.  L.  (Parma:  1910);  Manzoni,  Preface  to  the  Sansoni  ed. ;  R.  Milman, 
Life  of  Tasso  (1850);  G.  Muoni,  II  Tasso  ei  romantici  (Milano  :  1904); 
.S.  Multineddu,  Le  fonti  della  G.  L.  (Torino :  1^95) ;  E.  Nencioni, 
T.  Tasso  (in  La  vita  ital.  nel  cinquecento,  Milano :  1 894) ;  C.  M. 
Phillimore,  Studies  in  Italian  Literature  (Lond. :  1891);  Sismondi,  Lit. 


728  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

* 

of  the  South  of  Europe  (2d  ed.  1846);  A.  Solerti,  Vita  di  T.  Tasso 
(3  vols.  Torino:  1895),  the  chief  work  on  the  life  of  the  poet;  J.  A. 
Symonds,  Renaissance  in  Italy  (vol.  II,  Chaps.  7,  8.  1886);  V.  Vivaldi, 
La  piu  grande  polemica  del  cinquecento,  etc.  (Cantanzaro :  1 895 ;  cf . 
Solerti  in  the  Giorn.  storico,  27:  426-431);  by  the  same,  Sulle  fonti 
della  G.  L.  (2  vols.  Cantanzaro :  1893  ;  cf.  Solerti  in  the  Giorn.  storico, 
24:  255-266);  by  the  same,  La  G.  L.  studiata  nelle  sue  fonti  (2  vols. 
Trani:  1901);  by  the  same,  Prolegomeni  ad  uno  studio  completo  sulle 
fonti  della  G.  L.  (Trani:  1904);  G.  E.  Woodberry,  The  Inspiration  of 
Poetry  (N.Y. :  1910),  which  contains  a  popular  essay  on  Tasso. 

On  the  institution  of  chivalry,  see  G.  G.  Coulton,  Art.  Knighthood 
and  Chivalry  (in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.);  S.  W.  Cornish,  Chivalry 
(2d  ed.  Lond. :  1908),  a  small  work,  but  a  good  one;  L.  Gautier,  La 
chevalerie  en  France  (Paris :  1 883),  "  with  an  apologetic  bias,  but  full  and 
correct  in  its  references  "  ;  C.  Mills,  History  of  Chivalry  (Philadelphia : 
1884);  S.  Luce,  Hist,  de  Du  Guesclin  et  de  son  e"poque  (2d  ed.  Paris: 
1882),  admirable,  but  incomplete;  J.  F.  Rowbotham,  The  Troubadours 
and  Courts  of  Love  (Lond.:  1895),  with  bibliography,  pp.  315-317; 
W.  H.  Schofield,  Chivalry  in  English  Lit.  (Cambridge:  1912);  A.  Schultz, 
Hofisches  Leben  z.  Zeit  der  Minnesinger  (Leipz. :  1879);  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  Essay  on  Chivalry ;  Ste.-Palaye,  Me'moires  sur  1'ancienne  cheva- 
lerie, etc.  (in  Memoires  .  .  .  de  1'Academie  royale  des  inscriptions. 
Vol.  XX.  1753.  The  edition  of  1781  is  more  convenient  for  use);  by 
the  same,  Histoire  litt.  des  Troubadours  (ed.  Millot,  3  vols.,  Paris:  1774; 
tr.  S.  Dobson,  Lond.:  1779);  Sir  E.  Strachey,  Essay  on  Chivalry  (in 
his  ed.  of  Morte  Darthur,  Lond. :  1 886).  The  histories  by  Freeman  and 
Green  may  also  be  consulted;  and  Schofield's  Eng.  Lit.  from  the 
Norman  Conquest  to  Chaucer. 

F.  Later  Epic  and  Mock-Heroic  Poems. 

Among  the  imitations  of  the  Gerusalemme  Liberata  in  the 
seventeenth  century  may  be  mentioned,  though  all  of  little  note, 
Bracciolini's  Croce  Racquistata,  Chiabrera's  Erminia  (and  three 
other  heroic  poems),  Camillo  Camilli's  Cinque  Canti,  Grandi's 
Tancredi,  Verdizzotti's  Boemondo,  Graziani's  Conquista  di  Granata 
and  Malmignati's  Enrico.  The  Adone  of  Marini  (1623)  is  a  dis- 
cursive epic  of  different  style  — •  mythological,  descriptive,  and 
quasi-scientific.  Early  in  the  century  the  counter-movement  iri 
mock-heroic  verse  was  started  by  Tassoni,  whose  Secchia  Rapita 


VI,  F]  ITALIAN  EPICS  729 

not  only  parodies  the  fashionable  epic  but  indulges  in  personal 
and  social  satire.  Written  before  1618,  though  not  published  till 
1622,  it  originated  a  new  poetic  genre.  Of  somewhat  similar 
mock-heroic  quality  were  Bracciolini's  mythological  parody  the 
Scherno  degli  Dei,  and  a  numerous  following  of  the  Secchia 
Rapita  —  most  notable,  perhaps,  the  Asino  of  Dottori  and  the 
Malmantile  Racquistato  of  Lorenzo  Lippi.  —  In  the  poetry  of 
the  eighteenth  century  the  burlesque  of  Pulci,  Boiardo,  Ariosto, 
and  Berni  was  further  prosecuted  in  the  jovially  satiric  Ricciardetto 
(1700-1738)  of  Niccolo  Forteguerri.  Genuine  epical  qualities  may 
here  and  there  be  detected,  as  in  the  biblical  and  Dantesque  Visioni 
of  Varano  and  other  poems.  For  other  epical  poetry  of  the  period 
see  G.  Mazzoni's  L'  Ottocento,  Chap.  VI  (A.  M.  Ricci,  P.  Bagnole, 
L.  Costa,  D.  Roero  Saluzzo).  But  the  student  will  not  make  de- 
liberate pause  until  he  reaches  Monti's  Bassvilliana  of  1793  (which 
owes  much  to  Varano,  more  to  Klopstock  and  Dante),  and  his 
Mascheroniana  of  1801.  For  the  igth  century  see  Collison-Morley, 
p.  323.  —  For  further  examples  of  the  Italian  epic  see  the  general 
histories,  and  L.  Frigeri,  Principii  della  nuova  epopea  italiana 
(Mantova:  1879),  and  the  bibliography  in  Flamini's  Compendio 
di  storia  della  letteratura  italiana  (Livorno :  1914). 

VII.  Spanish  Epics. 

For  general  apparatus  see  above,  §  6,  ix,  and  the  histories  of  Spanish 
literature  listed  in  the  Appendix.  For  the  bibliography  of  the  Spanish 
epic  in  general  see  the  recent  Spanish  (Madrid:  1916)  and  French 
editions  of  Fitzmaurice-Kelly's  History  of  Spanish  Literature.  The 
best  monograph  on  the  Spanish  epic  is  R.  M.  Pidal's  L'e'pope'e  cas- 
tillane  a  travers  la  litterature  espagnole  (Paris :  1910),  noted  above,  §  1 1. 

« 

A.  Poema  del  Cid. 

See  Pidal  and  Fitzmaurice- Kelly,  as  noted  above ;  Mild  y  Fontanals, 
Chaytor,  Grober,  F.  J.  Wolf,  and  others,  as  noted  above,  §  6,  ix,  A ; 
J.  Clark,  as  noted  above,  §  1 1 ;  also  Morf  (in  the  Deutsche  Rundschau, 
June  1900,  p.  377),  and  F.  Hanssen,  Sobre  la  poesfa  e"pica  de  los 
Visigodos  (Santiago,  Chile:  1892). 


730  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

The  discovery  of  Spanish  heroic  poetry  (cantares  de  gesta)  was 
late  (1874).  In  1865  Gaston  Paris  believed  that  there  was  no 
Spanish  epic  (Hist,  poetique  de  Charlemagne,  1865,  p.  203); 
in  1898,  in  the  Journal  des  savants  for  May  and  June,  Paris 
acknowledged  his  mistake.  It  was  the  Spanish  savant  Mila  y 
Fontanals  who  '  discovered '  the  early  epical  poetry  of  Spain. 
In  his  work  De  la  poesfa  heroico-popular  castellana  (Barcelona : 
1874),  this  critic,  after  an  extended  review  of  previous  works 
bearing  upon  the  subject,  shows  that  in  Castile  there  was  a 
great  epic  activity  that  reached  its  culmination  during  the  nth 
and  1 2th  centuries,  with  a  period  of  splendid  decadence  during 
the  1 3th  and  i4th  centuries,  and  that  the  romances  were  frag- 
ments of  the  long  poems  of  this  decadence.  Two  theories-  of  the 
origin  of  Spanish  epical  poetry  have  been  proposed.  According 
to  the  first  a  probable  origin  is  found  in  the  French  chanson  de 
geste  (see  Paris,  as  just  noted ;  E.  de  Hinojosa,  Discursos  en  la 
Academia  Espanola,  March  1904;  A.  Bello,  vol.  IV,  p.  279,  of  the 
Obras  completas,  Santiago,  Chile:  1883).  The  second  theory 
sets  up  a  Germanic  origin  (see  the  work  of  R.  M.  Pidal,  cited 
above,  §  n). 

Of  the  whole  body  of  epical  poetry,  presumably  great  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  frequency  with  which  the  old  chronicles 
allude  to  the  stories  of  the  jug/ares,  little  has  survived.  Ramon 
Menendez  Pidal  has  pieced  together  from  the  Crdnica  general 
(i3th  century)  part  of  a  poem  upon  the  Infantes  de  Lara  (1896). 
The  Poema  de  Fernan  Gonzalez  (ed.,  with  critical  text,  introd., 
notes,  and  glossary,  by  C.  C.  MaYden,  Baltimore:  1904),  dealing 
with  deeds  of  the  loth  century,  was  not  composed  until  1250  or 
later..  But  the  chief  remains  of  the  early  activity  in  heroic  verse 
are  the  two  fragmentary  poems  on  the  Cid  (Rodrigo  Diaz  de 
Bivar,  d.  1099),  —  the  Poema  del  Cid,  from  about  the  middle 
of  the  1 2th  century,  and  the  Crdnica  rimada  del  Cid,  from  the 
1 4th  century  at  the  earliest  though  including  materials  of  greater 
antiquity.  The  former  is  "  but  a  fragment  of  3744  lines,  written 
in  a  barbarous  style,  in  rugged  assonant  rhymes,  and  a  rude 


VII,  A]  SPANISH  EPICS  731 

Alexandrine  measure,  but  it  glows  with  the  pure  fire  of  poetry, 
and  is  full  of  a  noble  simplicity  and  a  true  epical  grandeur, 
invaluable  as  a  living  picture  of  the  age  "  (Art.  Cid,  Encyc.  Brit.). 

In  the  Poema  the  treatment  is  obviously  modelled  upon  the  Chanson 
de  Roland.  .  .  .  The  machinery  in  both  cases  is  very  similar.  .  .  .  But 
allowing  for  the  fact  that  the  Spanish  juglar  borrows  his  framework, 
his  performance  is  great  by  virtue  of  its  simplicity,  its  strength,  its 
spirit  and  fire.  .  .  .  There  is  an  unity  of  conception  and  of  language 
which  forbids  our  accepting  the  Poema  as  the  work  of  several  hands ; 
and  the  division  of  the  poem  into  separate  cantares  is  managed  with 
a  discretion  which  argues  a  single  artistic  intelligence.  .  .  .  Indubitably 
this  [a  passage  on  the  charge  of  the  Cid  at  Alcocer]  is  the  work  of  an 
original  genius  who  redeemed  his  superficial  borrowings  of  incident 
from  Roland  by  a  treatment  all  his  own  (Fitzmaurice- Kelly,  Hist.  Span. 
Lit,  N.Y.:  1904,  pp.  49-51). 

Another  theory,  now  rather  discredited,  regards  the  Poema  as  an 
'  amalgam  '  of  primitive  cantilenas,  or  short  lyrical  poems.  No  such 
cantilenas  are  now  in  existence. 

In  addition  to  the  problems  of  origin  the  student  will  find  here 
the  double  opportunity  of  tracing  the  later  forms  of  the  Cid  story 
in  the  romances  of  the  i4th  and  i5th  centuries,  and  in  the  ballads 
of  the  Cid,  about  200  in  number,  most  of  them  probably  from 
the  1 6th  century.  The  relation  of  the  idealized  Cid  of  the  Poema 
and  romances  to  the  historical  Cid  has  been  studied  at  some 
length  and  involves  a  valuable  instance  of  epical  idealization.  For 
more  specific  problems  see  Pidal,  as  already  noted,  and  the  works 
listed  below,  under  References. 

Texts  and  Translations.  The  original  edition  of  the  Poema  was  by 
T.  A.  Sdnchez  (1779);  the  best  editions  are  those  of  K.  Vollmoller 
(Halle:  1879);  Mene"ndez  Pidal,  Cantar  de  mio  Cid,  texto,  gramatica  y 
vocabulario  (3  vols.  Madrid :  1908-1 1.  Cf.  the  same  author's  Poema  del 
Cid.  Madrid  :  1913):  A.  M.  Huntington,  The  Poem  of  the  Cid  (3  vols. 
N.Y. :  1897-1902),  an  Edition  de  luxe,  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to 
establish  a  definitive  text  (vol.1  Text;  II  Translation;  III  Notes). 
The  standard  English  translations  are  those  of  J.  H.  Frere  (1808)  and 
J.  Ormsby  (Lond. :  1879),  and  that  of  Huntington  just  mentioned.  A 
new  translation  in  verse  and  prose  by  R.  S.  Rose  and  Leonard  Bacon, 


732  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

The  Lay  of  the  Cid,  scholarly  and  of  decided  stylistic  value,  has  recently 
been  issued  by  the  University  of  California  Press  (Semicentennial 
Publications,  Berkeley:  1919).  There  are  a  literal  French  trans- 
lation by  Hinard  and  German  versions  by  Herder  and  by  J.  Adam 
(in  Roman.  Forsch.,  32:  185.  1912).  —  For  the  Cid  ballads  see 
Duran's  collection  in  two  volumes  in  the  Romancero  general  (Riva- 
deneyra's  Biblioteca  de  autores  espanoles);  for  the  Cid  romances 
see  Escobar's  Romancero  del*  Cid  (Madrid:  1818).  Also  see  Ballads 
of -the  Cid,  translated  by  L.  Gerard  (1883);  Ancient  Spanish  Ballads, 
trans,  by  J.  G.  Lockhart  (1823). 

References.  In' addition  to  the  authorities  already  cited  the  following 
are  important :  G.  Baist,  Spanische  Litteratur  (in  Grober's  Grundriss) ; 
V.  Balaguer,  Hist,  polit.  y  literaria  de  los  trovadores  (2  vols.  Madrid : 
1878-79);  E.  Baret,  Du  poeme  du  Cid  dans  ses  analogies  avec  la 
Chanson  de  Roland  (Paris:  1863);  B.  Clarke,  The  Cid  Campeador 
and  the  Waning  of  the  Crescent  in  the  West  ("  Heroes  of  the  Nations." 
1902);  R.  Dozy,  Recherches  sur  1'histoire  et  la  litterature  de  TEspagne 
pendant  le  moyen  age  (3d  ed.  2  vols.  Leyden :  1887),  —  for  the  his- 
torical and  poetical  Cid;  Mild  y-  Fontanals,  De  los  trovadores  en 
Espana  (Barcelona :  1 882) ;  L.  de  Monge,  Etudes  morales  et  litte"raires 
(Paris:  1887);  M.  Mene"ndez  y  Pelayo,  Tratado  de  los  romances  viejos 
(in  the  author's  Antologia  de  poetas  liricos  castellanos.  Vol.  XI,  1903; 
XII,  1906);  P.  J.  Pidal,  Estudios  literarios  (in  Coleccion  de  escritores 
castellanos  criticos.  2  vols.  Madrid:  1890.  See  vol.  I,  p.  61  ff.); 
R.  M.  Pidal,  La  leyenda  de  los  infantes  de  Lara  (Madrid:  1896);  by 
the  same,  El  poema  del  Cid  y  las  crdnicas  generates  de  Espafta  (Paris : 
1908.  In  Rev.  hispanique,  5  :  435);  Comte  de  Puymaigre,  Les  vieux 
auteurs  castillans  (2d  ed.  2  vols.  Paris  :  1 888-90-) ;  G.  Saintsbury, 
The  Flourishing  of  Romance  (N.Y. :  1897.  Chap.  IX);  M.  G.  Sigura, 
La  poesfa  e'pica  en  Espana  (in  Re-vista  de  Espana,  115  :  572);  C.  M. 
de  Vasconcellos,  Estudos  sobre  o  Romanceiro  peninsular  (in  Outturn 
espaitola,  Aug.  i9O7-Aug.  1909,  vols.  VII-XV);  H.  E.  Watts,  The 
Cid  (Encyc.  Brit.,  I  ith  ed.),  —  on  the  historical  character  of  the  Cid.  ( )n 
the  structure  of  Spanish  epic  verse  a  very  convenient  outline,  with  refer- 
ences to  authorities,  will  be  found  in  the  Trans,  and  Proc.  Amer.  /'///'/. 
Assoc.  (A.  M.  Espinosa,  The  Metrical  Structure  of  Early  Spanish  Epic 
Verse.  Vol.  XLI,  1910).  For  the  sake  of  its  suggestion  of  problems  the 
outline  may  be  quoted  at  length :  "  A  defense  of  the  theory  of  Mild  y 
Fontanals  and  Mene"ndez  Pidal,  i.e.,  that  the  old  Spanish  epic  verse  was 
not  metrical.  The  presentation  and  defense  of  their  theories  with  addi- 
tional evidence.  —  I.  The  earliest  Spanish  epic  poetry  represents  the 


'VII,  B]  SPANISH  EPICS  733 

transition  from  an  earlier  irregular  form  to  a  fixed  metrical  verse,  which  in 
the  Spanish  ballads  finally  developed  into  a  1 6-syllable  verse.  —  Theories 
of  the  versification  of  the  Cid.  Diez,  Wolf,  Restori,  Hinard,  and  the 
French  epic  meters.  The  theories  of  French  imitation  lost  ground  when 
Mila  y  Fontanals  proved  the  existence  of  an  indigenous  Spanish  epic 
poetry.  The  versification  theories  of  Mild.  Metrical  irregularity  his 
conclusion.  Cornu  and  the  theory  of  the  original  ballad  meter.  Pidal 
and  Hanssen  accept  this,  but  M.  Pidal  now  defends  Mila.  The  theory 
of  Mila  as  now  accepted  by  M.  Pidal,  the  only  sound  theory.  Addi- 
tional evidences.  A  fixed  metrical  verse  is  out  of  the  question  in  the 
earliest  periods  of  any  Romance  poetry.  Characteristics  of  early  Ro- 
mance poetry.  Non-metrical  assonanced  verses.  The  old  epic  verse 
and  its  irregularity.  The  evidences  of  the  learned  poets. — «II.  The 
Versification  of  the  oldest  Spanish  Ballads.  —  The  1 6-syllable  verse 
predominates,  but  evidences  of  the  earlier  irregularities  still  appear. 
The  meter  of  the  Cid,  Rodrigo,  and  Infantes  de  Lara  compared  with 
that  of  the  ballads.  The  development  of  a  fixed  regular  meter  in 
Spanish  epic  poetry  is  a  fact  which  no  one  can  deny.  In  Cid  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  verses  have  octosyllabic  hemistichs,  in  the  Infantes  de 
Lara  fifty  per  cent,  in  the  old  ballads  seventy-five  per  cent,  and  finally  the 
sixteenth  century  ballads  assume  a  definite  form,  a  1 6-syllable  verse." 

B.  Other  Epical  Poetry.  The  student  should  consider  the  epic 
qualities  of  such  poems  as  the  Chanson  du  siege  de  Zamora ;  the 
Poema  del  Alfonso  XI,  the  work  of  Rodrigo  Yanez,  discovered 
in  1573;  the  Enfances  de  Rodrigue ;  and  the  epic  materials  in 
the  Romancero.  On  these  and  other  poems,  see  Pidal  as  cited 
above,  §  n.  Montalvo's  Amadis  de  Gaula  is  the  first  and  best 
of  the  Castilian  romances  of  chivalry :  the  student  may  consult 
Baist  (in  Grober's  Grundriss,  II,  2,  441);  E.  Baret,  De  1' Amadis 
de  Gaule  et  de  son  influence  sur  les  mceurs  et  la  litterature  au 
XVP  et  au  XVIP  siecle,  avec  une  notice  bibliographique  (ad  ed. 
Paris:  1873);  L.  de  Monge,  as  cited  above,  §  8.  See  also  under 
References,  above. 

The  Ancient  Poetry  and  Romances  are  to  some  extent  made  acces- 
sible to-  English  readers  by  Dr.  Bowring's  work  of  that  title  (Lond. : 
1824).  His  authorities  were  principally  the  Correo  literario  de  Sevilla 
(1806) ;  the  Cancionero  general  de  muchos  y  diversos  autores  (Valencia : 
1511,  and  Antwerp:  1573);  the  Cancionero  de  Amberes  (1559);  the 


734  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

Colecci6n  de  poesfas  castellanas  anteriores  al  siglo  XV,  by  Tomas  Ant. 
Sanchez  (4  vols.  Madrid :  1 779) ;  Bohl  de  Faber's  Floresta  de  rimas 
antiguas  castellanas  (3  vols.  Hamburg:  1821-25);  tne  Primavera  y 
flor  de  romances  de  varies  poetas  (Madrid  :  1623);  Primavera  de  varies 
romances  (Valencia :  1 644) ;  the  Romancero  general  of  Pedro  de  Flores 
(Madrid :  1614);  the  Silva  de  romances  ( 1 644) ;  and  the  collected  works 
of  individual  poets.  To  this  list  of  sources  may  be  added  Depping's 
Sammlung  der  besten  alten  spanischen  historischen  Ritter-  und 
maurischen  Romanzen  (Altenberg  u.  Leipz. :  1817);  Grimm's  Silva 
de  romances  viejos  (Vienna:  1815);  Duron's  Romancero  de  romances 
moriscos  (Madrid:  1828),  and  his  Romances  caballerescos  (Madrid: 
1829);  and  Ochoa's  Tesoro  de  los  romanceros  y  cancioneros  espaftoles 
(Paris:  4838).  Further  bibliography  in  Korting  and  Grober. 

La  Araucana  of  Alonso  de  Ercilla  y  Ziiniga  (1533-95)  is  based 
on  the  wars  between  the  Araucanian  Indians  of  Chile  and  the 
Spanish  invaders.  "  It  consists  of  three  parts,  of  which  the  first, 
composed  in  Chile  and  published  in  1569,  is  a  versified  narrative 
•adhering  strictly  to  historic  fact;  the  second,  published  in  1578,  is 
encumbered  with  visions  and  other  romantic  machinery ;  and  the 
third,  which  appeared  in  1589-90,  contains,  in  addition  to  the  sub- 
ject proper,  a  variety  of  episodes  mostly  irrelevant.  This  so-called 
epic  lacks  symmetry,  and  has  been  over-praised  by  Cervantes  and 
Voltaire ;  but  it  is  written  in  excellent  Spanish  and  is  full  of  vivid 
rhetorical  passages.  An  analysis  of  the  poem  was  given  by  Hayley 
in  his  Essay  on  Epic  Poetry  (1782)."  Cf.  Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  Hist, 
de  la  lit.  espanola  (1916),  pp.  184-185. 

VIII.  Portuguese  Epics. 

A.   Os  Lusiadas, 

For  bibliography  of  works  dealing  with  Camoens  and  his  Os  Lusiadas 
see  Korting's  Encykl.  (1886),  3  :  595-596 ;  the  Bibliographia  Camoniana, 
servindo  de  catalogq  official  da  exposicao  litt.  das  festas  (Porto :  1 880) ; 
T.  Braga,  Bibliographia  Camoniana  (Lisb.:  1880);  Brito-Aranha, 
vols.  XIV  and  XV  of  the  Diccionario  bibl.  portuguez  (Lisb.:  18^7-88). 
For  the  editions  see  Korting,  3  :  595.  The  editio  princeps  is  of  date 
1572.  Other  editions  by  Juromenha  (Lisb.:  1869.  Also  in  vol.  V  of 
Brockhaus'  Collec$ao  de  autores  portuguezes.  Leipz.:  1866+);  C.  von 


VIII,  A]  PORTUGUESE  EPICS  735 

Reinhardstottner  (Strassburg  :  1874-75);  Braga (Porto:  1880);  Coelho 
(Lisb. :  1880).  —  Translations  into  English  by  Sir  Richard  Fanshawe 
(I655))  W.  J.  Mickle  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1798),  T.  M.  Musgrave  (1826), 

E.  Quillinan  (1853),  R.  Burton  (Lond.:   1880),  R.  F.  Duff  (1880),  and 
J.  J.  Aubertin  (2d  ed.    Lond.:    1884);  into  French  by  Duperron  de 
Castera  (Paris:     1768),    Fournier    et   Desaules   (Paris:     1841);    into 
Italian  by  A.  Nervi  (1882);  into  German  by  C.  C.  Heise  (Hamburg: 
1806?),  J.  J.  C.   Donner  (Stuttgart:    1833),   Booch-Arkossy  (Leipz.: 
1854),  C.  Eitner  (Hildburghausen :   1869),  W.  Storck  (the  entire  works 
in  6  vols.     Paderborn:    1880-85.     The  epic  is  in  vol.  V).     Of  the 
German  versions,  those  of  Storck  and  Donner  are  the  best. 

The  following  works  and  articles  may  be  consulted :  J.  Adamson, 
Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  L.  de  Camoens  (2  vols.  Lond. : 
1820);  A.  F.  G.  Bell,  Studies  in  Portuguese  Literature  (Oxford: 
1914);  T.  Braga,  Historia  de  C.  (3  vols.  Porto:  1873-75;  being 
yols.  XII  and  XIII  of  the  author's  Historia  da  litteratura  portugueza); 
R.  Burton,  Camoens,  his  Life  and  his  Lusiads  (Lond.:  1881);  J.  Clark, 
as  noted  above,  §  1 1 ;  Juromenha,  Introductions,  etc.,  of  his  edition  of 
the  works,  mentioned  above ;  C.  Lamare,  C.  et  les  Lusiades  (Paris : 
1878);  M.  Lemos,  L.  de  C.  (Paris:  1881);  E.  Leoni,  Camoes  e  os 
Lusiadas  t(Lisb. :  1872);  F.  A.  Lobo,  Memoria  hist,  e  critica  acerca  de 
L.  de  C.  e  das  suas  obras  (in  Hist,  e  mem.  da  A  cad.  Real  das  Sc.  de 
Lisboa,  N.  S.,  vol.  VII,  1821);  O.  Martins,  Os  Lusiadas,  ensaio  sobre 
C.  e  a  sua  obra  em  relac.ao  &  sociedade  portugueza  e  ao  movimento  da 
renascenc,a  (Porto :  1872;  1891);  C.  May  (in  Herrigs  Archiv,  49:  121); 
R.  de  Novery,  Les  voyages  de  C.  (Paris:  1880);  C.  von  Reinhard- 
stottner, L.  de  C.,  der  Sanger  der  Lusiaden  (2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1877); 

F.  von   Schlegel  (see  above,   §  8) ;    Sismondi  (see  above,   §  1 1 ;    see 
vol.  II,  Chaps.  XXXVII,  XXXVIII,  of  the  work);    Mme.  de  Stael, 
Camoens   (in   the    Biographic   universelle,   being  vol.   XVII    of   her 
CEuvres.    Paris:   1820-21);  C.  M.  de  Vasconcellos  and  T.  Braga  (in 
Grober's  Grundriss) ;   Vasconcellos,  Arts,  in  the  Ztschr.  fur  roman. 
Phil.  (7:    407,  494;    8:    i);    G.  E.  Woodberry,  The  Inspiration  of 
Poetry  (N.Y.:   1910.    Chap.  III).    See  also  the  histories  of  Portuguese 
literature. 

B.  For  other  Portuguese  epic  material,  see  the  histories,  and  F.  Wolf, 
Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  spanischen  und  portugiesischen  National- 
literatur  (Berlin :  1859.  On  the  epic  of  the  Middle  Ages).  For  metrical 
romances  see  T.  Braga,  Cancioneiro  e  romanceiro  geral  portuguez,  and 
Romanceiro  geral  portuguez  (2d  ed.  2  vols.  Lisb.:  1906-07),  where 
further  bibliography  may  be  had. 


736  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

A  Brazilian  epic,  in  Portuguese,  is  that  of  Gonzalve  de  Magalhaes, 
entitled  A  Confederagao  dos  Tamoyos  (see  Korting,  Encykl.,  1886, 
3:  589). 

IX.  English  Epics. 

For  general  apparatus  see  above,  §  6,  xi.  Aside  from  the  histories 
of  the  literature,  Dixon's  English  Epic  and  Heroic  Poetry  (noted  above, 
§  n)  is  the  chief  guide.  J.  Clark's  Hist,  of  Epic  Poetry  (also  noted 
above,  §  I  r)  is  of  little  help.  The  bibliographies  in  the  Camb.  Hist,  of 
Eng.  Lit.  should  be  consulted  for  each  poem  or  group  of  poems. 

A.  Finnsburg  and  Waldere  Fragments.    On  these  epical  nar- 
ratives, which  resemble  the  German  Hildebrandslied  and  which  are 
fragments  of  an  ancient,  pagan  heroic  poetry  of  the.  continent 
flourishing  from  the  great  Teutonic  migration-wars  of  the  fifth 
century  through  several  subsequent  centuries,  see  Alois  Brandl' 
in    Paul's    Grundriss,    II,   i,    pp.  949,  980    (2d  ed.),    Wiilker's 
Grundriss,  §§  296-299  (1885),  and  F.  Dieter,  Die  Walderefrag- 
mente  und  die  urspriingliche  Gestalt  der  Walthersage  (in  AngHa, 
10 :   227.     1888;    ii  :    159.     1889),   in    each   of    which   further 
bibliography  is  given.    For  the  Latin  Waltharius  see  above,  iv,  F, 
and  Paul  81-86. 

B.  The  Beowulf . 

For  bibliography  consult,  first  of  all,  Brandl's  Versuch  einer  Beowulf- 
Bibliographie  (in  Paul's  Grundriss  der  germ.  Philol.,  2d  ed.,  2:  i, 
1015-1024),  of  which  the  following  notes  are,  in  the  main,  a  condensa- 
tion, and  the  bibliographical  notes  of  Sedgefield's  ed.,  listed  below. 
R.  Wiilker's  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  angelsachsischen  Litteratur 
(Leipz. :  1885)  is  an  indispensable  guide  to  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon 
literature ;  the  treatment  of  the  Beowulf  begins  on  p.  244,  and  the 
chief  questions  of  Beowulf  study  are  noted  in  detail,  along  with  copious 
summaries  of  the  works  belonging  to  the  discussion.  J.  R.  Clark, 
Beowulf,  etc.  (1901),  and  H.  M.  Ayres,  Bibliographical  Sketch  of 
Anglo-Saxon  Lit.  (Columbia  Univ.  N.  Y. :  1910),  supply  some  of  the 
more  important  of  recent  titles ;  many  reviews  and  notices  will  be 
found  in  the  Jahresbericht  iiber  d.  Erscheinungen  auf  dem  Geb.  d. 
germ.  Philol.  (Leipz.:  1879+),  and  in  the  Anzeigen  zur  Anglia 
(Halle:  1881+)  and  the  Anglia  Beiblatt  (1890+). 


IX,  B]  ENGLISH  EPICS  737 

The  chief  problems  in  the  study  of  Beowulf,  so  far  as  the 
literary  type  is  concerned,  may  be  indicated  by  the  following :  In 
what  way  did  the  poem  originate,  —  as  an  original  composition  by 
a  single  author  who  made  use  of  traditional  material,  or  as  a 
collection  of  separate  lays  ?  This  is  the  Homeric  question  over 
again ;  or,  to  be  more  exact,  it  is  the  question  that  arises  by 
applying  the  Lieder-Theorie  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  epic.  The  first 
to  make  the  application  was  Miillenhoff.  For  a  summary  of 
the  discussion  (involving  works  by  Ronning,  Ettmiiller,  Kohler, 
Grein,  Simrock,  Moller,  Hornburg,  etc.)  see  Wiilker,  p.  288  ff. 
In  the  Beowulf,  far  more  than  in  the  Homeric  epics,  there  is 
evidence  of  a  stitching  together  of  lays.  But  is  not  this  stitching 
of  the  Beowulf  comparable  to  earlier  forms  of  the  Homeric  tales, 
to  earlier  minstrel-cycles,  rather  than  to  the  Greek  epics  in  their 
finished  form  ?  Does  not  the  inferiority  of  the  style  and  narrative 
art  of  Beowulf  as  compared  with  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  render 
such  a  supposition  very  probable  ?  The  student  will  be  particularly 
interested  in  the  evidences  of  Christian  redaction  of  the  pagan 
lays.  Here,  readily  accessible,  is  an  example  of  some  of  those 
intervening  and  transitional  stages  by  which  the  scale  of  an 
original  epical  lay  is  revised  and  enlarged  to  agree  with  the 
consciousness  of  a  later  civilization.  That  this  enlargement  and 
sophistication  of  the  earlier  heroic  lays  fell  to  the  missionary 
zeal  of  priestly  editors,  as  appears  probable  from  the  nature  of 
the  changes,  .was  no  doubt  unfortunate  for  the  vitality  and  growth 
of  the  English  epic.  In  this  connection  there  comes  strongly  to 
the  front  the  question  of  the  relative  fitness  of  the  pagan  and 
Christian  religions  for  treatment  in  epic  form,  —  a  question  that 
occasioned  much  debate  among  the  Renaissance  theorists,  as  we 
have  already  seen  (see  above,  §§  7,  8,  9).  Closely  connected  with 
this  problem  is  that  of  the  comparative  investigation  of  the  mytho- 
logical materials  of  the  Beowulf,  —  the  original  significance  of  the 
monsters,  of  Beowulf  himself,  and  of  his  exploits,  etc.  An  allied 
problem  would  be  the  attempt  to  trace  the  stories  of  the  Beowulf 
in  continental  literatures  —  a  study  of  importance  in  establishing 


738  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  t§12 

the  nature  of  the  distribution  of  the  pagan  and  pagan-Christian 
lays.  Concerning  the  style  of  the  poem  as  related  to  the  style  of 
the  Germanic  heroic  lay  in  general  some  very  interesting  investi- 
gations have  already  been  made.  The  relation  of  the  Beowulf  to 
ballad  forms  is  part  of  the.  general  problem  of  composition,  or 
epic  growth. 

Editions  and  Translations.  For  editions  up  to  1884,  see  Wiilker, 
pp.  245-246;  add  the  Heyne-Socin  ed.  (1888-1903);  Harrison  and 
Sharp  (Boston:  1894);  Zupitza,  Autotypes,  etc.  (EETS.,  vol.  LXXVII, 
1882);  Wyatt(i898);  Trautmann(i9O4);  Holthausen  (1905-06);  W.  J. 
Sedgefield  (2d  ed.  Manchester:  1913),  which  is  very  useful  and  incor- 
porates the  chief  results  of  recent  investigations.  —  Translations :  for 
translations  up  to  1882,  see  Wiilker,  pp.  247-249 ;  to  Wiilker's  list  may 
be  added  the  English  versions  of  Earle  (1892),  Morris  and  Wyatt  (prose, 
1895;  2d  ed.,  1898),  J.  R.  C.  Hall  (prose,  1901),  C.  B.  Tinker  (prose, 
1902;  revised,  1910),  C.  G.  Child  (prose,  1904),  and  Gummere  (The 
Oldest  English  Epic.  N.Y.:  1909);  see  C.  B.  Tinker,  The  Transla- 
tions of  Beowulf,  A  Critical  Bibliography  (Yale  Studies  in  English, 
No.  1 6.  1903).  Of  recent  German  translations,  there  should  be  noted 
Hoffmann's,  in  verse  (i8g3),Trautmann's,  in  prose  (1904),  and  Gering's 
alliterative  version  (1906).  Add  also  Grion's  version,  in  Italian  prose 
(1883).  For  critical  articles  on  the  various  translations,  see  Wiilker  (in 
Anglia,  vol.  IV,  1881,  Anz.  69  ff.;  Gummere  (in  Am.  Journ.  PhiloL, 
7:  46  ff.);  Frye  (in  MLN.,  12:  issff.);  Tinker  (in  Yale  Studies, 
No.  1 6.  1903). 

References.  The  following  critical  works  have  been  selected,  in  the 
main,  from  Brandl  and  Wiilker:  C.  S.  Baldwin,  Introd.  to  English 
Medieval  Lit.  (N.Y. :  1914);  A.  Banning,  Die  epischen  Formeln  im 
Beowulf  I  (Marburg:  1886);  A.  Biese,  Die  Entwickelung  des  Natur- 
gefiihls  im  Mittelalter  und  in  der  Neuzeit  (Leipz. :  1887);  R.  C.  Boer, 
Beowulf  (in  German.  Handbibl.,  No.  n.  Halle:  1912);  A.  Brandl 
(in  Paul's  Grundriss,  as  already  indicated) ;  B.  ten  Brink,  Beowulf, 
Untersuchungen  (Strassburg :  1888);  by  the  same,  Geschichte  der 
englischen  Litteratur  (2d  ed.  1899.  See  vol.  II,  p.  27  ff.  For  English 
translation,  see  Appendix);  S.  Brooke,  Hist,  of  Early  English  Lit. 
(Lond. :  1892),  revised  as  Eng.  Lit.  from  the  Beginning  to  the  Norman 
Conquest  (Lond.:  1898);  J.  J.  Conybeare,  Illustrations  of  Anglo-Saxon 
Poetry  (Lond.:  1826);  H.  Dederich,  Historische  und  geographische 
Studien  zum  a-s.  Beowulf-liede  (Koln :  1877);  J.  Earle,  Anglo-Saxon 


IX,  B]         .  ENGLISH  EPICS  739 

Lit.  (Lond. :  1824.  P.  I2off.);  H.  Gering,  Der  Beowulf  und  die 
islandische  Grettissaga  (in  Anglia,  3:  74.  1880);  J.  Gibb,  Gudrun, 
Beowulf  et  Roland  (in  Rev.  crit.,  1883);  C.  W.  M.  Grein,  Die  histori- 
schen  Verhaltnisse  des  Beowulfliedes  (in  Jahrb.  fur  roman.  und  engl. 
Lit.,  4 :  260) ;  F.  Gummere,  The  Anglo-Saxon  Metaphor  (Halle :  1881), 
with  which  cf.  R.  Heinzel's  Uber  den  Stil  der  altgermanischen  Poesie 
(in  Quellen  und Forsch.,  Bd.  X.  1875),  and  A.  Hoffmann's  Der  bildliche 
Ausdruck  im  Beowulf  und  in  der  Edda  (in  Engl.  Studien,  6:  163-216. 
1883);  D.  H.  Haigh,  The  Anglo-Saxon  Sagas,  An  Examination  of  their 
Value  as  Aids  to  History,  etc.  (Lond.:  1861);  E.  D.  Hanscom,  The 
Feeling  for  Nature  in  O.  E.  Poetry  (in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil., 
5:  439.  1903-05);  B.  Hauschkel,  Die  Technik  der  Erzahlung  im 
Beowulfliede  (Breslau:  1904);  Heusler  (see  above,  §  n);  Hornburg, 
Die  Composition  des  Beowulf s  (Metz  :  1877;  Progr.) ;  W.  P.  Ker,  Epic 
and  Romance  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1908);  F.  Klaeber,  Die  christlichen 
Elemente  im  Beowulf  (in  Anglia,  35:  111,249,453.  1912;  36:  169. 
1912);  A.  Kohler,  Germanische  Alterthumer  im  Beowulf  (in  Germania, 
13:  129-158);  by  the  same,  Die  Einleitung  des  Beowulfsliedes,  Ein 
Beitrag  iiber  die  Liedertheorie  (in  Zacher's  Zeitschr.,  2:  305-321); 
L.  Laistner,  Das  Ratsel  der  Sphinx,  Grundziige  einer  Mythengeschichte 
(Berlin:  1889.  See  vol.  II,  p.  21  ff.);  H.  Leo,  Beowulf,  Heldengedicht 
des  8.  Jahrh.  (Zurich:  1840);  O.  Liming,  Die  Natur  in  der  altgerm. 
und  mhd.  Epik  (Zurich:  1889);  F.  March,  The  World  of  Beowulf  (in 
Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Ass.,  1882);  H.  Merb*ach,  Das  Meer  in  den  Dich- 
tungen  der  Anglss.  (Breslau:  1884);  R.  M.  Meyer,  Die  altgerm.  Poesie 
nach  ihren  formelhaften  Elementen  beschrieben  (Berlin:  1889); 
H.  Moller,  Das  altenglische  Volksepos,  etc.  (Kiel:  1883);  H.  Morley, 
English  Writers  (vol.  I,  Chap.  VI.  Lond.:  1898);  K.  Miillenhoff,  Die 
innere  Geschichte  des  Beowulfs  (in  Haupfs  Zeitschr.,  14:  242-244; 
cf.,  in  the  same  journal,  an  article  by  the  same  author,  12:  282-288); 
N.  Miiller,  Die  Mythen  im  Beowulf  (Leipz. :  1878);  E.  Otto,  Typische 
Motive  in  dem  weltlichen  Epos  der  Anglss.  (Berlin  :  1 902) ;  T.  Ronning, 
Beowulfs-Kvadet  (Copenh. :  1883);  J.  E.  Routh,  Two  Studies  on  the 
Ballad  Theory  of  the  Beowulf  (Baltimore:  1905);  G.  Sarrazin,  Die 
Abfassungszeit  des  Beowulfliedes  (in  Anglia,  14:  399.  1892),  and 
Die  Beowulf  Sage  in  Danemark  (ibid.  9:  195.  1886);  F.  Schneider, 
Der  Kampf  mit  Grendels  Mutter,  etc.  (Berlin:  1887);  Sedgefield, 
Introd.  to  his  ed.,  noted  above;  A.  H.  Tolman,  The  Style  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  Poetry  (in  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.,  Trans.,  vol.  Ill,  1887); 
M.  Trautmann,  Finn  und  Hildebrand  (Bonn:  1903).  See,  further,  the 
periodicals  pertaining  to  the  field,  as  listed  in  the  Appendix. 


740  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  .  [§  12 

C.  Early  Christian  Epical  Literature. 

On  Caedmon  and  Cynewulf,  on  the  Exodus,  Genesis,  Daniel,  on  the 
Guthlac,  Andreas,  Elene,  Judith,  etc.,  see  Paul's  Grundriss  (2d  ed., 
2:  i,  1025-1051,  1091-1092),  and  the  proper  sections  in  Wiilker.  See 
also  G.  Sarrazin,  Von  Kadmon  bis  Kynewulf  (Berlin:  1914), — most  help- 
ful; W.  W.  Lawrence,  Medieval  Story  (N.Y.:  1911);  G.  H.  Gerould, 
Saints'  Legends  (see  above,  §  n);  G.  A.  Smithson,  The  Old  English 
Christian  Epic,  etc.  (in  Univ.  Calif.  Pubs.  Mod.  Philol.,  vol.  I.  Berkeley : 
1910);  and  references  given  above,  under  B.  Among  the  many  mono- 
graphs on  Cynewulf  the  following  may  be  noted :  Glode,  in  Anglia, 
9:  27.  1886,  and  ii  :  146.  1889;  Blackburn,  ibid.  19:  89.  1897; 
Trautmann,  in  Banner  Beitrdge  zur  Anglistik,  No.  i.  1898;  S.  Moore, 
in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil.,  14  :  550.  1915;  McGillivray,  in  Stud.  z. 
eng.  Phil.,  No.  8.  1902;  but  see  K.  Jansen,  Die  Cynewulf- Forschung 
von  ihren  Anfangen  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (in  Banner  Beitrdge,  No.  24. 
1908),  extended  in  Anglia  Beiblatt,  22  :  337,  et  passim.  Translations  : 
C.  W.  Kennedy,  Cynewulf's  Poems  (prose,  with  introd.  and  bibliog. 
Lond. :  1910);  I.  Gollancz,  Christ  (Lond. :  1892);  C.  H.  Whitman, 
Christ  (Boston  :  1900);  J.  Menzies,  Elene  (Edinb. :  1895);  L.  H.  Holt, 
Elene  (prose,  in  Yale  Studies  in  Eng.,  No.  21.  1904);  R.  K.  Root, 
Andreas  (verse,  in  Yale  Studies  in  Eng.,  No.  7.  1899);  J.  M.  Garnett, 
Judith,  Elene,  Brunanburh,  and  Maldon  (Boston:  1889);  J.  L.  Hall, 
Judith,  Phoenix,  Andreas,  Brunanburh,  and  Maldon  (N.Y. :  1902); 
Cook  and  Tinker,  Select  Translations  from  Old  English  Poetry  (Boston: 
1902).  A.  S.  Cook's  critical  edition  of  the  Christ  deserves  special 
mention.  Further  bibliography  in  Paul,  Wiilker,  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit., 
and  Ayres,  as  already  noted. 

This  epical  poetrjr  is  of  course  largely  paraphrastic,  but  the 
sum  total  of  originality  is  surprising.  The  field  offers  peculiarly 
acceptable  material  for  the  study  of  the  interrelation  of  the 
Christian  religion  and  the  development  of  the  epic.  Back  of 
these  Christian  epics  is  a  pagan  and  practically  polytheistic  love 
of  myth.  One  can  see  this  at  every  turn  of  the  stories  of  saints 
and  warriors,  of  miracles  and  monsters.  What  then  makes  the 
difference  in  vitality  of  type  as  between  this  literature  and  the 
epic  of  the  Greeks  ?  What  differences  in  the  position  and  char- 
acter of  the  tellers  of  the  stories  ?  of  the  audiences  ?  Consider  the 
relations  of  the  two  cultures  brought  together  in  these  epics, — 


IX,  C]  ENGLISH  EPICS  741 

Roman-Christian  and  Teutonic,  —  and,  back  of  the  Christian, 
the  unrealized  influence  of  the  culture  of  the  ancient  Hebrews. 
In  what  way  does  this  combination,  or  confusion,  of  cultures  re- 
semble the  conditions  of  civilization  antecedent  to  other  epic 
literatures  ?  Is  a  new  set  of  cultural-literary  variations  visible  here  ? 

D.  English  Arthurian  Romances. 

To  attempt  an  outline  of  the  vast  literature  dealing  with  the  Arthurian 
and  other  romances  would  carry  us  too  far  beyond  the  scope  of  this 
section.  The  best  general  introduction  is  afforded  by  W.  H.  Schofield's 
scholarly  work,  English  Literature  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to 
Chaucer  (N.Y.:  1906),  which  has  a  bibliographical  appendix.  Another 
introductory  survey,  of  a  different  scope,  is  contained  in  C.  S.  Baldwin's 
Introcf.  to  Eng.  Medieval  Lit.  (N.  Y. :  1914) ;  see  also  Kenan's  La  poesie 
des  races  celtiques  (in  Rev.  d.  Deux  Mondes,  1854);  Saintsbury's 
Flourishing  of  Romance  and  the  Rise  of  Allegory  (Edinb. :  1897); 
Gregory  Smith's  The  Transition  Period  (1900);  G.  Paris'  Litt.  fr.  au 
moyen  age;  W.  P.  Ker's  Epic  and  Romance  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1908), 
Chap.  V  of  which  deals'  with  the  French  romances ;  the  same  author's 
Essays  on  Medieval  Lit.  (1905);  and  W.  W.  Lawrence's  Medieval  Story 
(N.  Y. :  1911).  Among  the  histories  of  English  literature  special  atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  the  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.,  Morley's  English 
Writers  (vol.  Ill),  and  Jusserand's  Lit.  Hist,  of  the  English  People. 
A.  H.  Billings'  Guide  to  the  Middle  English  Metrical  Romances  (in 
Yale  Studies  in  English,  IX.  N.Y. :  1901)  is  a  practical  and  suggestive 
survey  of  the  domain  and  should  always  be  at  hand.  H.  L.  D.  Ward's 
Catalogue  of  the  Romances  in  the  Manuscripts  Dept.  of  the  British 
Museum  (Lond. :  1 883)  provides  the  advanced  student  with  the  list  of 
materials ;  convenient  aid  is  often  given  by  Lewis  Spence's  Dictionary 
of  Medieval  Romance  and  Romance  Writers.  See  also,  for  comparative 
studies,  Betz-Baldensperger,  La  litt.  compare'e,  essai  bibliographique, 
pp.  90-95  (2d  ed.  Strasbourg:  1904). 

The  confused  and  largely  problematic  growth  of  the  Arthurian 
stories,  from  their  origin  in  early  lays  about  a  British  hero  of  the 
sixth  century  (glorified  by  identification,  say  Rhys  and  others,  with 
the  Brythonic  deity  and  culture-hero  Artor),  through  their  expan- 
sion in  later  periods  in  correspondence  with  the  larger  scope  and 
interests  of  a  later  European  culture,  and  their  final  aggregation 


742  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

in  written  cycles  some  six  hundred  years  after  the  origin  of  the 
first  Arthur-lays,  is  a  story  of  narrative  development  that  bears 
striking  resemblances  to  the  growth  of  the  great  national  epics 
of  other  peoples.  Criticism  is  concerned  with  tracing  these  re- 
semblances in  detail,  noting  their  causes  as  far  as  possible, 
explaining  the  absence  of  a  final  epic  florescence  of  the  lays, 
establishing  the  relation  of  the  romances  to  the  ballad  as  well 
as  to  a  possible  epic,  tabulating  the  distribution  of  the  romances, 
the  borrowings  and  variations  in  texts,  etc.  Is  the  technique  of 
the  romances  the  technique  of  pre-epical  lays,  or  is  it  the  technique 
of  an  age  long  past  the  productivity  of  national  epic  ? 

The  indebtedness,  on  the  one  hand,  of  English  and  some 
American  poets  to  the  Arthurian  cycle,  their  divergence,  on  the 
other,  from  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  Wace,  Layamon,  the  rhyming 
romances  of  Sir  Gawayne  and  the  Grene  Knight,  Sir  Tristrem, 
Morte  Arthure,  and  Le  Morte  Arthur,  and  from  Malory,  suggest 
an  interesting  study  in  the  modernization  of  ancient  themes 
and  its  poetic  justification.  Some  examples,  beside  the  best-known 
in  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King  and  his  preceding  and  succeed- 
ing poems  upon  the  subject,  are  Matthew  Arnold's  Tristram  and 
Iseult  (1852),  Laurence  Binyon's  Tristram  and  Isoult,  Sir  Richard 
Blackmore's  Prince  Arthur  (1695)  and  King  Arthur  (1697),  Carr's 
play  of  King  Arthur,  Drayton's  reminiscences  of  the  story  in 
Polyolbion  (1613,  1623),  Dryden's  drama  of  King  Arthur  (1691), 
Sebastian  Evans'  Arthur's  Knighting  and  his  Eve  of  Morte  Arthur 
(1875),  Fielding's  burlesque  in  the  Tragedy  of  Tragedies,  or  the 
Life  and  Death  of  Tom  Thumb  the  Great  (1730),  R.  S.  Hawker's 
Quest  of  the  Sangraal  (1863),  Reginald  HebePs  unfinished  Morte 
Arthur  and  the  Masque  of  Guendolen  (1812-26),  Richard  Hovey's 
dramas,  The  Quest  of  Merlin,  The  Marriage  of  Guenevere,  The 
Birth  of  Galahad,  and  Taliesin,  Thomas  Hughes'  Misfortunes  of 
Arthur  (1588),  John  Leyden's  praises  of  Arthur  in  Scenes  of 
Infancy  (1803),  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  Lord  Lytton's 
King  Arthur  (1848),  F.  Millard's  Tristram  and  Iseult  (1870), 
Milton's  references  in  Paradise  Lost  (I,  579)  and  Paradise 


IX,  D]  ENGLISH  EPICS  743 

Regained  (II,  354),  William  Morris'  The  Chapel  in  Lyoness 
(1856),  The  Defence  of  Guinevere  (1858),  Arthur's  Tomb,  and 
Sir  Galahad,  Percy's  revival  of  the  ballad  versions  in  the  Reliques 
of  English  Poetry  (1765),  Sir  Walter  Scott's  elaboration  of  the 
metrical  romance  of  Sir  Tristrem  (1805)  and  his  Bridal  of 
Triermain  (1813),  G.  A.  Simcox's  Farewell  of  Ganore  (1869), 
and  his  Gawain  and  the  Lady  of  AvaJon,  Southey's  references 
in  Madoc  (1805),  Spenser's  employment  of  materials  in  the 
Faerie  Queene  (1590-96),  Swinburne's  Tristram  of  Lyonesse 
(1882),  John  Veitch's  Merlin  and  other  Poems  (1889),  Thomas 
Warton's  Grave  of  King  Arthur  (1777),  Wordsworth's  Artegal 
and  Elidure  and  his  Egyptian  Maid  (1830).  Most  of  these  are 
discussed  in  relation  to  their  treatment  of  the  original  "  material 
of  Britain"  by  M.  W.  Maccallum  in  his  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the 
King,  etc.,  mentioned  below. 

Similar  studies  may  be  undertaken  in  the  other  '  matters '  of 
romance,  as  the  Germanic  legends,  the  cycles  of  Charlemagne, 
and  the  romances  of  antiquity. 

References.  Works  of  a  more  special  character,  to  which  the  English 
reader  may  turn  for  statement  and  discussion  of  the  problems  involved, 
are  the  lucid  and  very  informing  manual  by  W.  Lewis  Jones,  King  Arthur 
in  History  and  Legend  (Cambridge  :  1911),  and  the  following  mentioned 
among  others  in  the  appended  Bibliography  (p.  1 39) :  Sir  John  Rhys, 
The  Arthurian  Legend  (1891),  and  by  the  same,  Celtic  Heathendom,  and 
Celtic  Folklore  (1901);  W.  H.  Dickinson,  King  Arthur  in  Cornwall; 
R.  H.  Fletcher,  The  Arthurian  Matter  in  the  Chronicles  (Harv.  Studies 
and  Notes,  1906);  G.  L.  Kittredge  (on  the  authorship  of  the  Morte 
Darthur,  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Philol.  and  Lit.,  4:  85-105);  M.  W. 
Maccallum,  Tennyson's  Idylls  and  Arthurian  Story  (N.Y. :  1894); 
W.  W.  Newell,  King  Arthur  and  the  Table  Round  (Boston:  1897); 
Alfred  Nutt,  Celtic  and  Mediaeval  Romance,  and  by  the  same,  Legends 
of  the  Holy  Grail  (both  in  Pop.  Studies  in  Mythol.  and  Folklore);  by 
the  same,  Studies  in  the  Legend  of  the  Holy  Grail  (1888;  for  review 
by  Zimmer,  see  Gbttingische gelehrte  Anzeigen,  \  890);  Jessie  L.  Weston, 
King  Arthur  and  his  Knights  (in  Pop.  Studies  in  Mythol.  and  Folklore, 
Lond. :  1899);  by  the  same,  The  Legend  of  Sir  Gawain  (in  Nutt's 
Grimm's  Library,  1 897) ;  Professor  Zimmer's  Nennius  Vindicatus  (i  893). 


744  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

—  Of  sources,  given  by  W.  L.  Jones  and  others,  as  of  most  use  and 
interest  to  the  English  reader,  the  following:  J.  A.  Giles'  trans,  of 
Six  Old  Chronicles  (Bohn);  Sebastian  Evans'  trans,  of  Geoffrey  of 
Monmouth's  History  of  the  Kings  of  Britain  (Temple  Classics);  W.  F. 
Skene's  edition  of  The  Four  Ancient  Books  of  Wales  (Edinb. :  1 868) ; 
Lady  Charlotte  Guest's  trans,  of  the  Mabinogion  (Nutt's  edition); 
R.  A.  S.  MacAlister's  edition  of  Two  Arthurian  Romances  (from  Ireland, 
Dublin :  1 909) ;  Sir  F.  Madden's  edition  of  Layamon's  Brut  (3  vols., 
Lond. :  1847);  Caxton's  Malory's  Morte  Darthur,  ed.  by  H.  O.  Sommer 
in  3  vols.,  —  the  most  important  edition  (Lond.:  1889-91);  or  ed.  by 
Sir  J.  Rhys  (Dent);  or  ed.  by  Sir  E.  Strachey  (Globe  Series);  or  W.  E. 
Mead's  Morte  Darthur  (Boston :  1 897).  See  V.  D.  Scudder,  Le  Morte 
Darthur  of  Sir  Thomas  Malory  and  its  Sources  (N.  Y. :  1917);  J.  D. 
Bruce,  The  Development  of  the  Mort  Arthur  Theme  in  Mediaeval 
Romance  (in  Romanic  Rev.,  4 :  4.  1913).  The  student  may  also  consult 
the  references  given  in  this  section  in  connection  with  the  French  Epopee 
Courtoise  and  the  German  Court  Epic  (see  above,  v,  D  ;  and  below,  XI,  c,  2). 

E.  Chaucer,  Layamon,  Barbour,  etc. 

For  these  authors  and  their  development  of  romance  and  romantic 
history,  see  W.  M.  Dixon,  English  Epic  and  Heroic  Poetry,  Chaps.  VI, 
VII,  and  the  appropriate  sections  in  the  chief  histories  of  English  litera- 
ture ;  bibliography  in  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit.  Special  mention  may  be 
made  of  G.  L.  Kittredge's  Chaucer  and  his  Poetry  (Harvard  Univ.  Press). 

F.  The  Elizabethan  Literary  Epic.    A  convenient  introduction 
to  these  epics  will  be  found  in  Chap.  XII  of  F.  E.  Schelling's 
English  Literature  during  the  Lifetime  of  Shakespeare  (N.  Y. : 
1910).     The   most   important   of   the   group   is,  of  course,  the 
Faerie  Queene  of  Spenser,  both  intrinsically  and  historically ;  but 
detailed  guidance  cannot  be  given  here.     The  student  will  not 
find  it  hard  to  collect  the  critical  material  upon  the  poem,  espe- 
cially if  he  begins  with  the  convenient  little  book  of  F.  I.  Carpenter, 
An  Outline  Guide  to  the  Study  of   Spenser  (Chicago:    1894); 
H.  E.  Cory's  novel  and  poetically  constructive  Edmund  Spenser, 
a  Critical   Study  (Univ.  Calif.  Press,  Berkeley:    1917);    G.  L. 
Craik's  Spenser  and  his  Poetry  (3  vols.  1845);  R.  W.  Church's 
Spenser    (in    the    English    Men    of    Letters    Series);    Warton's 
Observations  on  the  F.  Q.  (1754);  and  the  Grosart  edition  of  the 


IX,  F]  ENGLISH  EPICS  745 

works  of  Spenser  (10  vols.  1882-84).  The  relation  of  Spenser's 
poem  to  the  romantic  epos  established  by  Ariosto  and  Tasso  (see 
above)  is  noteworthy  because  of  the  variations  from  that  type  in 
the  English  poem.  Whether  or  not  these  variations  are  to  be 
explained  by  differences  in  the  temperament  of  the  poets  or  of 
the  Italian  and  English  nations,  or  by  differences  in  political  and 
economic,  philosophical  and  religious  environment,  the  fact  remains 
that  under  Spenser's  hands  the  romantic  epos  undergoes  a  develop- 
ment, the  nature  and  methods  of  which,  as  well  as  the  causes,  are 
of  importance  in  determining  the  species  of  growth  that  fall  under 
epic  development.  When  it  can  be  shown  that  the  influences 
under  which  Spenser  produced  these  variations  are  normal  and 
general  in  their  nature,  and  that  they  have  acted  to  produce 
similar  variations  in  the  growth  of  the  epic  elsewhere,  or  of  other 
types,  the  aim  of  the  comparative  study  of  this  aspect  of  the  epic 
will  have  been  largely  attained.  And  in  determining  the  answers 
to  these  questions  the  nature  and  methods  of  variation  of  the 
minor  Elizabethan  epics  become  of.  great  importance  and  assist- 
ance. Those  variations  that  they  and  the  F.  Q.  have  in  common 
could  not  have  originated  in  the  idiosyncrasies  of  the  individual 
poets,  though  they  may  have  been  due  in  part  to  the  imitation 
by  a  group  of  a  variation  that  arose  from  the  idiosyncrasy  of 
some  one  member  of  the  group.  —  The  student  must  be  warned 
against  the  unscientific  critic  who  doubts  whether  the  F.  Q.  can 
be  admitted  into  the  ranks  of  the  epic,  or  the  ranks  of  the  romantic 
epic.  For  influence  of  Spenser  upon  his  successors  in  the  epic,  — 
allegorical,  historical,  and  religious,  —  see  H.  E.  Cory,  Spenser,  the 
School  of  the  Fletchers,  and  Milton  (Univ.  Calif.  Pubs.  Mod. 
PhiloL,  vol.  II,  No.  5,  pp.  311-373,  June  17,  1912). 

G.   The  Epics  of  Milton. 

For  Milton,  as  for  Spenser,  detailed  bibliography  may  here  be  omitted, 
but  a  few  important  references  are  given  below.  The  best  edition  of  the 
poems  is  that  of  D.  Masson(3  vols.  Lond. :  1882,  1893).  Other  editions 
are  those  of  J.  Mitford  (8  vols.  Lond.:  1851);  H.  J.  Todd  (2d  ed. 
7  vols.  Lond.:  1809);  W.  V.  Moody  (Boston :  1900).  Translations: 


746  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

German  versions  by  Bodmer  (1732),  Zacharia  (1762),  Bottger  (1846), 
Eitner  (1867),  and — best  of  all  —  by-  Schumann  (1877);  French  versions 
by  Dupre"  de  Saint-Maur  (prose,  1729),  Louis  Racine  (i  755),  J.  Mosneron 
(prose,  1787),  Chateaubriand  (prose,  1836),  J.  Dessiaux  (1867),  et  al. 
(see  J.  M.  Telleen,  Milton  dans  la  litt.  franchise,  Paris:  1904). 

Some  of  the  more  important  questions  to  be  considered  in 
connection  with  Paradise  Lost  and  Paradise  Regained  are  as 
follows :  What  are  the  sources  of  the  poems  ?  Indebtedness  to 
Caedmon,  Du  Bartas,  Tasso,  Vondel,  Grotius,  Andreini  ?  Relative 
indebtedness  of  the  poems  to  Greek  and  Hebrew  (Biblical) 
sources?  Relation  to  Homer,  Hesiod,  and  Virgil?  to  other 
ancient  epics  ?  The  adaptability  of  Christian  mysteries  to  epic 
machinery  as  revealed  in  these  poems  ?  as  revealed  in  other 
attempts  in  epic  form  ?  (Cf.  above,  §  9,  v,  A.)  The  relation  of 
the  peculiar  characteristics  of  Milton's  epics  to  the  culture  of  his 
times  ?  to  his  personal  idiosyncrasies  ?  Influence  of  the  poems 
upon  European  literature,  especially  upon  Klopstock  ?  Vitality  of 
the  poems  as  variations  in  epic  growth,  —  have  the  variations 
they  represent  persisted  in  the  general  development  of  the  type  ? 
Do  they,  like  other  great  epics,  represent  an  order  of  society, 
religion,  and  politics  at  the  moment  of  decline  from  a  zenith 
of  power  and  growth  ?  Do  the  poems,  in  relation  to  the  Puritan 
Age,  show  how  in  modern  times  the  growth  of  a  great  social 
poem  is  abbreviated  ?  and  may  this  abbreviation  be  contrasted 
with  the  century-long  development  of  communal  epics  ?  Or  should 
Milton's  epics  be  regarded  as  the  long-deferred  climax  of  an 
evolving  artistic  effort  coterminous  with  the  gradual  development 
of  Christian  theology? 

References.  The  following  works  may  be  mentioned :  Addison  (see 
above,  §  8);  W.  D.  Armes,  An  Analysis  of  Milton's  P.  L.,  —  brief  and 
convenient,  touching  upon  subject  and  purpose,  sources,  structure,  cos- 
mology, characters,  style,  and  versification  (Univ.  Calif.  Syllabus  Series, 
No.  66.  1916);  W.  Bagehot,  John  Milton  (in  Literary  Studies.  Ed.  by 
R.  R.  Hutton.  ad  ed.  2  vols.  Lond.:  1879);  J.  Bailey,  Milton  (N.Y.: 
1915);  A.  Birrell,  Obiter  Dicta,  2d  Series  (N.Y.:  1887);  S.A.Brooke, 
Milton  (1879);  Buff,  Milton's  P.  L.  in  Verhaltnis  zur  Aeneide,  Ilias 


IX,  G]  ENGLISH  EPICS  747 

und  Odyssee  (Hof :  1905.  Progr.);  Chateaubriand,  a  chapter  on  Milton 
in  the  Essai  sur  la  litt.  anglaise  (in  the  CEuvres  completes,  vol.  XXXIV. 
36  vols.  Paris:  1837);  J.  Clarkr  as  noted  above,  §11;  H.  Corson, 
Introduction  to  the  Prose  and  Poetical  Works  of  John  Milton  (N.Y. : 
1 899),  containing  a  selection  of  autobiographical  passages  from  Milton's 
writings;  W.  J.  Courthope,  Macaulay's  Comparison  of  Dante  and 
Milton  (in  vol.  Ill  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  British  Academy.  Read 
Dec.  1908);  S.  von  Gajsek,  Milton  und  Caedmon  (in  Wiener  Beitrage 
zur  engl.  Phil.,  No.  35.  1911;  cf.  Wiilker  in  Anglia,  4:  401.  1881); 
R.  Garnett,  Life  of  Milton  (Lond.:  1890);  Goethe  and  Schiller,  Corre- 
spondence between  (translated  by  L.  Dora  Schmitz.  2  vols.  Lond.: 
1877-79.  Bohn's  Lib.  See  Letter  636,  Goethe  on  P. L.);  S.  Johnson, 
Life  of  Milton  (many  eds.);  S.  H.  Gurteen,  as  noted  above,  §8; 
Macaulay,  Essay  on  Milton  (see  above,  §  8) ;  D.  Masson,  Life  of 
Milton  (6  vols.  and  Index.  New  ed.  Lond.:  1881-94),  the  chief  of 
the  biographies ;  by  the  same,  Introductions  to  P.  L.  and  P.  R.  (in  the 
Globe  Ed.  of  M.'s  Poetical  Works.  Lond.:  1877,  etc.);  by  the  same, 
The  Three  Devils  and  Other  Essays  (Lond.:  1874);  Mullinger  and 
Masterman,  The  Age  of  Milton  (Lond. :  1 897) ;  T.  N.  Orchard, 
Milton's  Astronomy  (Lond.:  1913);  C.  G.  Osgood,  The  Classical 
Mythology  of  Milton's  English  Poems  (in  Yale  Studies  in  English, 
No.  8.  1900);  M.  Pattison,  Life  of  Milton  (N.Y.:  1880.  EML.); 
Pommrich,  Milton's  Verhaltnis  zu  T.  Tasso  (Leipz. :  1902.  Diss.); 
W.  Raleigh,  Milton  (Lond.:  1900);  Quarterly  Rev.,  Milton  —  On 
Christian  Doctrine  (32:  442-457.  1825);  J.  G.  Robertson,  Milton's 
Fame  on  the  Continent  (in  vol.  Ill  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  British 
Academy.  Read  Dec.  1 908) ;  Scrocca,  Studio  critico  sul  P.  L.  del 
Milton  (Napoli:  1902);  E.  C.  Stedman,  Nature  and  Elements  of 
Poetry  (see  above,  §  8) ;  A.  Stern,  Milton  und  seine  Zeit  (2  vols. 
Leipz.:  1877-79);  Symonds,  Milton,  his  Life  and  Times  (Lond.: 
1833);  E.  N.  S.  Thompson,  Essays  on  Milton  (New  Haven:  1894); 
W.  P.  Trent,  John  Milton,  A  Short  Study  of  his  Life  and  Works 
(N.Y. :  1899).  On  Milton's  prosody,  see  works  by  R.  Bridges,  Bridges 
and  Stone,  W.  Thomas,  etc. ;  also  J.  A.  Symonds,  The  Blank  Verse  of 
Milton  (Fortn.  Rev.,  22:  767-781.  1874),  and  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Eng. 
Prosody,  2:  207-273  (Lond.:  1908).  For  further  references  on  the 
sources  of  P.  L.,  see  Korting's  Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  englischen 
Lit.,  pp.  285-286,  287-288  (5th  ed.  Munster:  1910);  in  Korting's 
work  the  student  will  find  extensive  bibliography  on  other  aspects  of 
the  poem  also  (see  p.  282  ff.) ;  see,  too,  the  bibliography  appended  to 
Professor  Saintsbury's  article  on  Milton  in  the  Camb.  Hist.  Eng.  Lit., 


748  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

vol.  VII ;  for  works  on  the  indebtedness  of  Milton  to  Vondel,  see 
Betz-Baldensperger,  La  litt.  comparee,  essai  bibliographique,  p.  279 
(2d  ed.  Strasbourg:  1904);  Edmundson's  Milton  and  Vondel  (Lond. : 
1885);  C.  L.  van  Noppen's  Introduction  to  his  translation  of  Vondel's 
Lucifer  (Greensboro,  N.  C. :  1917);  T.  De  Vries'  Holland's  Influence 
on  English  Language  and  Literature  (Chicago:  1916).  Several  refer- 
ences on  Milton  have  been  given  above,  §  9,  vn,  D. 

H.  Other  English  Epics.  For  the  Ossianic  poems,  and  the 
resulting  literature,  see  above,  §  6,  xi,  E  ;  also,  xn ;  and  below, 
x.  For  other  English  epics  or  epical  narratives,  see  such  poems 
as  those  mentioned  above,  §  7,  vi ;  and  the  list  of  Arthurian 
poems  given  in  D,  above;  also  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King, 
William  Morris'  Jason  and  Sigurd  the  Volsung,  Lewis  Morris' 
Epic  of  Hades,  Sir  Edwin  Arnold's  Light  of  Asia  and  Light  of 
the  World,  Arnold's  Sohrab  and  Rustum,  Alfred  Noyes'  Drake ; 
and,  of  American  efforts,  Timothy  Dwight's  Conquest  of  Canaan, 
Joel  Barlow's  Columbiad,  and  W.  C.  Wilkinson's  Epic  of  Saul  and 
Epic  of  Paul.  The  Evangeline  and  the  Hiawatha  of  Longfellow 
are  successful  attempts  at  narrative  poems  of  epical  quality.  The 
latter  is  interesting  to  the  student  of  literary  origins  because  of 
its  adaptation  of  stories  published  by  H.  R.  Schoolcraft  in  his 
Historical  and  Statistical  Information  respecting  the  History  .  .  . 
of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States  (6  vols.  1851-1857) 
and  in  his  earlier  works  upon  the  Indians  of  the  Northwest.  For 
these  poems  and  others  see  Dixon,  op.  at. 

X.  Gaelic  Epics. 

For  a  catalogue  of  the  epic  literature  of  Ireland,  see  H.  d'Arbois  de 
Jubainville,  Essai  d'un  catalogue  de  la  litte"rature  dpique  de  1'Irlande 
(Paris :  1 883).  Bibliographical  aid  will  also  be  found  in  the  first 
volume  of  Morley's  English  Writers.  In  dealing  with  the  Arthurian 
cycle  the  student  should  use  the  notes  given  above  under  Arthurian 
Romances  (ix,  D),  under  the  French  £popde  Courtoise  (v,  D),  and  below 
under  the  German  Court  Epics  (xi,  C,  2).  For  translations  of  Gaelic 
epics  and  epical  material,  see  the  following :  C.  S.  Boswell,  An  Irish 
Precursor  of  Dante  (Lond.:  1908);  J.  Dunn,  The  Ancient  Irish  Epic 
Tale  TAin  Bd  Cualnge  (Lond.,  David  Nutt),  — "  the  queen  of  Irish 
epic  tales  " ;  E.  Evans,  Some  Specimens  of  the  Poetry  of  the  Ancient 


XI,  A]  GERMAN  EPICS  749 

Welsh  Bards  (Lond. :  1 764) ;  L.  W.  Faraday,  The  Cattle-Raid  of  Cualnge, 
an  Old  Irish  Prose-Epic  (Lond. :  1904);  Lady  I.  A.  Gregory,  Cuchulain 
of  Muirthemne,  the  Story  of  the  Men  of  the  Red  Branch  of  Ulster 
(Lond.:  1902);  by  the  same,  Gods  and  Fighting  Men,  the  Story  of 
the  Taatha  de  Danaan  and  of  the  Fianna  of  Ireland,  etc.  (Lond. : 
1904);  Lady  Guest,  Mabinogion  (1838);  Eleanor  Hull,  The  Cuchullin 
Saga  in  Irish  Literature,  etc.  (Lond.:  1898);  A.  H.  Leahy,  Heroic 
Romances  of  Ireland  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1905-06);  K.  Meyer  and 
A.  Nutt,  The  Voyage  of  Bran  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1 895-97) ;  D.  W. 
Nash,  Taliesin,  or  the  Bards  and  Druids  of  Britain  (Lond.:  1858); 
Skene,  Dean  of  Lismore's  Book  (Edinb. :  1862);  Jos.  O'Neill,  The 
Cath  Boinde,  a  Cuchulainn  Saga  (in  Eriu,  Dublin);  J.  Strachan  and 
J.  G.  O'Keefe,  The  Tain  B6  Cuailgne  (in  Eriu,  Dublin);  and  the 
various  editions  of  Ossian,  —  as,  for  instance,  the  Ossianic  Poems  by 
J.  MacNeill  (Dublin:  1908).  For  further  materials  of  both  original 
and  critical  nature,  see  the  publications  of  the  Irish  Texts  Society 
(Lond.:  1899  +),  and  the  Transactions  of  the  Ossianic  Society  (Dublin  : 
1854  +)  and  Eriu  (Dublin  :  1903  +). 

The  student  will  find  ready  aid  in  his  approach  to  the  Gaelic  epic 
in  the  works  of  de  Jubainville,  Morley,  Hull,  Hyde,  Maclean,  and  in 
the  periodicals  devoted  to  Celtic  philology,  —  for  all  of  which  see  the 
Appendix.  A  brief  essay  on  the  Epic  of  Ireland  will  be  found  in 
P.  E.  More's  Shelburne  Essays,  First  Series. 

XI.  German  Epics. 

• 
For   general   apparatus  —  histories,   bibliographies,   collections,   and 

periodicals  —  see  above,  §  6,  xm,  and  the  Appendix. 

A.   The  Beginnings  —  Pagan  Poetry. 

For  references  see  above,  §  6,  xui,  A. 

The  existence  of  early  heroic  poetry  is  inferred  from  Tacitus' 
statement  (Ann.  II,  88 ;  cf.  Germ.  2)  that  in  his  day  —  the 
i  st  century  —  songs  were  sung  about  the  hero  Arminius.  And 
the  fact  that  the  national  epic  celebrates  events  that  occurred 
during  the  great  migrations  and  wars  of  the  5th  century  'also 
is  indirect  evidence  of  the  existence  of  heroic  tradition  (see,  further, 
Paul,  II,  i,  pp.  53-55.  2d  ed.).  But  of  all  this  'floating-poetry' 
nothing  remains,  unless  we  agree  with  Kogel  and  Bruckner  (in 
Paul,  II,  i,  pp.  49-55)  that  the  northern  Wielandlied  is  an  ancient 
ballad  of  Germanic  origin. 


750  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

B.   The  Old  High  German  Periodic.  750-1050). 
References  above,  §  6,  xm,  A,  B. 

That  the  stirring  events  of  the  5th  century  continued  to  be 
handed  down  in  oral  tradition  during  this  period  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  (see  Paul,  86-89).  What  we  possess  of  High  German 
poetry  of  the  gth  century,  however,  is  not  related  to  this  tradition. 
Christian  influence  doubtless  had  not  been  favorable  to  the  pres- 
ervation of  pagan  legend  and  myth.  The  Ludwigslied  is  an 
historical  ballad  dealing  with  events  of  this  period.  The  Evange- 
lienbuch  of  Otfried  of  Weissenburg  (c.  800-870)  is  a  Christ-story 
told  in  a  new  spirit  of  Christian  meekness.  The  Muspilli  is  a 
highly-colored  vision  of  the  Day  of  Judgment.  On  the  Lied  vom 
heiligen  Georg  see  Paul,  122-123.  But  Low  German  poetry 
does  present  us  in  the  Hildebrandslied  with  a  story  deriving  from 
previous  heroic  tradition,  —  the  only  survival  in  German  of  the 
'  rhapsodic '  epic  of  the  heroic  age,  though  the  Anglo-Saxon  Finns- 
burg  and  Waldere  fragments  are  similar  pieces  which  doubtless 
point  to  German  originals  or  equivalents.  To  the  Saxons  also 
belong  the  Heliand  and  Genesis,  epical  versions  of  the  Christ- 
story  and  of  part  of  the  Old  Testament,  wherein  the  fierce  spirit 
of  barbaric  Teutonism  is  predominant.  In  the 'tenth  century 
falls  the  Latin  Waltharius  (cf.  the  Anglo-Saxon  Waldere,  as  noted 
above,  ix,  A)  of  Ekkehard,  the  subject  and  spirit  of  which  are 
drawn  from  paganism,  the  manner  from  Virgil  and  Prudentius. 
The  Latin  Ruodlieb  (c.  1030)  is  a  forerunner  of  the  later  romances ; 
and  the  Ecbasis  Captivi  (c,  940)  is  the  earliest  Beast  epic.  For 
other  Latin  poetry  see  Paul,  129  ff. 

On  the  Ludwigslied,  Evangelienbuch,  and  Muspilli  see  Paul,  pp.  109- 
122;  on  the  Hildebrandslied,  Paul  71-81  ;  on  the  old  Saxon  Biblical 
epic,  Paul  93-109;  on  the  Waltharius,  Paul  81-86  and  above,  iv,  F; 
on  the  Ruodlieb,  Paul  136-138;  on  the  Ecbasis  Captivi,  Paul  181-182, 
above,  iv,  F,  and  Foulet,  as  noted  above,  §  1 1 .  On  these  see  also 
Manitius,  Gesch.  d.  lat.  Lit.  des  Mittelalters,  Tl.  I.  Further  references 
in  Paul  and  Manitius. 


XI,  C]  GERMAN  EPICS  751 

C.  Middle  High  German  Period  (1050-1350). 

See  above,  §  6,  xm,  c. 

The  activity  of  the  Spielleute  —  wandering  popular  singers  of 
popular  lays,  descendants  of  the  jesters  and  minstrels  of  the 
previous  period  —  was  at  first  held  in  restraint  by  the  monastic 
reform  that  spread  from  Cluny,  but  about  1160  the  popular 
Germanic  epical  story  reappeared  in  the  romance  of  Konig 
Rother,  which  was  followed  by  other  Spielmann  poems  of  more. 
energy  than  taste  (Orendel,  Oswald,  Salman  und  Morolf).  Under 
the  influence  of  the  Crusades  and  of  chivalry,  and  first  of  all  by 
way  of  translation  of  French  romances  of  chivalry,  there  developed 
an  aristocratic  epic  of  greater  art  and  wider  scope.  Forerunners 
of  this  court  epic  were  the  Alexanderlied  (c.  1130),  the  Herzog 
Ernst  (c.  1180),  the  German  version  of  the  Chanson  de  Roland 
(Rolandslied,  c.  1135),  Eilhart  von  Oberge's  Tristant  (c.  1170)  — 
which  drew  upon  the  Arthurian  cycle  with  which  the  great  poets 
of  the  court  epic  at  its  best  were  chiefly  concerned  —  and  the 
German  Floris  und  Blancheflur.  The  first  decade  of  the  i3th  cen- 
tury saw  a  great  development  of  this  romantic  epos.  Lifted  into 
prominence  practically  by  Heinrich  von  Veldeke's  Germanizing  of 
a  French  romantic  version  of  the  Aeneid,  the  type  reached  its  climax 
in  the  memorable  works  of  Hartmann  von  Aue,  Wolfram  von 
Eschenbach,  and  Gottfried  von  Strassburg.  By  feebler  hands  it 
continued  to  be  written  through  the  century,  and  came  to  a  close 
in  the  first  part  of  the  i4th  century. 

But  more  important  are  the  great  national  or  folk  epics  —  the 
Nibelungenlied,  Gudrun,  and  others,  including  the  lesser  narrative 
poems  of  the  Heldenbuch  —  deriving  in  their  present  form  for 
the  most  part  from  the  close  of  the  iath  and  the  opening  of  the 
1 3th  century.  These  are  made  up  of  legendary  and  mythological 
materials  of  ancient  Teutonic  tradition,  which  must  have  been 
preserved  in  part  by  the  Spielleute,  but  were  now  worked  over 
in  a  heightened  and  dignified  style  to  meet  the  social  and  literary 
fashions  of  the  new  chivalry. 

We  shall  consider  first  the  national  and  then  the  court  epics. 


752  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

i.   The  National  Epics. 

For  the  English  student  the  most  convenient  orientation  in  the 
subject  is  supplied  by  M.  B.  Smith's  Northern  Hero  Legends,  which 
is  a  translation  from  O.  L.  Jiriczek's  Deutsche  Heldensage  (in  the 
Temple  Primers  Series.  Lond. :  1902);  see  also  G.  Saintsbury,  The 
Flourishing  of  Romance,  Chap.  VI  (N.  Y. :  1897),  and  the  histories  of 
German  literature  as  previously  noted  (§  6).  But  the  best  introductions 
are  B.  Symons,  Heldensage  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  2:  i,  1-64.  Strass- 
.burg:  1893);  and,  in  the  2d  ed.  of  Paul  (1901-1909),  F.  Vogt,  Mittel- 
hochdeutsche  Literatur  (2:1,  229-251).  Other  important  works  are: 
A.  Bossert,  La  litte"rature  allemande  au  moyen  age  et  les  origines  de 
1'e'pope'e  germanique  (2d  ed.  Paris:  1882);  S.  Bugge,  Studier  over 
de  Nordiske  Gude  ok  Heltesagns  Oprindelse  (Christiania:  1881-89), 
which  has  been  translated  into  German  by  O.  Brenner,  Studien  iiber 
die  Entstehung  der  nordischen  Cotter-  und  Heldensage  (Miinchen : 
1881-89);  G.  T.  Dippold,  Great  Epics  of  Mediaeval  Germany  (Boston  : 
1882);  O.  Frick  and  F.  Polack  (see  above,  §  u);  W.  Grimm,  Die 
deutsche  Heldensage  (Gottingen:  1829;  3d  ed.  Giitersloh:  1889); 
J.  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythologie  (Gottingen:  1835;  3d  ed.  1854, 
2  vols.);  by  the  same,  Kleinere  Schriften  (4  vols.  Berlin:  1881-87); 
C.  A.  W.  Giinther,  Die  deutsche  Heldensage  des  Mittelalters,  nebst  der 
Sage  vom  Heiligen  Gral  (3d  ed.  Hannover :  1 884) ;  A.  Heusler  (see 
above,  §11);  O.  Hocker,  Deutsche  Heldensagen  (Reutlingen :  1886); 
O.  Jahnicke  and  others,  Das  deutsche  Heldenbuch  (5  vols.  Berlin : 
1866-70);  W.  P.  Ker,  Epic  and  Romance  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1908); 
A.  Kohler,  Ueber  den  Stand  berufsmassiger  Sanger  im  nationalen 
Epos  germanischer  Volker  (in  Germania,  15:  27-50);  G.  Kurth, 
Histoire  poe'tique  des  Merovingiens  (Paris:  1893);  J.  M.  Ludlow, 
Popular  Epics  of  the  Middle  Ages  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1865);  A.  Liitjens, 
Der  Zwerg  in  der  deutschen  Heldendichtung  des  Mittelalters  (in  Ger- 
manistische  Abhandlungen,  No.  38.  Breslau:  1911);  J.  von  Moerner, 
Die  deutschen  und  franzosischen  Heldengedichte  des  Mittelalters  als 
Quelle  fur  die  Kulturgeschichte  (Leipz. :  1886);  W.  Miiller,  Mythologie 
der  deutschen  Heldensage  (Heilbr. :  1886.  Cf.  above,  §  u);  A.  Rass- 
mann,  Die  deutsche  Heldensage  (2  vols.  2d  ed.  Hannover:  1863); 
W.  Scherer,  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung  im  n.  und  12.  Jahrh. 
(in  Quellen  und  Forsch.,  Bd.  XII.  Strassburg:  1875);  A.  E.  Schon- 
bach,  Das  Christentum  in  der  altdeut.  Heldendichtung  (Graz:  1897); 
J.  L.  Uhland,  Gesammelte  Schriften  zur  Geschichte  der  Dichtung  und 
Sage,  vols.  I,  II  (ed.  by  Holland.  8  vols.  Stuttgart:  1865-73); 


XI,  C]  GERMAN  EPICS  753 

K.  Weinhold,  Altnordisches  Leben  (Leipz. :   1856);  by  the  same,  Die 
deutschen  Frauen  in  dem  Mittelalter  (2  vols.    2d  ed.    Wien  :   1882). 

(a)  Nibelungenlied. 

•  For  bibliographies  see  R.  von  Muth,  Einleitung  in  das  Nibelungen- 
lied (2d  ed.  Ed.  by  J.  W.  Nagl.  Paderborn :  1907.  See  pp.  1-31); 
Goedeke,  Grundriss  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung  (2d  ed., 
vol.  I,  p.  183  ff.);  F.  Zarncke,  Das  Nibelungenlied  (6th  ed.  1887. 
See  p.  Ixi  ff.) ;  L.  Lichtenberger,  Le  poeme  et  la  legende  des  Nibe- 
lungen  (Paris:  1891.  See  pp.  436-440  Critical  works;  415-422 
Sources);  T.  Abeling,  Das  Nibelungenlied  und  seine  Literatur  (2  Pts. 
Leipz.:  1907-09;  Teutonia,  ed.  W.  Uhl,  vol.  7,  and  Suppl.),  —  the 
bibliographical  section,  with  1272  references,  is  useful  (cf.  the  review 
in  Lit.  Zentralbl.,  1907,  No.  35),'  but  the  original  contributions  are 
criticized  severely  (see  Literaturbl.  f.  germ,  und  roman.  Phil.,  1908, 
Nos.  3,  4;  1910,  No.  12).  For  the  works  that  have  appeared  since 
1879  see  the  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Erscheinungen  auf  dem  Gebiete 
der  germ.  Phil.,  herausgegeben  von  der  Gesellschaft  fiir  deutsche  Phil. 
(Berlin:  1880+);  see  also  H.  Fischer,  Die  Forschungen  iiber  das 
Nibelungenlied  seit  Lachmann  (Leipz. :  1874).  —  For  facsimiles  of  the 
manuscripts  see  Lassberg's  Liedersaal,  vol.  IV,  and  Konnecke's  Bilder- 
atlas  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  On  the  interrelations  of  the  MSS.  see  W.  Braune, 
Die  Handschriftenverhaltnisse  des  Nibelungenliedes  (in  Paul  and 
Braune's  Beitrdge,  XXV),  and  Kettner  (in  Zeitschr.  fur  deutsch.  Phil., 
XXXIV).  —  English  works  dealing  with  the  poem  (translations  and  critical 
essays)  are  carefully  collected  in  a  scholarly  essay  by  F.  E.  Sandbach, 
The  Nibelungenlied  and  Gudrun  in  England  and  America  (Lond. : 
1904).  Students  cannot  do  better  than  consult  this  work  first  of  all. 
In  addition  to  bibliographical  details  there  is  an  introduction  tracing 
the  story  of  the  poem  and  outlining  the  theories  of  its  composition ; 
also  a  chapter  on  the  influence  of  the  Nibelungenlied  on  English 
literature.  Students  who  are  unfamiliar  with  the  poem  and  its  critical 
apparatus  will  find  of  particular  value  the  works  of  Muth  and  Lichten- 
berger mentioned  above,  Paul's  Grundriss,  the  excellent  little  work  of 
Jiriczek,  also  noted  above,  and  the  Einleitung  to  Werner  Hahn's  edition 
(Berlin  u.  Stuttgart).  An  outline  of  the  story  for  beginners  and  of 
Wagner's  adaptation  in  the  Ring  of  the  Nibelung  will  be  found  in 
Gayley's  Classic  Myths  (rev.  ed.  Boston  :  191 1),  pp.  405-430  ;  for  recprds 
and  commentary  see  pp.  460-461,  536-537.  Translations  of  the 
Wagner  work  have  been  made  by  F.  Jameson  (Schott  and  Co.  Lond. : 
n.  d.)  and  by  R.  Rankin. 


754  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

The  Nibelungenlied  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  natural, 
as  distinguished  from  literary  or  artificial,  epics.  As  such,  and  as 
representative  of  Germanic  epical  expression,  it  reasonably  falls 
into  position  beside  the  Homeric  epics,  although  the  poetic  values  of 
the  Greek  and  German  poems  are  by  no  means  on  a  par.  A  list 
of  works  dealing  with  the  comparison  of  the  Nibelungenlied  and 
the  Homeric  epics  is  here  appended.  The  comparison  involves, 
of  course,  the  economic,  social,  political,  and  religious  backgrounds  ; 
the  methods  of  composition ;  the  nature  of  the  narrative  art ;  the 
poetic  value  of  the  poems ;  etc.  From  the  similarity  of  conditions 
antecedent  and  concomitant  it  would  follow  that  the  problems  of 
the  poems  are  similar,  and  the  student  may  consult  what  has 
already  been  said  concerning  these  problems  (see  above,  i). 

On  the  comparison  of  the  Nibelungenlied  with  the  Homeric  epics 
see  L.  Blume,  Das  Ideal  des  Helden  und  des  Weibes  bei  Homer  mit 
Riicksicht  auf  das  deutsche  Alterthum  (Wien  :  1 874.  Progr.) ;  F.  Bohm, 
Ilias  und  Nibel:,  eine  Parallele  (Znaim :  1886);  H.  M.  Chadwick,  The 
Heroic  Age  (1912  ;  noted  above,  §  1 1),  the  most  important  work  on  the 
subject;  F.  H.  Hedge,  Hours  with  the  German  Classics,  Chap.  IV 
(Boston:  1886);  A.  Lang,  as  noted  above,  §11;  W.  Miiller,  Zur 
Mythologie  der  griechischen  und  deutschen  Heldensage  (Heilbr. :  1889. 
Cf.  above,  §  u);  A.  Nusch,  Zur  Vergleichung  des  Nibel.  mit  der  Ilias 
(Speier :  1863.  Progr.);  J.  Pepock,  Zur  Charakteristik  griechischer  und 
deut.  Helden  im  Volksepos  (Pilsen  :  1889.  Progr.);  W.  Scherer,  Uber 
das  Nibel.  (in  Vortrage  und  Aufsatze  z.  Gesch.  d.  geistigen  Lebens,  etc. 
Berlin:  1874.  See  pp.  101-123);  K.  Schnorf,  Der  mythische  Hinter- 
grund  im  Gudrunliede  und  in  der  Odyssee  (Zurich:  1879);  M.  Turk, 
Zur  Vergleichung  der  Iliade  und  des  Nibel.  (Kronstadt :  1873.  Progr.); 
K.  Zell,  Uber  die  Iliade  und  das  Nibel.  (Karlsruhe :  1843). 

The  saga  of  the  Niblungs  has  been  preserved  in  several  forms: 
(i)  the  Norwegian-Icelandic  version,  contained  in  («)  the  Elder 
or  Poetic  Edda,  (l>~)  the  Younger  or  Snorra  Edda,  and  (c)  the  Saga 
of  the  Volsungs;  (2)  the  German  version,  contained  (a)  in  High 
German  poems,  viz.  the  Nibelungenlied,  the  Klage,  the  Seyfriedslied, 
and  (6)  in  the  Low  German  Thidrekssaga  and  many  old  Danish 
heroic  ballads  (Kjaempeviser).  The  Beowulf  also  contains  a 


XI,  C]  GERMAN  EPICS  755 

reference  to  the  saga.  The  comparative  study  of  these  sources 
has  been  carried  far,  and  is  of  particular  interest  in  revealing  more 
or  less  primitive  stages  in  the  development  of  the  story  and  its 
later  modification  in  the  epic  form  of  the  Nibelungenlied.  The 
excision  of  the  more  marvellous  elements  of  the  primitive  saga 
and  the  reliance  upon  dramatic  motives  of  character  and  will 
especially  distinguish  the  epic  form ;  but  note  how  some  of  the 
primitive  elements  are  introduced,  awkwardly  enough,  into  the 
fourth  Aventiure.  The  original  home  of  the  saga,  its  development, 
and  the  age  of  the  different  versions  afford  excellent  topics  for 
study  and  speculation. 

For  an  admirable  introduction  to  the  variants  of  the  saga  —  their 
origin  and  development  —  see  Smith-Jiriczek,  as  already  noted;  further 
discussion  in  Lichtenberger,  Abeling,  and  other  works  mentioned  at  the 
head  of  this  subdivision. 

The  sources  of  the  saga  have  been  explained  as  historical, 
mythical,  and  mixed.  The  historical  sources  are  evident  in  the 
second  part  of  the  saga :  the  destruction  of  the  Burgundian  kings 
by  Attila  (first  half  of  the  5th  century).  But  the  marvellous  ele- 
ments in  the  story  of  Siegfried's  youth,  up  to  his  coming  to  the 
Burgundian  court,  have  persuaded  some  scholars  that  the  story 
was  originally  a  nature-myth,  "  modified  into  a  heroic  saga  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  intermingled  with  historical  ele- 
ments." This  theory  is  in  accord  with  the  theories  of  myth  that 
were  popularized  by  the  Grimm  brothers,  but  it  is  not  borne  out  by 
recent  anthropological  investigations,  such  as  Professor  Ridgeway 
has  adduced  in  his  works  on  Greek  tragedy  (The  Origin  of  Trag- 
edy, etc.  Cambridge  Uniy.  Press:  1910;  The  Dramas  and 
Dramatic  Dances  of  non- European  Races,  etc.  Cambridge:  1915). 

See  W.  A.  Phillips,  Art.  Nibelungenlied,  Encyc.  Brit. ;  Smith-Jiriczek, 
as  noted  above;  Harm's  Einleitung,  pp.  35-47;  Shumway,  Nibe- 
lungenlied, p.  xxvii  ff.,  xlix.  On  the  mythological  interpretation  see 
K.  Lachmann,  Kritik  der  Sage  von  den  Nib.  (Rhein.  Mus.,  Nos.  249, 
250.  1-829;  republished  in1  his  Zu  den  Nib.  .  .  .  Anmerkungen,  1836); 
R.  von  Muth,  Einleitung  (as  noted  above);  W.  Miiller,  Versuch  einer 


756  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§12 

mythol.  Erklarung  der  Nib.  (Berlin :  1 841 ),  and  Mythologie  der  deutschen 
Heldensage  (Heilbronn:  1866);  W.  Wilmanns  (in  Anzeiger  f.  deutsch. 
Alterthum,  18:  72,  31  :  77). —  On  the  historical  sources:  J.  Leichtlen, 
Neuaufgefundenes  Bruchstiick  des  Nibel.  (Freiburg  i.  B. :  1820);  R.  C. 
Boer,  Untersuchungen  iiber  d.  Entwicklung  d.  Nibelungensage  (in 
Zeitschr.  f.  deut.  Phil.,  37:  289,  438.  1905;  38:  39.  1906.  Also, 
expanded,  3  vols.  Halle  :  1906-09);  T.  Abeling,  as  noted  above. 

The  question  of  single  or  aggregate  authorship,  imported  from 
the  Homeric  discussion,  has  played  its  part  in  the  critical  discussion 
of  the  German  poem. 

The  following  are  the  chief  defenders  of  the  theory  that  the  Nibe- 
lungenlied  was  made  up  from  many  short  lays  :  K.  Lachmann,  Uber  die 
urspriingliche  Gestalt  des  Gedichts  von  der  Nibelungen  Noth  (Berlin : 
1816;  reprinted  in  his  Kleine  Schriften,  pp.  1-80),  the  first  applica-* 
tion  of  the  Wolfian  hypothesis  (cf .  above,  §  1 1 ,  Wolf)  to  the  Nibelungen- 
lied ;  by  the  same,  Zu  den  Nibelungen  und  zur  Klage,  Anmerkungen 
(Berlin:  1836);  R.  Henning,  Nibelungenstudien (in  Quellen  und  Forsch., 
Bd.  XXXI.  Strassburg:  1883);  E.  Kettner,  Die  osterreichische  Nibe- 
lungendichtung  (Berlin:  1897);  K.  Miillenhoff,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Nibelunge  Not  (Braunschweig:  1855),  one  of  the  chief  followers  of 
Lachmann ;  W.  M  tiller,  Uber  die  Lieder  von  den  Nibelungen  (Gottingen : 
1845),  which  is  opposed  to  the  theory  of  the  unity  of  authorship,  but  is 
also  in  disagreement  with  Lachmann's  hypothesis  (cf.  W.  Wilmanns, 
Beitrage  zur  Erklarung  und  Geschichte  des  Nibel.  Halle:  1877). — 
The  chief  defenders  of  the  unity  of  the  poem,  and  their  important  works, 
are  as  follows :  K.  Bartsch,  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Nibel.  (Wien : 
1 865),  —  that  an  older  manuscript  had  been  worked  over  into  later 
form ;  H.  Fischer,  Nibelungenlied  oder  Nibelungenlieder  (Hannover : 
1859);  A.  Holtzmann,  Untersuchungen  iiber  das  Nibel.  (Stuttgart: 
1854),  the  first  work  openly  to  combat  the  theory  of  Lachmann,  and 
to  advance  the  idea  of  the  unity  of  aim  and  authorship  of  the  whole 
poem  as  the  manuscripts  give  it;  H.  Paul,  Zur  Nibelungenfrage (Halle: 
1X77);  F.  Pfeiffer,  Der  Dichter  des  Nibel.  (Ein  Vortrag  gehalten  in 
der  feierlichen  Sitzung  der  kais.  Akad.  der  Wiss.  30  Mai  1 862  :  Wien), 
an  attempt  to  prove  that  Kurenberg  was  the  author  of  the  poem  (cf. 
Vollmoller's  refutation  in  his  Kiirenberg  und  die  Nibelungen.  Stuttgart : 
1874);  F.  Zarncke,  Zur  Nibelungenfrage  (Leipz. :  1854);  by  the 
same,  Beitrage  zur  Krklarung  und  Geschichte  des  Nibel.  {Leipz.: 
1856),  —  in  agreement  with  the  general  theory  of  Holtzmann.  See 


XI,  C]  GERMAN  EPICS  757 

also  A.  Lang,  Homer  and  the  Epic,  Chap.  XVI  (noted  above,  §  11). 
For  an  ingenious  combination  and  extension  of  previous  theories 
see  the  work  of  Abeling,  already  noted,  and  summarized  in  the  Art. 
Nibelungenlied,  Encyc.  Brit. 

Editions  and  Translations.  The  standard  editions  of  the  original  text 
are  as  follows  :  K.  Bartsch,  Der  Nibelunge  N6t,  etc.,  a  critical  ed.,  with 
recension  of  manuscript  B  (2  Pts.  Leipz. :  1870-80);  K.  Lachmann, 
Der  ISibelunge  Noth,  mit  der  Klage,  etc.  (1826;  5th  ed.  Berlin:  1878 
—  recension  of  manuscript  A) ;  P.  Piper,  Die  Nibelungen  (Berlin : 
1889);  F.  Zarncke,  Das  Nibelungenlied  (6th  ed.  Leipz.:  1887  —  re- 
cension of  manuscript  C).  —  The  principal  translations  into  English 
are  those  of  M.  Armour,  The  Fall  of  the  Nibelungs,  etc.  (prose,  Lond. : 
1897);  J.  Birch,  Das  Nibelungenlied,  translated  into  English  verse  after 
Lachmann's  text  (Berlin  :  1848;  4th  ed.  Miinchen:  1895);  A.  Forestier 
(Annie  A.  Woodward),  Echoes  from  Mist- Land,  etc.  (Chicago:  1877), 
a  very  free  translation ;  A.  G.  Foster-Barham,  The  Nibelungen  Lied, 
etc.  (2d  ed.  Lond.:  1893);  Alice  Horton,  The  Lay  of  the  Nibelungs, 
etc.  (Bonn's  Lib.  Lond.:  1898);  W.  N.  Lettsom,  The  Nibelungenlied, 
etc.(2ded.  Lond.:  1874;  4th  ed.  N.Y.:  1903);  G.  H.  Needier  (N.Y.: 
1904),  very  good;  D.  B.  Shumway  (N.Y. :  1910),  an  excellent  prose 
translation,  with  an  informing  introduction.  The  best  verse  translations 
are  those  of  Horton  and  Lettsom.  For  a  criticism  of  the  various  English 
translations,  see  F.  E.  Sandbach,  as  noted  above.  Modern  German 
translations  are  numerous ;  some  of  the  best  are  by  Simrock  (in  most 
frequent  use),  L.  Freytag,  Engelmann,  Piper,  Bartsch,  Marbach, 
Gerlach,  Hahn,  and  Schroter.  A  complete  list  of  the  German  adap- 
tations of  the  Nibelungen  story  by  modern  authors  will  be  found  in 
K.  Rehorn's  Die  deutsche  Sage  von  den  Nibelungen  in  der  deutschen 
Poesie  (Frankfurt  a.  M. :  1882) ;  for  English  adaptations,  see  Sandbach, 
pp.  126-135. 

References.  Other  works  of -more  or  less  aid  follow :  T.  Carlyle,  The 
Nibelungen  Lied  (in  Westm.  Rev.,  24:  1-45.  Lond.:  1831);  the  first 
five  chaps,  of  the  work  by  Dippold,  mentioned  above,  and  the  proper 
parts  of  the  other  general  works  mentioned  in  the  same  place ;  J.  Clark, 
A  History  of  Epic  Poetry  (Edinb. :  1900.  See  Chap.  IV),  a  very  super- 
ficial account ;  Sir  G.  W.  Cox  and  E.  H.  Jones,  Popular  Romances  of  the 
Middle  Ages  (Lond. :  1871);  J.  Crueger,  Der  Entdecker  der  Nibelungen 
(Frankf. :  1883);  K.  Droege,  Die  Vorstufe  unseres  Nibelungenliedes 
(in  Zeitschr.  f.  deut.  Altertum,  51:  177-218);  H.  Fischer,  Die 
Forschungen  iiber  das  Nibelungenlied  seit  Lachmann  (Leipz.:  1874); 
R.  Fischer  (see  above,  §8);  C.  H.  Genung,  The  Nibelungenlied.  (in 


758  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

Warner's  Library  of  the  World's  Best  Lit.);  J.  Gostwick,  The  Spirit 
of  German  Poetry,  etc.  (Lond. :  1845);  G.  Gruener,  The  Nibelungenlied 
and  Saga  in  Modern  Poetry  (in  Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Ass.  Amer.,  vol.  XI, 
pp.  220-257.  Baltimore:  1896);  F.  H.  von  der  Hagen  (see  any  library 
catalogue  for  the  numerous  works  by  Hagen ;  or,  better,  see  under 
Hagen  in  the  works  of  bibliography  mentioned  at  the  opening  of  this 
division ;  C.  von  Klenze  (see  above,  §  1 1);  E.  de  Laveleye  (see  above, 
§  11);  J.  M.  Ludlow,  Popular  Epics  of  the  Middle  Ages,  etc.  (Lond.: 
1865.  See  vol.  I,  Pt.  II,  Chap.  VI,  p.  105  ff.);  M.  W.  Macdowall, 
Epics  and  Romances  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Lond.:  1882);  Fr.  Vogt, 
in  Paul's  Grundriss,  II,  232;  E.  Mogk,  Die  alteste  Einwanderung  der 
Nibelungensaga  nach  Norden  (Festgabe  fur  Hildebrand),  see  also  L.  de 
Monge  (see  above,  §  8) ;  R.  Nadrowski,  Uber  die  Entstehung  des  Nibe- 
lungenliedes  (Festschr.  z.  70.  Geburtst.  O.  Schades.  Konigsberg :  1 896), 
an  application  of  Grote's  Homeric  theory  to  the  Nibel.;  F.  Panzer, 
Studien  z.  germanischen  Sagengeschichte,  II.  Sigfrid  (Miinchen :  1912; 
see  Lit.  ZentralbL,  1912,  No.  35);  H.  Patzig,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Sig- 
fridsmythus  (Berlin:  1898);  H.  Paul,  Die  Thidrekssaga  und  das  Nibe- 
lungenlied (in  Sitzungsberichte  der  bayr.  Akademie  der  Wissensch., 
1900);  L.  Pollak,  Untersuchungen  liber  die  Sigfridsagen  (Diss.,  Berlin: 
1910);  G.  Radtke,  Die  epische  Formelim  Nibel.  (Paris:  1891);  A.  Rass- 
mann,  Die  Niflungasaga  und  das  Nibel.  (Heilbr. :  1877);  A.  Rdville, 
L'e'pope'e  des  Nibelungen  (in  Rev.  des  Deux  Mondes,  Dec.  15,  1866); 
A.  G.  Richey,  The  Teutonic  and  the  Celtic  Epic  (in  Fraser's  Mag.,  89 : 
336 ff.  Lond.:  1874);  G.  K.  J.  Schmedes,  Stil  der  Epen  Rother,  Nibel. 
und  Gudrun  (Kiel :  1 893) ;  G.  F.  van  Schweringen,  The  Lit.  Types  of 
Men  in  the  Germanic  Hero  Sagas  (in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil.,  14: 
212.  1915;  cf.  15  :  177.  1916);  J.  Sime,  Art.  on  the  Nibel.  (in  Encyc. 
Brit.,  gth  ed.,  vol.  XVII);  J.  Strobl,  Die  Entstehung  der  Gedichte  von 
der  Nibelunge  Not  und  der  Klage  (Halle :  1911;  cf.  Litbl.gertn.  roman. 
Phil.,  36:  72);  G.  Vigfusson  and  F.  York  Powell,  Sigfred-Arminius  and 
Other  Papers  (Oxford:  1886):  C.  Voretzsch,  Zur  Gesch.  der  Nibelungen- 
sage  in  Frankreich  und  Deutschland  (in  Zeitschr.  f.  deut.  Altertiun, 
51  :  39-58);  H.  W.  Weber,  Der  (sic)  Nibel.,  the  Song  of  the  Nibe- 
lungen (in  Weber,  Jamieson,  and  Scott's  Illustrations  of  Northern 
Antiquities  from  the  Earlier  Teutonic  and  Scandinavian  Romances,  etc. 
(Edinb.:  1814.  See  p.  167  ff.);  B.  W.  Wells,  Sigfred-Arminius  (in  Mod. 
Lang.  Notes,  3:  124.  Baltimore:  1888);  J.  L.  Weston,  Legends  of  the 
Wagner  Drama  (Lond.:  1896);  W.  Wilmanns,  Der  Untergang  der 
Nibelungen  in  alter  Sage  und  Dichtung  (Berlin:  1903),  —  five  stages 
of  growth ;  E.  Wolff,  Ueber  den  Stil  des  Nibel.  (in  Verhandl.  der  40. 


XI,  C]  GERMAN  EPICS  759 

• 

Versamml.  deut.  Philologen,  p.  259  ff.  Leipz. :  1890);  L.  Wolf,  Der 
groteske  und  hyperbol.  Stil  des  mhd.  Volksepos  (in  Palaestra,  No.  25.- 
1903).  Much  of  the  most  valuable  material  will  be  found  in  the 
German  philological  periodicals,  which  the  advanced  student  should 
carefully  consult. 

(£)   Gudrun. 

For  bibliography  see  K.  Breul,  Handy  Bibliographical  Guide  (Lond. : 
1895);  Paul's  Grundriss ;  A.  Fecamp,  Le  poeme  de  Gudrun  (Paris: 
1892);  and  ftizjahresb.  iiber  d.  Ersch.  auf  d.  Geb.  d.  germ.  Philol. — 
The  chief  editions  are:.  K.  Bartsch,  Kudrun  (5th  ed.  Leipz.:  1885. 
In  Pfeiffer's  Deutsche  Klassiker  des  Mittelalters) ;  E.  Martin,  Kudrun 
(2d  ed.  Halle:  1902.  In  Zacher's  Germanistische  Handbibliothek); 
B.  Symons,  Kudrun  (Halle :  1 883.  In  Paul's  Altdeutsche  Textbibliothek). 
—  English  translation  by  Mary  P.  Nichols,  Gudrun,  a  Mediaeval  Epic 
Translated  from  the  Middle  High  German  (Boston  :  1889),  for  criticism 
of  which  see  Sandbach,  pp.  163-170.  Gudrun,  a  Story  of  the  North 
Sea,  by  Emma  Letherbow  (Edinb. :  1 863),  is  a  very  free  version  and 
adaptation  of  the  poem  (cf.  Sandbach,  pp.  173-176).  Some  of  the  trans- 
lations into  modern  German  are  by  Simrock(i5th  ed.  Stuttgart:  1884), 
Klee  (Leipz.:  1878),  Kamp  (Berlin:  1890),  Loschhorn  (Halle:  1891), 
Hubbe  (Hamburg:  1892),  Legerlotz  (Bielefeld:  1893).  For  modern 
adaptations  see  S.  Benedict,  Die  Gudrunsage  in  der  neueren  deutschen 
Literatur  (Rostock  :  1 902). 

English  students  will  find  convenient  introductions  to  the  poem  in 
Sandbach's  work  and  in  Smith-Jiriczek's  Northern  Hero  Legends,  both 
mentioned  above.  Of  other  works  the  following  should  be  consulted, 
though  the  works  in  English  are  for  the  most  part  of  little  value : 
K.  Bartsch,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  und  Kritik  der  Kudrun  (Wien : 
1865);  M.  Carriere,  Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Kulturent- 
wickelung  (5  vols.  Leipz.:  1863-73.  See  vol.  Ill,  ii,  337-342); 
F.  Carter,  The  Last  Work  on  the  Gudrundichtung  (in  the  New 
Englander,  34:  253-273.  New  Haven:  1875),  a  review  of  a  work 
by  Wilmanns ;  Sir  G.  W.  Cox  and  E.  H.  Jones,  as  cited  in  the  last 
division ;  the  material  in  Dippold  (cited  above),  —  an  exception  to  the 
stricture  on  works  in  English  just  made ;  A.  Fdcamp's  work,  already 
mentioned  for  bibliography,  —  the  most  important  of  the  works  on  the 
Gudrun  (in  Bibliotheque  de  FEcole  des  Hautes  Etudes,  etc.,  vol.  XC) ; 
K.  Francke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature  (3d  ed.  N.Y. :  1899. 
See  pp.  82-84), — not  very  much  on  the  Gudrun,  but  of  value  in  an 
indirect  and  general  way ;  J.  Gibb,  Gudrun  and  Other  Stories  from  the 


760  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

• 

Epics  of  the  Middle  Ages  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1 883),  —  popular  and  juvenile ; 
A.  Griesmann,  Einf iihrung  in  das  Nibel.  und  die  Gudrun  (Leipz. :  1 880) ; 
W.  Grimm,  Einleitung  zur  Vorlesung  iiber  Gudrun  (in  Kleinere  Schriften, 
vol.  IV,  pp.  524-576);  J.  Haupt,  Untersuchungen  zur  deutschen  Sage, 
I.  Untersuch.  zur  Gudrun  (2d  ed.  Wien :  1874);  O.  Heinrich,  Ueber 
die  Kudrunsage  und  das  Kudrunepos  (in  Ungar.  Revue,  5  :  295-297); 
H.  Keck,  Die  Gudrunsage,  etc.  (Leipz. :  1867);  E.  Kettner,  Der  Einfluss 
des  Nibelungenlieds  auf  die  Gudrun  (in  Zeitschr.  filr  deut.  PhiloL, 
23:  145  ff.);  G.  Klee,  Zur  Hildesage  (Leipz.:  1873);  J.  M.  Ludlow, 
as  cited  in  the  previous  division,  —  an  untrustworthy  work ;  E.  Martin, 
Bemerkungen  zur  Gudrun  (Halle :  1867);  K.  .Miillenhoff,  Kudrun,  die 
echten  Teile  des  Gedichts  (Kiel:  1845),  —  applies  Lachmann's  Licder- 
theorie  to  the  Gudrun  (cf .  E.  Martin's  edition  of  the  poem) ;  F.  Panzer, 
Hilde-Gudrun,  etc.  (Halle:  1901),  —  a  valuable  work  that  holds  to  the 
theory  of  individual  authorship ;  F.  Reichardt,  Zur  Charakteristik  des 
Nibel.,  Vergleich  des  epischen  Stils  des  Nibel.  mil  dem  der  Kudrun 
(Aschersleben  :  1881.  Progr.) ;  H.  Riickert,  tjber  das  Epos  von  Gudrun 
(in  his  Kleinere  Schriften,  vol.  I,  pp.  180-21 1.  Weimar :  1877) ;  J.  Sime 
(see  above,  under  the  Nibelungenlied) ;  L.  Uhland,  Schriften  zur 
Geschichte  der  Dichtung  und  Sage  (8  vols.  Stuttgart:  1865  +.  See  I, 
75-80,  88,  no-iii,  154-155,  157,  272-273,  327-332,  451-452;  VI, 
58;  VII,  278-285,  536-538,  —  citations  from  Fecamp);  F.  Vogt  (in 
Paul's  Grundriss,  2d  ed.,  2:  I,  242-244);  W.  Widmann,  Zur  Kudrun, 
mythisches  und  historisches  (Gorz:  1873.  Progr.);  W.  Wilmanns, 
Entwickelung  der  Kudrundichtung  (Halle:  1873). 

(f)  For  other  epical  materials  of  a  national  sort,  especially  the 
three  Middle  High  German  romances  concerning  Dietrich  von 
Bern  (Theodoric  the  Great,  ob.  526),  which  are  contained  in  the 
2d  vol.  of  the  Heldenbuch  (Berlin:  1866-73),  see  Smith-Jiriczek 
(61-88)  and  Paul  (2  :  i,  88-89,  244~251)-  The  allied  Ermanarich 
saga  is  only  alluded  to  in  High  German  poems,  but  exists  in  Low 
German  and  Norse  forms  (Smith-Jiriczek  88-91  ;  Paul  2  :  i, 
87-88).  Other  South  German  epics  tell  the  stories  of  Ortnit 
and  Wolfdietrich  (vols.  3,  4,  of  the  Heldenbuch;  Smith-Jiriczek 
97-110;  Paul  249-251).  The  High  German  romance  of  Konig 
Rother,  which  has  been  mentioned  above,  also  handles  national 
materials  in  a  national  spirit  (ed.  Riickert,  1872;  Bander,  1884; 
see  Smith-Jiriczek  110-115;  Paul  2:  i,  174-175). 


XI,  C]  GERMAN  EPICS  761 

2.   The  Court  Epics ;  Epical  Romances ;  Romances  of  Chivalry. 

For  the  German  courtly  epic  or  metrical  romance  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries  (embracing  the  works  of  Heinrich  von  Veldeke, 
Hartmann  von  Aue,  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  Gottfried  von  Strass- 
burg,  etc.)  see  Paul's  Grundriss  (2d  ed.,  2  :  r,  187-208),  and  P.  Genelin, 
Unsere  hofischen  Epen  und  ihre  Quellen (Innsbruck:  1891).  Sufficient 
bibliography  is  given  in  Paul ;  see  also  Betz-Baldensperger,  La  litt. 
comparee,  essai  bibliographique,  pp.  22-31  (2d  ed.  Strasbourg:  1904), 
—  a  list  of  monographs  on  the  various  poems. 

In  studying  these  court  epics  or  epical  romances  the  student 
will  find  himself  confronted  with  a  set  of  problems  similar  to  those 
involved  in  the  study  of  the  French  epopee  courtoise  (see  above, 
v,  D).  The  relation  of  the  German  romances  of  chivalry  to  the 
earlier  national  epic  is  only  one  example  of  the  general  relation  of 
the  epical  romances  to  the  popular  epics.  It  may  be  somewhat 
hazardous  to  say  that  the  relations  of  epic  and  metrical  romance 
have  not  yet  been  scientifically  explained  ;  but  the  literary  scientist 
will  find  that  the  usual  explanations  fall  short  of  expounding  those 
relations  in  terms  of  growth,  in  laws  of  literary  development. 
Obvious  differences  and  similarities  in  individual  and  sometimes 
cognate  literatures  have  been  noted  and  described ;  the  broader 
induction  from  the  general  field  of  interrelations  —  Greek  as  well 
as  medieval  European  and  English,  and  oriental  —  if  there.be  such, 
yet  remains  to  be  drawn.  It  is  a  gigantic  task  toward  the  fulfilment 
of  which  the  student  can  at  least  contribute  by  systematically 
analyzing  carefully  defined  cross-sections  of  the  literatures  con- 
cerned. —  The  minor  problems  connected  with  the  study  of  the 
romantic  epics  of  medievalism  are  those  of  sources,  distribution, 
borrowings,  textual  provenience. 

The  following  are  the  more  important  editions  of  separate  authors : 
(a)  of  Veldeke,  the  Eneit,  O.  Behagel  (Heilbronn:  1882);  (b)  of  Hart- 
mann von  Aue,  F.  Bech  (2d  ed.  3  vols.  Leipz. :  1893);  (c)  of  Wolfram 
von  Eschenbach,  K.  Bartsch  (2d  ed.  Leipz. :  1875-1877)  and  A.  Leitz- 
mann  (Halle:  1902);  (d)  of  Gottfried  von  Strassburg,  R.  Bechstein 
(3d  ed.  Leipz.:  1890-91). 


762  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

For  additional  information  concerning  the  various  authors  and  their 
poems,  see:  (a)  On  Veldeke's  Eneit,  H.  Roetteken's  Die  epische 
Kunst,  H.  von  Veldeke  und  Hart,  von  Aue  (Halle:  1887).  (b)  On 
Hartmann  von  Aue's  Der  arme  Heinrich,  Iwein,  and  Erec :  G.  Jeske, 
Die  Kunst  Hartmanns  von  Aue  als  Epiker,  verglichen  mit  der  seiner 
Nachahmer  (Diss.  Greifswald:  1909);  F.  Piquet,  Etude  sur  H.  d'Aue 
(Paris:  1898);  L.  Schmid,  Des  Minnesangers  H.  von  Aues  Stand, 
Heimat,  etc.  (Tubingen:  1874);  A.  Schonbach,  Uber  H.  von  Aue 
(Graz :  1894).  (c)  On  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach :  for  bibliography  of 
works  connected  with  the  Parzival  and  with  the  Titurel  fragments, 
Botticher,  Die  Wolfram- Literatur  seit  Lachmann  (Berlin:  1880),  and 

F.  Panzer,  Bibliographic  zu  W.  von  Eschenbach  (Miinchen  :   1897).   Of 
translations  of  the  Parzival,  the  best  are  by  W.  Hertz  (Stuttgart:   1898) 
and  J.  L.  Weston  (2  vols.   Lond. :   1894).   The  latter  is  the  first  Englisji 
verse  translation  of  the   German  poem.     For  critical  discussion    see 
K.  Bartsch,  Wolframs  v.  Esch.  Parzival  als  psychologisches  Epos  (in 
Gesam.  Vortrage  und  Aufsatze,  pp.  250-3 1 7.   Freiburg  u.  Tub. :   1 883) ; 

G.  Botticher,  Das  Hohelied  vom  Rittertum  (Berlin  :   1886),  on  the  com- 
position of  the  Parzival ;  Frick  and  Polack  (see  above,  §  li);  C.  A.  W. 
Qiinther,  Die  deutsche  Heldensage  des  Mittelalters,  nebst  der  Sage  vom 
Heiligen  Gral  (3d  ed.   Hannover :   1 884) ;  P.  Hagen,  Wolfram  und  Kiot 
(in  Zeitschr.f.  deut.  Phil.,  38,  i  and  2;  also  Halle:   1906),  —  suggests 
an  original  belonging  to  the  French  epic  cycle  (cf.  Literaturbl.  f.  germ, 
u.  roman.  Phil.,  1908,  Nos.  3,  4);  F.  Hoffmann,  Erlauterung  zu  W.  v. 
Esch.  (Leipz. :   1909);  A.  Nutt,  Studies  on  the  Legend  of  the  Holy 
Grail  (Lond.:   1888);  San   Marte,   Leben  und   Dichten  W.  v.  Esch. 
(2  vols.  .2d  ed.   Leipz. :  1858);  E.  Wechssler,  Die  Sage  vom  Heil.  Gral 
4n  ihrer  Entwickelung  bis  auf  R.  Wagner's  Parsifal  (Halle :   1 898),  con- 
tains a  short  bibliography  and  is  a  useful  work  in  other  respects  as  well. 
(d)  On  Gottfried  von  Strassburg's  Tristan  und  Isolde :  for  an  excellent 
translation  into  modern  form,  W.  Hertz  (Stuttgart:   1901);  for  discus- 
sion, W.  Golther,  Die  Sage  von  Tristan  und  Isolde  (Miinchen:  1887); 
J.  Kelemina,  Untersuchungen  zur  Tristansage  (Leipz.:   1910;  in  Teu- 
tonia,  1 6);  E.  Kolbing,  Die  nordische  und  die  engl.  Version  der  Tris- 
tansage (Heilbr. :   1878-83);  M.  M.  Mann,  Die  Frauenverehrung  in  der 
hof.  Epik  nach  G.  von  Strassburg  (in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil.,  12: 
355-    '9' 3)>    F.   Piquet,    L'originalitd  de  G.  de  Strasbourg  dans  son 
poeme  de  Tristan  et  Isolde  (Lille:  1905);  K.  W.  Rottiger,  Der  heutige 
Stand  der  Tristanforschung  (Hamburg  :   1897.    Progr.);  R.  Zenker,  Die 
Tristansage  und  das  persische  Epos  von  Wis  und  Ramin  (in  Roman. 
Forsch.,  29:  321-369.    1911;  cf.  Romania,  40:  1 14).   For  later  German 


XI,  D]  GERMAN  EPICS  763 

poems  dealing  with  the  Arthurian  cycle  and  the  material  of  Britain  in 
general,  see  Maccallum's  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King,  etc.  (N.Y. : 
1894).  (e)  For  the  bibliography  of  the  lesser  writers  of  the  metrical 
romance  of  love  and  chivalry,  see  vol.  I,  pp.  336-337,  of  Vogt  and  Koch, 
Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  von  d.  altesten  Zeiten  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (2  vols. 
Leipz. :  1904). 

D.  Early  New  High  German  Period  (1350-1700). 
See  above,  §  6,  xm,  D. 

During  this  period  epical  writing  languished,  and  though  the 
patient  student  may  have  zeal  to  follow  in  detail  the  history  of  the 
major  narrative  poem  across  four  centuries,  he  will  probably  secure 
but  scant  results  for  his  labor.  First  among  matters  to  be  consid- 
ered is  the  gradual  decadence  of  the  court  epic  and  metrical 
romance  through  sporadic  revivals  and  parodies  till  finally  prose 
romances  take,  their  place  (see  Paul,  2d  ed.,  2  :  i,  287  ff.,  and 
histories  of  German  literature  as  listed  in  the  Appendix).  The 
rise  of  the  satirical  beast  epic  (Reynke  de  Vos,  1498)  should  be 
studied  comparatively.  For  the  most  minute  and  best  comparative 
study  see  L.  Foulet's  Roman  de  Renard  (Paris:  1914),  and  for 
a  list  of  authorities  on  the  animal  epic,  the. notice  of  Foulet  in 
§  n,  above.  —  As  the  epic  decays,  however,  the  historical  ballad 
develops  with  large  freedom  and  success.  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  period,  certain  abortive  attempts  to  write  in  the  epic  manner 
may  be  noted  (e.g.,  Opitz's  Zlatna,  1623). 

E.  The  Eighteenth  Century. 
See  above,  §  6,  xm,  E. 

1.  The  epics  produced  under  the  pseudo-classical  influence  of 
Gottsched  (see  above,  loc.  «'/.),  such  as   Schonaich's   Hermann 
oder  das  bef reyte  Deutschland  —  highly  praised  by  the  German 
followers  of  Boileau  and  the  French  tradition  in  criticism  —  are 
but  formal,  uninspired  exercises. 

2.  Klopstock's  Messias.    The  Messias  raises   again  the  moot 
question   of   the   adaptability  of   the    Christian   religion  to  epic 
treatment    (cf.   the    Miltonic    epics    and    the    Anglo-Saxon    and 


764  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

Saxon  Christian  epics,  and  Italian  and  French  Renaissance  criti- 
cism). The  nature  of  the  relation  of  the  Messias  to  Paradise  Lost 
is  a  more  particular  question.  The  place  of  Klopstock's  poem  in 
general  epic  development  gives  rise  to  another  general  question, 
suggesting  the  difference  between  the  literary  epic  of  the  later 
period  and  that  of  Renaissance  times.  The  influence  of  the 
poem  in  German  literature  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge, 
already  touched  upon  in  §  6,  xm,  E,  above. 

For  a  convenient  edition  of  the  Messias  see  Klopstock's  Werke,  ed. 
A.  Hamel,  in  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  National- Litt.  See  the  following : 

E.  Bailly,  Etude  sur  la  vie  et  les  ceuvres  de  Klopstock  (Paris:   1888. 
Bibliography,  pp.  443-447) ;  C.  F.  Benkowitz,  Der  Messias  von  Klop- 
stock, asthetisch  beurtheilt  und  verglichen  mit  der  Iliade,  der  Aeneide 
und  dem  Verlornen  Paradiese  (Breslau  :   1 797),  an  example  of  the  naive 
criticism  of  its  time  (cf.  A.  W.  Schlegel's  review  of  the  book,  contained 
in  vol.  XI,  p.  1 57,  of  Bocking's  edition  of  Schlegel's  Werke) ;  Frick  and 
Polack  (see  above,  §  1 1),  containing  a  brief  account  and  synopsis  of  the 
Messias ;  H.  Gelzer,  Die  neuere  deutsche  National- Litteratur  nach  ihren 
ethischen  und  religiosen  Gesichtspunkten,  Tl.  I  (3d  ed.   Leipz. :   1858); 
A.  Hamel,  Klopstock-Studien  (3  vols.    Rostock:   1879 —  1880);  by  the 
same,  the  introduction,  to  his  edition  of  the  Werke,  mentioned  above ; 
J.  W.  Loebell,  Die  Entwicklung  der  deutschen  Poesie  von  Klopstock's 
erstem  Auftreten  bis  zu  Goethe's  Tode,  vol.  I  (Braunschweig:   1856); 

F.  Muncker,  Klopstock  (Stuttgart:    1893);    Saint-Marc  Girardin,  De 
1'epopde  chre*tienne  jusqu'a  Klopstock  (in  Rev.  des  Deux  Mondes, 
March  i,  1849;  Aug.  15,  1849;  April  I,  1850);  F.  Schlegel,  Lectures 
on  the  History  of  Lit.  (English  trans,  in  Bohn's  Lib.    Lond. :   1876. 
See  Lect.  XV,  pp.  339-350);  R.  Tombo,  Jr.,  Ossian  in  Germany  (in 
Columbia   Univ.    Germanic   Studies,   vol.  I,    No.  II.    N.Y. :    1901); 
further  bibliography  in  Bartels'  Handbuch  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen 
Literatur  (2d  ed.    Leipz.:   1909),  pp.  189-193. 

F.  Other  German  Epics  and  Narrative  Poems.  German  litera- 
ture, like  other  modern  literatures,  possesses  many  literary  epics 
or,  at  any  rate,  many  long  narrative  poems.  The  student  can  inform 
himself  by  turning  to  any  good  history  of  German  literature.  For 
the  idyllic  strain  in  folk  song,  in  the  Meistersinger,  in  von  Kleist, 
Heinrich  Voss  (the  Luise),  etc.,  see  above,  §  6,  xm.  On  Renaissance 


XII]          THE  DUTCH  EPIC  AND  ALLIED  FORMS          765 

epic  see  J.  E.  Gillet  in  Jr.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil.,  15  :  35,  1916. 
The  most  important  of  the  narrative  poems  not  already  men- 
tioned is  the  Hermann  und  Dorothea  of  Goethe  —  an  epyllion, 
or  heroic  idyl,  of  humble  life.  Humboldt's  criticism  of  it  has  been 
mentioned  above  (§8).  The  student  will  be  interested  in  compar- 
ing with  this  the  account  of  the  poem  by  A.  W.  Schlegel  (see 
vol.  XI,  pp.  183-221,  of  the  Sammtliche  Werke.  Ed.  by  E.  Bock- 
ing.  Leipz. :  1847).  On  Wieland's  epic  attempts,  poetic  romances, 
and  romantic  epic  (Oberon,  1780)  see  Bartels  204;  for  Wieland's 
followers,  Bartels  215  ff.  For  other  attempts  at  epical  poetry  see 
the  three  volumes  of  M.  Mendheim's  Lyriker  und  Epiker  der 
klassischen  Periode  (in  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  National-Litteratur). 
Recent  essays  in  epic  are  Heinrich  Hart's  Lied  der  Menschheit 
(vols.  1-3,  1888-96)  and  Marie  delle  Grazie's  Robespierre  (1894). 

XII.  The  Dutch  Epic  and  Allied  Forms. 

For  bibliography  see  §  6,  xiy ;  also,  in  general,  Paul's  Grundriss. 

With  one  or  two  exceptions  the  Dutch  epic  has  attained  neither 
importance  nor  grace ;  it  has  commonly  been  diverted  from  the 
heroic  into  didactic,  descriptive,  and  mechanically  scriptural 
channels.  During  the  i3th  century  Middle  Dutch  versions  of 
the  Charlemagne  cycle,  of  Arthurian  legends,  and  of  the  Reynard 
the  Fox  were  made  by  minstrels.  The  most  important  writer 
of  the  middle  of  that  century  was  the  didactic  poet  Jakob  van 
Maerlant,  who  in  his  earlier  years  had  occupied  himself  with  the 
romances  of  Merlin  and  the  Holy  Grail.  Somewhat  later  Hein 
van  Aken  finished  a  translation  of  the  Roman  de  la  Rose.  —  In 
the  1 4th  century  the  epic  assumed  form  in  a  poem  of  Jan  van 
Heelu  on  the  battle  of  Woeronc;  and  the  original  romance',  in 
his  War  of  Grimbergen  and  in  Hein  van  Aken's  Heinric  en 
Margriete.  —  Beside  the  erotic  and  quasi-didactic  poem  of  Dirk 
Potter,  Der  Minnen  Loep,  epic  only  in  length  (isth  century), 
nothing  at  all  resembling  the  epic  appeared  before  the  publication 
of  The  Palace  of  Maidens,  a  diffuse  didactic  poem  by  Houwaert, 
the  '  Homer  of  Brabant,'  —  about  the  middle  of  the  i6th  century; 


766  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

but  translations  of  the  Iliad  and  Aeneid  were  meanwhile  making. 
About  the  end  of  the  century  the  humanist,  H.  L.  Spieghel, 
produced  a  didactic  epic  of  greater  popularity,  Hertspieghel. — 
During  the  earlier  part  of  the  i;th  century  the  dramatist  Vondel 
busied  himself  with  adaptations  of  Du  Bartas'  La  Sepmaine  ou 
Creation  du  Monde,  and  the  famous  daughters  of  Roemer  Visscher, 
Anna  and  Tesselschade,  produced  —  the  one,  a  didactic  poem  in 
praise  of  the  river  Amstel ;  the  other,  a  translation  of  the  Geru- 
salemme  Liberata.  About  the  middle  of  the  century  Reyer  Anslo 
wrote  a  descriptive  epic,  The  Plague  at  Naples ;  and  during  the 
latter  third  J.  A.  van  der  Goes  undertook  an  epic  of  St.  Paul, 
which  he  did  not  live  to  finish.  —  Under  the  influence  of  Voltaire 
and  the  French  classical  school  poetry  sank  in  the  Holland  of  the 
early  i8th  century  to  a  low  level.  Especially  Voltairian  were  the 
labors  in  epic  style  of  Sybrand  Feitama  and  of  Willem  van  Haren 
(in  his  historical  poem  Gevallen  van  Friso,  1741).  The  nadir 
appears  to  have  been  .  reached  in  what  Gosse  characterizes 
as  "  a  terrible  biblical  epic  "  by  Arnold  Hoogvliet,  "  in  the  manner 
of  Blackmore,  on  the  history  of  Abraham."  But  toward  the  end 
of  the  century  the  more  artistic  qualities  of  the  Augustan  style 
found  expression  in  the  well-constructed  epic  of  Elias  by  Willem 
Bilderdijk  (1786).  A  similar  excellence  marks  his  uncompleted 
epic  of  The  Destruction  of  the  First  World,  published  early  in 
the  succeeding  century.  —  Also  of-  the  first  decades  of  the 
i  gth  century  were  the  didactic  epic,  entitled  Antiquity,  by 
Rhijnvis  Feith,  and  the  historical  national  poems  of  Cornelis 
Loots  and  J.  F.  Helmers,  all  of  which  display  the  sentimentalism 
of  the  romantic  reaction.  The  riper  qualities  of  romanticism 
entered  Dutch  poetry  of  the  epic  kind  with  the  next  generation, 
in  the  historical  lyrics  and  the  ballads  of  Hendrik  Tollens  and  in 
the  ballads  and  romances  of  Adrianus  Bogaers.  —  For  a  more 
extended  account,  see  E.  W.  Gosse's  Studies  in  the  Literature  of 
Northern  Europe  (Lond. :  1879),  containing  essays  on  certain 
Norwegian,  Swedish,  Danish,  German,  and  Dutch  poets,  and  his 
articles  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  upon  Dutch  literature  and  Dutch  writers. 


XIII]  ICELANDIC  AND  NORSE  767 

XIII.  Icelandic  and  Norse  Epical  Literature. 

For  bibliography,  see  J.  Jdnsson,  Borgfirdingur,  Sogua'grip  um  prents- 
midjur  og  prenatara  d  Islandi  (Reykjavik :  1 867);  H.  Einarsson,  Historia 
Literaria  Islandica,  etc.  (Havniae  et  Lipsiae:  1786);  T.  Moebius,  Cata- 
logus  Librorum  Islandicorum,  etc.  (Lipsiae:  1856);  by  the  same, 
Verzeichnis  der  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  altnordischen  .  .  .  Sprache  und 
Literatur  von  1855  bis  1879  erschienenen  Schriften  (Leipz. :  1880); 
works  which  have  appeared  since  1879  are  listed  in  the  Bibliographic 
des  Ark.f.  nord.  Fil.  (1883+)  and  in  the  Jahresbericht  iiber  d.  Er- 
schein.  aufd.  Geb.  d.  germ.  Philol.  ( 1 880  •+• ).  The  Bibliographischer  An- 
hang  to  F.  W.  Horn's  Gesch.  d.  Lit.  d.  skand.  Nordens  (Leipz. :  1 880) 
is  very  useful ;  for  the  English  translation  of  this  work,  see  above,  §  6, 
xv.  A  small  and  convenient  bibliography,  including  articles  in  English 
magazines,  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  H.  H.  Sparling's  edition  of  the 
Volsunga  Saga  (Camelot  Series ;  trans.)  or  in  Paul's  Grundriss  (2d  ed., 
2:  I,  555  ff.,  at  the  heads  of  sections  and  in  the  notes).  For  general 
histories  see  Appendix.  A  brief  introduction  is  furnished  in  the  admira- 
ble little  volume  by  W.  A.  Craigie,  The  Icelandic  Sagas  (Camb.  Man. 
of  Sc.  and  Lit).  Mogk's  article  in  Paul's  Grundriss  (noted  below)  is 
standard  and  authoritative  and  contains  excellent  bibliographical  notes. 

Norse  and  Icelandic  prose  and  verse  present  many  interesting 
problems  and  much  valuable  material  to  the  student  of  epic  de- 
velopment. The  epical  songs  and  lays  of  the  Poetic  Edda  are 
representative  of  early  stages  of  growth  toward  epic  fruition, 
and  the  nature  of  their  narrative  technique  casts  light  on  the 
typical  stages  of  popular  treatment.  Especially  significant  is  the 
closeness  of  relation  between  narrative  and  lyric  treatment  as 
exemplified  in  many  of  the  poems.  The  student  may  well  under- 
take to  compare  the  technique  with  that  of  the  ballad  and  other 
forms  presumably  anterior,  in  point  of  development,  to  the  long 
epic  poem.  The  skaldic  poems  and  the  prose  tales  offer  further 
problems.  The  student  must  inquire  into  their  literary  provenience 
so  far  as  it  can  be  investigated  and  surmised  ;  he  must  determine 
to  what  stages  of  development  in  other  literatures  the  sagas  of 
romanticized  history  are  analogous ;  he  must  note  the  distribution 
of  the  themes  among  the  Germanic  peoples  and  account  for  the 
processes  and  nature  of  this  distribution;  he  must  consider  the 


768  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

methods  of  authorship,  oral  tradition,  and  popular  publication,  — 
all  as  indicative  of  laws  of  literary  development;  he  must  study, 
as  further  indications  of  such  laws,  the  archaeology  of  the  poems 
and  sagas  —  the  conditions  antecedent  and  contemporaneous  (reli- 
gious, social,  national,  political)  —  and  this  study  must  be  compara- 
tive, with  reference  to  the  archaeology  of  other  epical  literatures. 
These  are  only  some  of  the  problems  that  have  engaged,  and  will 
continue  to  engage,  the  attention  of  students  of  the  northern  liter- 
atures. In  many  of  the  general  histories  treating  of  these  literatures 
the  student  will  be  disappointed  to  find  that  comparative  study 
is  limited  to  a  pleasing  and  superficial  appraisement  of  the  style 
and  handling  of  the  poems  by  regarding  them  in  juxtaposition  with 
similar  poems  in  other  literatures.  The  conclusions  are  of  the  sort 
that  any  discursive  reader  of  average  intelligence  can  undertake 
to  evolve  from  his  impressions.  In  dealing  with  the  problems  sug- 
gested Professor  Ker's  various  works  and  essays  will  be  found  of 
particular  value;  the  charge  of  impressionism  and  superficiality 
does  not  apply  to  his  method,  nor  to  that  followed  in  the  admirable 
publications  of  Vigfusson  and  Powell.  Systematic  and  detailed 
investigation  is  furnished  by  Bugge  also,  and  by  Mogk,  F.  Jdnsson, 
and  others,  for  whom  consult  Paul's  Grundriss. 

Editions  and  Translations.  Editions:  (i)  Of  the  Older  or  Poetic 
Edda  (Edda  Saemundar) :  Rask  (Stockholm :  1 8 1 8) ;  Munch  (Christ. : 
1847);  Liming  (Zurich:  1859);  Moebius  (Leipz. :  1860);  S.  Bugge, 
the  best  (1867);  Grundtvig  (2d  ed.  Copenh. :  1874);  Hildebrand 
(Paderborn  :  1875);  G.  Vigfusson  and  F.  Y.  Powell,  best  for  the  English 
student  (Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale.  2  vols.  Oxford :  1 883) ;  Detter  und 
Heinzel  (2  vols.  Leipz.:  1903).  (2)  Of  the  skaldic  poems :  F.  Jdnsson, 
Den  norsk-islandske  Skjaldedigtning,  etc.  (2  vols.  Copenh.:  1908-12); 
Vigfusson  and  Powell,  vol.  II ;  other  references  in  Paul's  GrundViss 
(2d  ed.,  2:1,  656  ft.).  (3)  Of  the  historical  and  romantic  sagas :  see 
Paul's  Grundriss,  730  ff.,  and  the  notes  under  each  saga.  (4)  Of  the 
so-called  Younger  or  Prose  Edda  (Snorri  Sturluson) :  Editio  Arna-Mag. 
(3  vols.  1848-87),  the  best;  T.  Jdnsson  (1875);  F.  Jdnsson  (1907),  being 
vol.  XLI  of  the  fslendinga  Sogur  published  at  Reykjavik;  further  in 
Paul,  906 ff .  —  Translation s :  (i)  Of  the  Poetic  Edda:  English  ver- 
sions by  A.  S.  Cottle  (Bristol :  1 797) ;  B.  Thorpe  (2  vols.  Lond. : 


XIII]  ICELANDIC  AND  NORSE  769 

1866);  Vigfusson  and  Powell,  Corpus  Poeticum,  etc.  (1883);  and  see 
Gray,  Herbert,  Cottle,  Aytoun,  etc.,  for  translations  of  brief  poems. 
Eirikr  Magnusson  and  William  Morris  drew  their  Story  of  the  Vol- 
sungs  and  the  Niblungs  (Lond. :  1870)  from  the  Poetic  Edda.  French 
versions  by  Mallet  (Copenh. :  1755),  only  a  partial  translation,  for  the 
merit  and  influence  of  which  see  Vigfusson  and  Powell,  Corp.  Poet., 
vol.  I,  p.  xcv;  F.  W.  Bergmann  (Paris:  1838);  Anon.  (1842);  W.  E. 
Frye  (1844).  German  versions  by  the  Grimm  brothers  (Berlin:  1815); 
F.  W.  Bergmann  (Strassburg:  1879);  K.  Simrock  (8th  ed.  Bonn: 
1886);  A.  Holtzmann  (Leipz. :  1875);  B.  Wenzel  (2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1883); 
W.  Jordan  (Frankf. :  1889);  H.  Gering  (Leipz. :  1892),  the  best.  (2)  Of 
the  skaldic  poems :  Vigfusson  and  Powell.  (3)  Of  the  Prose  Edda :  in- 
complete English  versions  by  I.  A.  Blackwell  (in  Mallet's  Northern 
Antiquities.  Bohn's  Lib.  Lond.:  1847);  G.  W.  Dasent  (Stockholm: 
1842);  R.  B.  Anderson  (Chicago:  1880);  A.  G.  Brodeur  (N.  Y.:  1916), 
—  the  most  complete,  with  an  admirable  brief  introduction.  —  For  other 
translations  of  the  Eddas  see  the  Brit.  Museum  Cat.,  sub  Eddas. 

An  extensive  collection  of  English  translations  of  northern  literature, 
embracing  popular  tales,  the  Eddas,  Heimskringla,  Volsunga  Saga,  etc., 
etc.,  is  published  as  Norroena  (15  vols.  Lond.,  etc.:  1906);  see 
vols.  VI-VIII  for  an  account  of  Teutonic  myth  and  saga,  a  translation 
by  R.  B.  Anderson  of  V.  Rydberg's  Teutonic  Mythology.  Convenient 
lists  of  English  translations  of  the  prose  sagas  may  be  found  in  Craigie 
(op.  cit.  Chap.  VII)  and  Sparling  (cited  at  the  head  of  this  division).  In 
Everyman's  Library  are  translations  of  the  Burnt  Njal,  Grettir,  and 
Heimskringla ;  in  the  Temple  Classics,  a  version  of  the  Laxdaela.  For 
an  elementary  sketch  of  the  mythology,  see  Gayley's  Classic  Myths 
(rev.  ed.  Boston:  1911),  pp.  373-409,  and  for  the  literature,  pp.  457- 
460,  534-536. 

References.  The  following  list  may  serve  to  start  the  student  along 
the  path  of  previous  scholarship :  S.  Bugge,  Helgi-Digtene  i  den 
aeldere  Edda  (Copenh. :  1 896.  English  trans,  by  Schofield,  The  Home 
of  the  Eddie  Poems.  Lond. :  1 899) ;  by  the  same,  Studien  iiber  die 
Entstehung  der  nordischen  Cotter-  und  Heldensagen  (Miinchen : 
1881-89.  The  German  trans,  is  by  Brenner);  Sir  G.  W.  Dasent, 
The  Story  of  the  Burnt  Njal,  etc.  (Edinb. :  1861);  Winifred  Faraday, 
The  Edda  (Lond.:  1902);  E.  W.  Gosse,  Art.  The  Edda  (in  the 
9th  ed.  of  the  Encyc.  Brit.);  J.  L.  C.  Grimm,  Teutonic  Mythology 
(Lond. :  1880);  F.  W.  Horn,  Gesch.  d.  Lit.  d.  skand.  Nordens,  pp.  ir- 
81 ;  F.  Jdnsson,  Den  oldnorske  og  oldislandske  Litteraturs  Historic 
(3  vols.  Copenh. :  1894-1902),  — most  complete  and  authoritative,  for 


770  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

an  abridgment  of  which  see  Jdnsson's  Den  islandske  Litteraturs  Historic 
(1907);  W.  P.  Ker,  Epic  and  Romance  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1908);  by  the 
same,  The  Dark  Ages  (Periods  of  European  Lit..  N.Y. :  1904.  See 
pp.  267-307);  E.  de  Laveleye  (see  above,  §  n);  CM.  Lotspeich,  The 
Composition  of  the  Icelandic  Family  Sagas  (in./r.  Eng.  and  Germ.  Phil., 
8  :  217.  1909) ;  P.  H.  Mallet,  Northern  Antiquities  (Bohn's  Lib.  Lond. : 
1847.  Trans,  by  Bishop  Percy.  Rev.  by  I.  A.  Blackwell.  Percy's  trans, 
appeared  originally  in  2  vols.,  in  1770;  Mallet's  work,  in  the  original 
French,  appeared  in  1756),  one  of  the  early,  and  the  most  famous  of 
the  early,  antiquarian  treatises  on  the  northern  peoples  and  literatures ; 
E.  Magnusson  and  W.  Morris,  Three  Northern  Love-Stories,  etc. 
(Lond.:  1875);  by  the  same,  The  Story  of  Grettir  the  Strong  (Lond.: 
1869);  by  the  same,  The  Story  of  the  Volsungs  and  the  Niblungs,  etc. 
(Lond. :  1870),  —  these  translations  and  adaptations  did  much  to  popu- 
larize the  interest  in  the  northern  literatures;  E.  Mogk,  Norwegisch- 
islandische  Lit.  (in  Paul's  Grundriss) ;  Bishop  T.  Percy,  Five  Pieces  of 
Runic  Poetry,  etc.  (Lond. :  1 763) ;  G.  Saintsbury,  The  Flourishing  of 
Romance,  Chap.  VIII  (Periods  of  European  Lit.  N.  Y.:  1897),  —  the 
treatment  of  the  sagas  is  disappointing  to  the  student;  G.  Vfgfusson, 
Prolegomena  to  his  ed.  of  the  Sturlunga  Saga  (2  vols.  Oxford :  1878); 
G.  Vigfusson  and  F.  Y.  Powell,  Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale  (2  vols. 
Oxford:  1 883) ;  by  the  same,  Origines  Islandicae  (2  vols.  Oxford:  1905), 
—  works  that  contain  texts,  translations,  textual  notes,  valuable  historical 
and  analytic  material,  etc.  The  student  should  begin  with  Vigfusson  and 
Powell,  and  he  will  probably  find  at  the  end  of  his  study  that  he  still  is 
dependent  most  upon  their  contribution  to  the  subject. 

XIV.  Modern  Scandinavian  Epic,  Metrical  Romance,  etc. 

For  a  preliminary  outline  of  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Norwegian  poetry, 
and  for  references,  see  above,  §  6,  xvn,  xvm.  It  will  suffice  here  merely 
to  mention  the  more  important  poems  of  the  epical  type  produced  from 
the  year  1 200  down. 

A.  In  Sweden.  In  the  i3th,  i4th,  and  i5th  centuries,  folk 
songs  and  rhyming  romances  of  the  medieval  French,  German, 
and  Breton  material ;  the  rhyming  Erikskronikan,  or  chronicle  of 
the  Duke  Eric,  about  1320  ;  the  chronicles  of  King  Karl  Knutson, 
etc. ;  the  translation  of  the  Latin  romance  of  chivalry,  King 
Alexander  (about  the  end  of  the  i4th  century);  and  the  famous 
Song  of  Engelbrekt,  the  national  hero,  by  Bishop  Tomas,  in  the 


XIV,  AJ  MODERN  SCANDINAVIAN  EPIC  771 

1 5th.  —  In  1653,  the  epic-didactic  poem  in  hexameters,  Hercules, 
by  the  humanist  Stjernhjelm,  —  an  allegory  of  the  strife  of  Virtue 
and  Pleasure,  written  with  imagination  and  grace.  In  1685,  by 
Spegel,  a  heavy  religious  epic,  God's  Work  and  Rest,  —  a  free 
translation  of  the  Hexaemeron  of  the  Danish  poet  Arrebo. 
About  1697,  the  patriotic  and  genuinely  poetic  Kunga-skald, 
of  Dahlstjerna,  in  honor  of  his  patron,  Charles  XI.  —  In  the 
1 8th  century,  under  the  influence  of  the  pseudo-classical  move- 
ment, Dalin's  highly  lauded  allegorical  epic,  Svenska  Friheten  — 
Swedish  Freedom  (1742),  "a  political  brochure  in  rhetorical 
alexandrines  "  but  conceived  and  written  with  taste  ;  and,  in  1785, 
G.  F.  Gyllenborg's  allegorical  and  affected  heroic  poem,  The 
Expedition  across  the  Belt,  which  celebrated  Charles  X's  journey 
over  the  ice  from  Jutland  to  Zealand.  —  The  didactic  idyl,  Emily 
or  an  Evening  in  Lapland,  and  the  epic  poems  of  Franzen  —  Sven 
Sture,  Columbus,  and  Gustaf  Adolf  —  occupy  in  the  beginning 
of  the  i  gth  century  a  halfway  position  between  the  tendencies 
of  the  idealistic  romantic  Phosphorists  and  those  of  the  poets  of 
the  Gothic  revival.  Little  of  epic  quality  was  produced  by  the 
Phosphorists,  —  the  Markall's  Sleepless  Nights  of  their  leader 
Atterbom,  in  conjunction  with  Hammarskojd  and  others,  being 
merely  a  satirical  heroic  poem.  Sympathetic,  but  not  allied,  with 
the  Phosphorists  was  Stagnelius,  whose  epic,  Vladimir  the  Great 
(1817),  and  unfinished  metrical  romances  are  characterized  by 
phantasy  and  vivid  descriptive  power.  Of  the  Gothic  school 
more  than  one  contributed  to  epic  poetry:  Ling,  for  instance, 
inherently  a  lyrist,  by  his  lyric-epic,  Tirfing,  and  by  his  epics 
of  Norse  gods  and  heroes,  the  Gylfe  and  the  Asarne  —  both 
of  which,  however,  lack  constructive  power  in  characterization 
and  form ;  and  supremely,  Tegner,  whose  romantic  heroic  cycle, 
Frithiofs-saga  (1820-25),  though  frankly  indebted  to  .the  Helge 
of  the  Danish  Oehlenschlager,  is  the  most  forceful,  the  noblest, 
and  most  distinctively  national  of  Swedish  epics  —  a  masterpiece 
with  continental  influence.  His  Gerda  and  Kronbruden  are  in- 
complete, but  must  be  studied  for  their  creative  power  and  poetic 


7/2  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

crystallization  of  the  Scandinavian  spirit  and  tradition.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  century  two  epics  of  brilliant  style  —  Arturs  Jagt 
and  Shems-el-Nihar  —  were  produced  by  that  mysterious  and 
malign  genius  of  romantic  irresponsibility,  K.  J.  L.  Almqvist, 
better  known  for  his  novels.  Between  1831  and  1860  appeared 
also  the  idyllic  and  heroic  poems  of  the  last  great  poet  of  Sweden, 
the  Finnish-born  Runeberg.  His  epical  lyric  romances,  —  The 
Grave  in  Perrho,  and  Nadeschda  (of  Russian  life),  —  his  Ossianic 
cycle,  Kung  Fjalar,  his  idyls  of  epic  movement  and  breadth, — 
The  Elk-hunters,  Hanna,  Christmas  Eve,  —  and  his  masterpiece, 
the  wonderfully  realistic  and  patriotic  series  of  historical  verse- 
romances  of  heroism,  The  Tales  of  Ensign  Stal,  are  all  of  conse- 
quence in  the  history  of  epic  poetry. 

B.  Danish-Norwegian.  Up  to  the  i6th  century,  the  Kjaem- 
peviser,  or  ballads,  —  mythical,  heroic,  chivalric,  historical, — and 
rhyming  chronicles  as  in  Sweden.  See  Axel  Olrik,  Danmarks 
Heltedigtning  (3  vols.  Copenh. :  1907+).  In  1641,  the  Hexa- 
emeron  of  Bishop  Arrebo,  who  had  died  four  years  before  (cf. 
§6,  xvni,  A,  above).  In  1719-20,  Holberg's  remarkable  bur- 
lesque of  heroic  poems,  ancient  and  modern,  Peder  Paars  of 
Kallundborg;  and  in  1741,  his  verse-romance  of  the  sexton  Niels 
Klim's  Journey  to  the  Lower  World,  satirizing  European  condi- 
tions in  general,  —  written  in  Latin  and  translated  into  nearly  all 
European  languages  (into  Danish  by  Baggesen).  A  comparison 
of  Peder  Paars  with  Boileau's  Lutrin  and  of  Niels  Klim  with 
Swift's  Gulliver  at  once  suggests  itself. — Of  the  Norwegian  poets 
of  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  Edvard  Storm  (1749-1794) 
deserves  attention  for  the  spirit  of  native  hero-song  pervading 
his  romantic  poems,  Zinklar  and  Thorvald  Vidforle ;  and  the 
brothers  Frimann,  for  similar  qualities  in  folk  song  and  metrical 
romance  ;.C.  H.  Pram  (1756-1821),  also,  for  a  serious  epic,  the 
first  of  its  kind  in  Denmark,  entitled  Staerkodder  —  greatly 
admired  in  its  day.  The  most  distinguished  literary  artist  of 
the  end  of  the  century,  Baggesen,  contributed  nothing  to  epic 
poetry,  —  his  Comical  Tales  and  his  descriptive  Labyrinth  fall 


XIV,  B]  MODERN  SCANDINAVIAN  EPIC 

Under  other  heads.  To  his  younger  contemporary  and  rival, 
Oehlenschlager,  however,  Denmark  is  indebted  for  her  greatest 
epics  and  verse-romances :  of  the  latter  kind  the  magnificent  cycle, 
Helge  (1814);  of  the  former  the  stately  epic  cycle,  The  Gods  of 
the  North  (1819),  based  upon  the  Eddas,  and  the  epic  poems 
Hrolf  Krake  (1829)  and  Regnar  Lodbrog  (1848).  Under  a  like 
inspiration  of  Scandinavian  antiquity  Grundtvig  produced  between 
1812  and  1817  historical  poems,  the  best  of  which  are  the 
Rhyme  of  Roskilde  and  the  Saga  of  Roskilde.  At  the  same  time 
Ingemann,  in  addition  to  his  historical  romances,  was  writing 
poems  of  popular  heroic  character.  Other  writers  of  the  igth  cen- 
tury whose  poems  savor  of  epical  intent  and  style  may  readily  be 
traced  in  the  histories  of  literature.  Suffice  it  to  mention  the  most 
distinguished,  Paludan-Miiller,  whose  lyrical  epics,  The  Danseuse, 
Amor  and  Psyche,  Adonis,  are  of  ethical  moment  or  satirical 
intent,  and  whose  mock-heroic  Adam  Homo  is  a  profound  religious 
and  psychological  study  of  the  pitiable  weaknesses  of  mankind. 
Placing  such  modern  developments  as  these  of  Paludan-Miiller 
side  by  side  with  the  numerous  efforts  that  have  been  made  at  the 
epical  treatment  of  Christian  mythology,  the  student  may  profit- 
ably inquire  whether  in  the  future  the  miraculous  element  may  not 
be  discarded  without  detriment  to  the  vitality  of  the  poetic  type. 

In  Norway  as  distinct  from  Denmark  —  that  is,  since  1814  — 
the  attempts  at  epic  poetry  have  been  but  few :  Wergeland's  poem, 
lyric-dramatic  in  quality  and  epical  in  magnitude,  Creation,  Man, 
and  Messiah  (1830);  the  romantic  cycle,  The  Wedding-Journey 
of  the  King's  Daughter,  by  Munch  (1861);  the  epic  narrative, 
Storegut  (the  Big  Lad),  by  Vinje  (1866),  in  the  selectively  formed 
written  language  of  the  Landsmaal;  and  Bjornstjerne  Bjornson's 
cyclic  poem,  Arnljot  Gelline. 

XV.  The  Finnish  Epic. 

Elias  Lonnrot  first  published  his  collection  of  old  Finnish  ballads  in 
a  connected  form  of  his  own,  under  the  title  Kalevala,  in  1835  (2  vols.). 
In  1849  he  published  an  enlarged  edition  ;  in  1887  a  still  more  complete 


774  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  t§12 

text  was  published  by  A.  V.  Forsman.  —  English  translations  ha^e 
been  made  by  J.  M.  Crawford  (2  vols.  N.Y.:  1888)  and  W.  F.  Kirby 
(in  Everyman's  Lib.  Lond. :  1907);  J.  Baldwin,  The  Sampo,  Hero 
Adventures  from  the  Kalevala  (N.  Y. :  1912).  L.  le  Due  has  published 
a  French  version  under  the  title  of  La  Finlande  (2  vols.  Paris :  1 845) ; 
as  has  also  C.  E.  de  Ujfalvy  de  Mezo-Kovesd  (Paris:  1876).  For  a 
German  translation,  see  F.  A.  von  Schiefner,  Kalewala,  das  National- 
Epos  der  Finnen,  etc.  (Helsingfors :  1852).  There  is  a  Swedish  transla- 
tion by  Castren  (1841). 

The  Kalevala  is  one  of  the  most  important  documents  for  the 
historical  study  of  the  epic.  Its  significance  is  noted  under  the 
reference  to  Comparetti  given  above  (§  n). 

In  addition  to  Comparetti  the  following  authorities  should  be  con- 
sulted: C.  J.  Billson,  Folk  Songs  in  the  Kalevala  (in  Folk  Lore^ 
6:  317-352.  1895);  F.  C.  Cook,  Kalevala  (in  Contemp.  Rev.,  47  r  683- 
702.  1 885);  Crawford,  Preface  to  the  translation  noted  above;  J.  Grimm, 
Uber  das  finnische  Epos  (in  Kleinere  Schriften.  8  vols.  Berlin:  1864- 
90.  See  vol.  II,  pp.  75-113  ;  the  date  of  the  essay  is  1845);  A.  Lang, 
Homer  and  the  Epic  (see  above,  §  11);  by  the  same,  Introduction  to 
Comparetiti's  Kalevala  (see  above,  §11);  by  the  same,  Custom  and 
Myth,  pp.  156-179  (1885);  J.  Krohn  (see  above,  §  n);  J.  A.  Porter, 
Introd.  to  his  Selections  from  the  Kalevala  (1868);  W.  J.  A.  Freiherr 
von  Tettau,  Uber  die  epischen  Dichtungen  der  finnischen  Volker 
(Erfurt:  1873).  See  also  A.  Launis,  Uber  Art,  Entstehung  und  Ver- 
breitung  der  ethnisch-finnischen  Runen-Melodien  (Helsingfors:  1910). 

XVI.  Russian,  Polish,  and  Other  Epical  Materials. 

« 

"  Russia  presents  the  phenomenon  of  a  country  where  epic  song,  handed 
down  wholly  by  oral  tradition  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  is  not  only 
flourishing  at  the  present  day  in  certain  districts,  but  even  extending 
into  fresh  fields."  For  an  account  of  the  collections  of  these  songs  made 
by  Peter  Rybnikof  (1861-62)  and  A.  F.  Hilferding,  see  the  introduction 
to  Hapgood's  Epic  Songs  of  Russia.  The  study  of  Russian  epic  litera- 
ture (bardic  poems,  folk  epic)  may  begin  with  A.  Rambaud's  La  Russe 
e*pique  (see  above,  §  1 1).  The  literary  histories  of  Briickner,  Hapgood, 
Morfill,  von  Reinholdt,  Talvi,  Waliszewski  should  be  consulted  (see 
Appendix).  In  Bruckner's  work  see  pp.  8-10,  233  Heroic  Age,  the 
sagas  or  By  liny;  12-13  Igor's  Raid;  173-174  Zhukdvskiy's  spirited 
translation  of  the  Odyssey ;  1 78  ff.  Pushkin.  One  of  the  best  works  for 


XVIJ  RUSSIAN  AND  POLISH  7/5 

consultation  is  L.  Wiener's  Anthology  of  Russian  Literature  (2  vols. 
N.  Y. :  1902),  which  contains  bibliography,  historical  outlines  of  the 
literature,  and  trustworthy  translations. 

The  following  works  deal  specifically  with  the  epic :  W.  Bistrom,  Das 
russische  Volksepos  (in  Ztschr.fiir*Volkerpsychol.,  5  :  1 80  ff.,  6 :  1 32  ff. ; 
cf.  above,  §  n),  an  important  essay;  I.  F.  Hapgood,  Epic  Songs  of 
Russia  (N.Y. :  1886),  which  contains  an  introduction,  and  translations 
such  as  The  Word  of  Igor's  Troop,  The  Lays  of  the  Elder  Heroes, 
the  Cycles  of  Vladimir  and  Novgorod ;  V.  Jagic",  Die  christlich-mythol. 
Schicht  in  d.  russ.  Volksepik  (in  Archiv  fitr  slav.  Philol.,  vol.  I,  1876); 
L.  A.  Magnus,  The  Tale  of  the  Armament  of  Igor,  —  edited,  translated, 
etc.,  with  introd.  (Oxford  Press:  1915);  F.  Miklosich,  Beitrage  zur 
Kenntniss  der  slav.  Volkspoesie  (Wien:  1870);  by  the  same,  Die 
Darstellung  im  slav.  Volksepos  (Wien:  1890);  W.  R.  S.  Ralston, 
Songs  of  the  Russian  People,  etc.  (Lond. :  1872),  which  is  devoted 
more  to  lyric  than  to  epic  poems ;  by  the  same,  Russian  Folk-Tales 
(Lond.:  1873),  —  not  of  great  direct  value;  W.  Wollner,  Untersuch. 
iiber  die  Volksepik  der  Grossrussen  (Leipz. :  1879).  For  works  in 
Russian,  see  bibliography  in  Waliszewski,  Wiener,  etc. 

For  Serbian  ballads  and  other  folk  poetry,  see  Kardjich,  Pdpovich, 
Noyes  and  Bacon,  etc.,  as  mentioned  in  §  6,  xxi,  above ;  A.  Soerensen, 
noted  above,  §  1 1  ;  V.  Jagic,  Die  siidslavische  Volksepik  (in  Archiv  fur 
slavische  Philologie,  4:  192-242);  A.  Dozon,  L'e"popee  serbe,  etc. 
(Paris:  1888);  L.  A.  Frankl,  Gusle,  serbische  Nationallieder  (Wien: 
1852) ;  J.  Wiles,  Serbian  Songs  and  Poems,  etc.  (Lond. :  1917);  L.  Leger, 
Le  cycle  epique  de  Marko  Kralievitch  (Paris:  1906),  —  slight.  The 
Bohemian  epic  material  is  of  the  metrical-romance  order :  see  the 
Alexandreis,  which  is  an  adaptation  of  a  Latin  poem  by  Gaultier  de 
Chatillon.  References  on  Bohemian  literature  may  be  found  in  §  6,  xxi, 
above, 'and  below  in  the  Appendix.  See  also  L.  Leger,  Chants  heroiques 
.  .  .  des  Slaves  de  Boheme.  On  the  Hungarian,  the 'same  sections. 
The  Polish  epics  of  Adam  Mickiewicz  should  receive  notice.  His  Thad- 
deus  (Pan  Tadeusz)  and  his  Konrad  Wallenrod  may  be  found  in  English 
translations  by  Miss  Biggs  (1881-85),  and  in  French  versions  in  the 
CEuvres  poetiques  de  Mickiewicz,  by  C.  Ostrowski  (Paris:  1845);  see 
also  M.  M.  Gardner,  Adam  Mickiewicz,  the  National  Poet  of  Poland 
(Lond.:  1911);  L.  Mickiewicz,  Vie  d'Adam  Mickiewicz  (4  vols.  Posen: 
1890-95);  by  the  same,  A.  M.,  sa  vie'  et  son  oeuvre  (Paris:  1888). 
For  other  poetry  of  epic  material  see  Morfill,  Bowring,  Soboleski,  etc. 
(§  6,  xxi,  above). 


776  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

XVII.  Persian  Epics. 

For  bibliography  see  the  notes  to  T.  Noldeke's  Das  iranische 
Nationalepos  (in  vol.  II,  pp.  130-211,  of  the  Grundriss  der  iranischen 
Philologie.  Ed.  by  W.  Geiger  and  E.  Kuhn.  2  vols.  Strassburg:  1895- 
1904).  Noldeke's  article,  which  is  the  best  upon  the  subject,  is  also  ob- 
tainable in  separate  form  (same  title,  Strassburg :  1896).  On  pp.  134-135 
of  the  Grundriss,  Noldeke  writes,  in  connection  with  the  growth  of  the 
Persian  epic :  "  Wir  haben  hier,  wenn  nicht  alles  tauscht,  die  Erschei- 
nung,  welche  sich  bei  epischen  Gedichten  verschiedner  Volker  zeigt :  der 
Stoff  ist  allgemein  bekannt ;  einzelne  Stiicke  werden  daraus  kunstmassig 
bearbeitet;  aus  solchem  Material  kann  spater  durch  Zusammenpassen, 
Ausgleichen,  Weglassen  und  Umformen  ein  mehr  oder  weniger  in  sich 
geschlossenes  Gesamtepos  entstehen."  Consult  also  the  note  on  this 
passage.  Bibliographical  material  will  also  be  found  in  the  works  of 
E.  G.  Browne  and  Pizzi,  cited  in  the  Appendix. 

The  Shahnama  of  Firdawsi  "  represents  the  National  Legend 
in  its  final  form."  Begun  by  Daqiqi  for  the  Samanid  Prince  Nuh 
b.  Mansur  (A.D.  976-997),  it  was  completed  by  Firdawsi  (the 
"man  of  Paradise,"  Abu'l  Kasim  Mansur,  ^.940-1020)  in  about 
sixty  thousand  couplets.  The  poem  is  a  compilation  of  the  deeds 
of  a  long  line  of  legendary  and  historical  kings  (Shahnama  means 
Book  of  Kings),  based  upon  previous  poems,  which  in  turn  were 
based  upon  a  series  of  still  earlier  versions  of  ancient  myths  and 
legends.  The  scheme  of  such  a  work  is  obviously  more  historical 
than  epical,  suggesting  the  Hebrew  books  of  I  and  II  Samuel  and 
I  and  II  Kings.  The  Shahnama  really  contains  the  subjects  of 
many  epics,  —  such  as  the  stories  of  Jamshld,  Nariman,  Sam,  Zal, 
Rustam,  and  Suhrab.  Rustam's  deeds  are  told  at  length,  and, 
except  for  the  biographical  scope  of  the  story,  might  be  regarded 
as  an  epic  within  the  Shahnama. 

An  abridged  translation  into  English  was  published  by  James  Atkinson 
in  1832,  in  London  (The  Shdh  N£meh,  etc.  In  Pubs,  of  the  Oriental 
Translation  Fund  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland);  a  recent  version  by 
A.  G.  and  E.  Warner  is  suitable  for  the  use  of  the  student  (2  vols.  Lond. : 
1906),  as  is  also  the  version  of  A.  Rogers  (1907),  which  is  fairly  complete. 
Compare  the  paraphrase  by  Helen  Zimmern,  Epic  of  Kings,  Stories  re- 
told from  Firdusi  (Lond. :  1 882),  which  contains  an  excellent  introduction. 


XVII]  PERSIAN  EPICS  777 

There  is  a  French  translation  by  Julius  von  Mohl  (with  text  and  com- 
mentary, 7  vols.  Paris:  1838-78;  without  text,  7  vols.  Paris:  1876- 
78).  The  German  translation  of  F.  Riickert  has  been  edited  by  Bayer 
(3  vols.  Berlin:  1890-95).  A.  F.  von  Schack's  Heldensagen  des  Firdusi, 
etc.  (Stuttgart:  1877),  is  an  abridgment,  with  an  introduction.  There  is 
also  a  summary  of  the  poem,  in  romantic  style,  by  J.  Gorres  (Das  Helden- 
buch  von  Iran.  2  vols.  Berlin:  1820).  I.  Pizzi  has  made  a  complete 
translation  into  Italian  verse  (Firdusi,  etc.  8  vols.-  Torino:  1886-88), 
which  is  particularly  valuable  for  the  use  of  the  student. 

In  imitation  of  the  Shahnama  epics  on  various  heroes  were 
composed,  for  which  see  p.  1 1 2  of  P.  Horn's  work  (cited  in  the 
Appendix),  and  pp.  209,  233  ff.,  of  the  2d  vol.  of  the  Grundriss 
der  iran.  Philol.  Firdawsl  himself  composed  another  epic, — 
religious,  based  on  the  story  of  Joseph  in  the  Koran,  —  for  which 
see  Horn,  pp.  108-112,  and  the  Grundriss,  vol.  II,  pp.  229-231. 
The  title  of  this  epic  is  Yusuf  and  Zuleikha.  There  is  a  German 
translation  by  Schlechta-Wssehrd  (Jussuf  und  Suleicha,  romanti- 
sches  Heldengedicht  von  Firdusi.  Wien:  1889). 

The  student  should  also  examine  the  later  romantic  poetry,  in 
which  a  more  artificial,  artistic,  and  lyrical  manner  predominates. 
He  will  find  interest  in  comparing  these  romantic  epics  with  those 
of  the  Italian  Renaissance  and  with  the  Kavya  of  India  (see  below, 
xvin,  c).  The  chief  poet  of  this  romantic  school  was  NizamI 
(1141-1203.)  For  the  entire  movement,  and  German  translations 
of  many  of  the  poems,  see  Horn,  pp.  177-193,  and  the  Grundriss, 
vol.  II,  p.  239  ff.,  where  extended  bibliography  is  cited  (for  NizamI, 
P-  243)- 

References.  The  following  works  treat  of  the  Persian  epic  as  a  whole 
or  of  particular  periods  or  poems :  E.  G.  Browne  (for  work,  see 
Appendix),  vol.  I,  pp.  110-123,  and  Chap.  IV;  J.  Darmesteter,  Etudes 
iraniennes,  vol.  II  (2  vols.  Paris:  1883);  by  the  same,  Les  origines  de 
la  poesie  persane  (Paris:  1887);  Encyc.  Brit.,  Arts,  on  Persian  Lit. 
and  Firdousi ;  an  enlarged  edition  of  Noldeke's  contribution  to  the 
gth  ed.  of  the  Encyc.  Brit.  (Ancient  Hist,  of  Persia),  which  appeared 
at  Leipzig,  1887,  as  Aufsatze  zur  persischen  Geschichte;  H.  Elbe",  Die 
hofische  und  romantische  Poesie  der  Perser  (Hamburg  :  1 887),  —  very 
valuable  in  connection  with  the  court  and  romantic  epics  of  Italy, 


7/8  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

France,  Germany,  etc.;  K.  Geldner  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegen- 
wart,  I,  vii);  Gubernatis  (as  cited  above,  §  5);  P.  Horn,  p.  81  ff.  of  the 
work  cited  in  the  Appendix ;  S.  Johnson,  Oriental  Religion,  Persia, 
pp.  711-782  (1885);  Sir  John  Malcolm,  Hist,  of  Persia,  etc.  (2  vols. 
Lond.:  1815),  which,  together  with  C.  Markham's  Gen.  Sketch  of  the 
Hist,  of  Persia  (Lond.:  1874),  constitutes  the  chief  material  of  historical 
reference  in  English — untrustworthy,  however,  in  statement  of  fact  and 
obsolete  in  method;  T.  Noldeke,  Persische  Studien  II  (in  Sitzungsber. 
der  Kais.  Akad.  der  Wissensch.  in  Wien,  Philos.-hist.  Classe,  Bd.  126, 
1892);  I.  Pizzi,  Delia  epopea  persiana  (Torino:  1886);  also  L' epopea 
persiana  (Firenze :  1888);  also  Storia  della  poesia  persiana  (see 
Appendix);  E.  A.  Reed  (see  Appendix);  Sainte-Beuve,  The  Poet 
Firdousi,  —  the  chat  of  Feb.  II,  1850,  in  Causeries  du  Lundi  (trans. 
by  E.  J.  Trechmann.  7  vols.  Lond.:  n. d.  New  Universal  Lib.  See 
vol.1,  pp.  266-280);  F.  Spiegel,  Eranische  Alterthumskunde  (3  vols. 
Leipz.:  1871-78),  —  important  for  the  historical  and  religious  aspects 
of  Persian  life  (cf.  M.  Duncker's  Geschichte  des  Alterthums,  E.  Meyer's 
Gesch.  des  Alterthums,  and  other  standard  works  of  like  scope).  —  For 
references  on  Persian  prosody,  see  above,  §  6,  xxvi. 

XVIII.  The  Indian  Epic. 

A.  Mahdbhdrata  and  Rdmdyana. 

For  bibliography  see  the  bibliographies,  histories,  and  journals  of 
Indian  literature  cited  in  the  Appendix. 

The  Mahabharata,  with  its  anonymity  and  inordinate  length, 
with  its  kernel  of  narrative  drawn  from  original  lays,  its  later 
strata  of  didactic  material,  its  constant  self-contradiction  and 
resulting  confusion,  offers  an  ideal  example  of  the  processes 
of  growth  of  the  popular  epic.  The  Ramayana  is  an  illustration 
of  the  first  and  more  virile  form  of  the  artificial  epic,  —  sub- 
jected to  self-conscious  rules,  but  palpitant  with  an  early  heroism. 
The  later  artificial  epics  (see  below)  show  the  loss  of  the  heroic 
spirit  and  imagination,  and  the  substitution  of  fanciful  subjects 
and  clever  variations  of  diction.  The  development  of  erotic 
themes  in  these  later  epics  is  of  particular  interest  as  showing  a 
characteristic  weakening  of  the  old  heroic  strain. 


XVIII,  A]  THE  INDIAN  EPIC  779 

For  the  English  student  the  best  introduction  to  the  two  poems 
is  The  Great  Epic  of  India,  its  Character  and  Origin,  by  E.  W. 
Hopkins  (N.Y. :  1901).  In  another  work  by  the  same  author 
(India  Old  and  New.  N.  Y. :  1901)  the  present  knowledge  of 
the  origin  and  growth  of  the  two  epics  is  briefly  summarized 
as  follows : 

Various  considerations  show  that  while  the  Mahabharata  as  a  com- 
pleted whole  is  later  than  the  Ramayana,  in  origin  it  is  older.  ...  It  is 
impossible  to  assign  exact  dates  to  either  epic,  but  while  the  lays  on 
which  the  Mahabharata  was  based  probably  revert  to  a  much  older 
period,  in  its  present  shape  the  narrative  part  cannot  be  older  than 
the  second  or  third  century  B.C.,  and  its  didactic  masses  are  still  later. 
Apart  from  the  didactic  fungus  that  has  grown  upon  it,  the  great  epic 
is  derived  both  from  lays  and  dramatic  legends  (recitations),  worked 
together  by  various  revisers.  It  has  no  one  author.  The  Ramayana, 
on  the  other  hand,  is  the  work  of  a  poet  familiar  with  the  older  epic 
style,  which  he  improves  upon,  for  Valmiki  was  the  first  writer  of  what 
used  to  be  called  elegant  poetry.  The  Hindus  call  it  artistic  poetry, 
Kavya,  in  distinction  from  the  rougher  epic,  which  is  simply  Akhyana 
or  Tale  (Essay  on  Sanskrit  Epic  Poetry,  pp.  70-71). 

Translations,  (a)  Of  the  Mahabharata  :  The  entire  poem  in  English 
prose,  published  at  the  expense  of  Protap  Chandra  Roy  in  ten  large 
volumes  (Calcutta :  1 883-96) ;  Sir  E.  Arnold's  translations  of  fragments 
of  the  poem  (1881  and  1883);'  a  convenient  literal  translation  by  M.  N. 
Dutt  (5  vols.  Calcutta :  1 896),  condensed  into  verse  by  Romesh  Dutt 
(Temple  Classics  Series).  The  Episode  of  Nala  has  been  translated  by 
H.  H.  Milman  (Nala  and  Damayanti  and  Other  Poems,  1834)  and 
edited  by  Sir  Monier- Williams  (2d  ed.  Oxford:  1879;  isted.,  1876). 
Other  portions  of  the  epic  have  been  translated  by  John  Muir  (Metrical 
Translations  from  Sanskrit  Writers,  1879),  David  Price  (Last  Days 
of  Krishna,  Oriental  Trans.  Fund:  Miscell.  Trans.),  H.  H.  Wilson  (in 
Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  15),  A.  W.  Ryder  (in  Univ.  CaL  Chronicle, 
vol.  XV,  i  Drona's  Death ;  vol.  XV,  3  Simple  Deer-Horn ;  vol.  XVIII, 
3  Manu  and  the  Fish).  Other  episodes  have  appeared  in  Intemat.  Rev., 
10 :  36,  297;  Oriental  Mag.,  Dec.  1824,  March,  Sept.  1825,  Sept. 
1826;  Scribner's  Mag.,  7:  385.  For  versions  in  French,  see  E.  Pavie 
(Paris:  1 844),  fragmentary ;  A.  Sadous (Versailles :  1858),  fragmentary ; 
P.  E.  Foucaux,  Le  Mahabharata,  onze  Episodes,  etc.  (Paris:  1862); 
and  H.  Fauche  (10  vols.  Paris:  1863-70),  in  part  only.  The  German 


780  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§12 

versions  are  of  parts  of  the  poem  only;  see  F.  Bopp  (Berlin:  1829), 
A.  Holtzmann  (3  Thle.  Karlsruhe:  1845-47),  J.  H.  Becker  (1888). 
For  translations  of  particular  parts  of  the  epic,  such  as  the  Bhagavadgita, 
see  the  Catalogue  of  the  British  Museum,  under  Mahabharata.  (b)  Of 
the  Ramayana  :  A  brief  paraphrase  in  English  by  F.  Richardson,  in 
his  The  Iliad  of  the  East  (Lond. :  1870) ;  a  free  translation  into  English 
verse  by  Griffith  (Benares:  1870  +  );  and  a  prose  version  edited  by 
M.  N.  Dutt  (7  vols.  Calcutta:  1889-1894).  The  abridged  version  by 
R.  Dutt  is  in  the  Temple  Classics  Series.  For  other  translations,  in  Eng- 
lish and  other  languages,  see  the  Catalogue  of  the  British  Museum, 
under  Ramayana.  Dutt's  condensed  versions  both  of  the  Mahabharata 
and  Ramayana  are  published  in  one  volume  of  Everyman's  Library. 

References.  The  student  should  consult  the  literary  histories  of  India 
cited  in  the  Appendix.  The  following  works  deal  directly  or  indirectly 
with  the  epics ;  but  since  Sanskrit  scholarship  has  of  late  advanced 
very  rapidly,  treatises  published  before  1 890  must  be  read  with  caution  : 
A.  Baumgartner,  Das  Ramayana  und  die  Rama-Literatur  der  Inder, 
etc.  (Freiburg  i.  B. :  1 894) ;  see  the  same  author's  Geschichte  der 
Weltliteratur  (cited  in  the  Appendix);  G.  BUhler,  Indian  Studies, 
No.  II  (Sitzungsber.  der  phil.-hist.  Classe  der  Kais.  Akad.  der  Wissensch., 
Bd.  r  27.  Wien :  1 892) ;  A.  L.  Chdzy,  The'orie  du  sloka  ou  metre  he"- 
ro'ique  Sanscrit  (Paris:  1827.  For  other  references  on  metre,  see 
Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  515-516);  R.  N.  Cust,  Linguistic  and  Oriental 
Essays  (7  vols.  in  8.  Lond.:  1880-1904.  Vol.  I,  Chap.  Ill  Ramayana); 
J.  Dahlmann,  Genesis  des  Mahabharata  (Berlin:  1899.  For  a  review 
of  the  work  see  Wiener  Zeitschr.  fur  Kunde  d.  Morgenl.,  14:  51  ff., 
by  M.  Winternitz,  and  in  vol.  20  of  the  same  periodical  see  articles 
on  other  subjects  by  Winternitz  and  by  Franke,  and  in  vol.  18  an 
article  by  Hertel  on  Der  Ursprung  des  indischen  Dramas  und  Epos); 
J.  Dahlmann,  Das  Mahabharata  als  Epos  und  Rechtsbuch  (Berlin : 
1895);  F.  G.  Eichhoff,  Poe*sie  hdroique  des  Indiens  compare'e  a  Pe'pope'e 
grecque  et  romaine,  etc.  (Paris:  1860;  Lyon :  1853);  V.  Henry,  Les 
litte'ratures  de  1'Inde  (Paris:  1904),  light  and  sketchy;  A.  Holtzmann, 
Das  Mahabharata  (4  vols.  Kiel :  1892-95),  an  important  work ;  E.  W. 
Hopkins,  articles  on  the  origin  and  historical  value  of  the  epics  and 
on  epic  chronology  (in  Journ.  of  the  Amer.  Oriental  Soc.,  23:  350  ff., 
24:  7ff.);  by  the  same,  The  Religions  of  India  (Boston:  1895),  with 
which  use  Barth,  Religions  of  India  (Eng.  trans.  Lond.:  1882);  H. 
Jacobi,  Das  Ramayana,  Geschichte  und  Inhalt,  etc.  (Bonn:  1893), 
important ;  by  the  same,  an  article  in  the  Gbttinger  Gelehrte  Anzeigen, 
8 :  659  ff. ;  by  the  same,  on  the  Ramayana,  in  the  Zeitschr.  d.  deut. 


XVIII,  B]  THE   INDIAN  EPIC  78 1 

morgenl.  Gesellschaft,  48 :  407  ff. ;  A.  Ludwig,  Uber  das  Ramayana 
(Prag  :  1894) ;  A.  A.  Macdonell,  as  cited  in  the  Appendix  (pp.  281-302 
Mahabharata;  pp.  302-317  Ramayana);  J.  C.  Oman,  Struggles  in  the 
Dawn,  etc.  (Lahore:  1893);  by  the  same,  The  Great  Indian  Epics,  etc. 
(Bohn's  Lib.  Lond. :  1894);  R.  Pischel,  Die  indische  Lit.  (in  Hinne- 
berg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  I,  vii);  H.  M.  Posnett,  Comparative 
Literature,  pp.  304-309  (cf.  above,  §  n);  F.  Schlegel,  Lects.  on  the 
Hist,  of  Lit.  (English  trans.,  in  Bohn's  Lib.  Lond.:  1876.  Lect.  V); 
cf.,  by  the  same  author,  an  essay  On  the  Lang,  and  Philosophy  of  the 
Indians  (trans,  by  E.  J.  Millington,  in  Bohn's  Lib.  Lond. :  1849.  First 
German  ed.,  1808),  which  marks  the  beginning  of  Sanskrit  scholarship 
among  the  Germans ;  Sir  Monier-Williams,  Indian  Epic  Poetry  (Lond. : 
1863),  now  antiquated;  by  the  same,  Indian  Wisdom  (Lond.:  1875), 
also  antiquated,  but  both  works  are  still  important ;  also  antiquated  for 
the  most  part,  H.  H.  Wilson,  various  works,  to  be  found  in  any  good 
Sanskrit  catalogue. 

B.  The  Puranas.    The  eighteen  Puranas  are  compilations  of 
ancient  legends  and  myths  and  rules  of  worship,  closely  related 
in  subject-matter  to  the  Mahabharata.    Their  origin  and  the  exact 
nature  of  their  relation  to  the  epic  are  problematical. 

On  the  Puranas  see,  as  noted  above,  Holtzmann,  vol.  IV,  pp.  29-58 ; 
V.  Henry,  Chap.  Ill ;  and  Macdonell,  pp.  299-302,  and  445,  where 
bibliography  of  translations  will  be  found. 

C.  Later  Epic  Literature.    An  artificial  epic  court  poetry,  called 
Kavya  (see  above),  was  developed  in  India  from  about  the  third 
century  B.C.  to  the  twelfth  century  after  Christ  (on  the  Kavya 
Age, 'see  Macdonell,  p.  318  ff.).    A  beginning  of  the  artificial  epic 
had  been  made  with  the  Ramayana,  as  already  noted ;  the  unified, 
artistically  handled  theme  of  Valmiki  is  in  striking  contrast  to  the 
conglomerate  and  confused  mass  of  the  Mahabharata.   The  Kavyas, 
however,  pushed  artistic  workmanship  and  artificial  rules  to  the 
extreme.    Both  audiences  and  authors  were  interested  in  ingenui- 
ties of  style  and  conceit,  rather  than  in  heroic  matter.    It  was 
between  the  fifth  and  twelfth  centuries  after  Christ  that  the  more 
important  of  the  Kavyas  made  their  appearance,  the  best  being 
those  of  Kalidasa  (probably  of  the  fifth  century).    The  growth  of 


782  HISTORY  OF  THE  EPIC  [§  12 

lyric  and  didactic  elements  in  this  court  epic  is  of  significance  in 
the  history  of  literary  types,  and  should  be  compared  with  similar 
developments  in  French  and  German  poetry. 

A  list  of  the  minor  Sanskrit  epics  will  be  found  in  Macdonell, 
Chap.  XI,  and  pp.  446-447  (Bibliog.  Note).  Kalidasa's  Raghiivamca 
(The  Story  of  Raghu's  Line)  was  translated  into  Latin  by  A.  F.  Stenzler 
(Lond. :  1832);  into  English  by  P.  de  Lacy  Johnstone  (Lond. :  1902). 
R.  T.  H.  Griffith  has  translated  the  first  seven  cantos  of  the  same 
poet's  Kumarasambhava  under  the  English  title  The  Birth  of  the 
War-God  Kartikeya  (Lond.:  1853).  Stenzler  had  published  a  Latin 
translation  of  it  in  1838  (Lond.).  See  the  general  histories,  and 
H.  Jacobi,  Die  Epen  Kalidasa's  (in  Verhand.  d.  5.  internal.  Orientalisten- 
Kongresses,  1881,  Sect.  2,  pp.  133-156.  Berlin:  1882). 

XIX.  The  Babylonian-Sumerian  Epic. 

General  literary  and  historical  material  will  be  found  in  the  following : 
C.  Bezold,  Die  babyl.-assyr.  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, 
I,  vii);  H.  Gunkel,  Schopfung  und  Chaos  (1895)  and  Die  Schopfungsle- 
gende( 1 904);  E.  Hommel,  Geschichte  Babyloniens  und  Assyriens (Berlin : 
1885);  M.  Jastrow,  The  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (Boston: 
1898);  A.  Jeremias,  Die  babyl.-assyr.  Vorstellungen  vom  Leben  nach 
dem  Tode  (Leipz. :  1887);  L.  W.  King,  Babylonian  Religion  and  My- 
thplogy  (Lond. :  1 900)  and  the  Seven  Tablets  of  Creation  (2  vols.  1902) ; 
S.  Langdon,  Sumerian  Epic  of  Paradise,  the  Flood  and  the  Fall  of  Man 
(Univ.  of  Penn.,  Univ.  Museum,  Prtbs.  of  Babylonian  Sec.  Philadel- 
phia: 1915);  C.  P..Thiele,  Babylonisch-assyrische  Geschichte  (Gotha: 
1886-88) ;  H.  Winckler,  Geschichte  Babyloniens  und  Assyriens  (Leipz. : 
1 892).  —  Translations  of  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  lyric  and  narrative 
material  will  be  found  in  most  of  the  works  just  mentioned,  and  ih  the 
following:  Records  of  the  Past  (i  I  vols.  Lond.:  1873-78);  P.Jensen, 
Assyrisch-babylonische  Mythen  und  Epen  (Berlin:  1900);  J.  A.  Craig, 
Assyrian  and  Babylonian  Religious  Texts  (2  vols.  Leipz.:  1895-97; 
P.  Jensen,  Die  Kosmologie  der  Babylonier  (Strassburg:  1890).  For 
further  references  see  pp.  89-91  of  the  bibliography  compiled  by  I.  A. 
Pratt,  cited  below,  in  the  Appendix. 

A  very  convenient  rfsumtoi  epic  material  will  be  found  in  O.  Weber's 
Die  Literatur  der  Babylonier  und  Assyrer,  pp.  38-114  (in  Der  alte 
Orient,  vol.  If.  Leipz.:  1907).  The  epic  of  Gilgamesh  affords  the 
most  extended  narrative,  and  much  may  be  done  in  the  way  of  com- 
paring its  features  of  style  and  construction  with  those  of  other 


XX]  VARIOUS  OTHER  EPICS  783 

ancient  epics.  For  a  translation  and  commentary  see  A.  Ungnad 
und  H.  Gressmann,  Das  Gilgamesch-Epos  (Gottingen :  1911).  Weber 
gives  all  the  necessary  bibliography  for  this  and  other  epical  materials 
of  the  Babylonians.  To  his  citation  of  works  on  Gilgamesh  may  be 
added  the  interesting  study  in  the  distribution  and  history  of  the 
story  in  Jensen's  Das  Gilgamesch-Epos  in  der  Weltliteratur  (vol.  I. 
S  trassburg :  1 90  6). 

XX.  Various  Other  Epics  and  Epical  Material. 

A  Brazilian  epic,  in  Portuguese,  is  that  of  Gonzalve  de  Magalhaes, 
entitled  A  Confederagao  dos  Tamoyos  (see  Korting,  Encyk.,  1886, 
3  :  589).  The  Popul  Vuh  of  the  Quiche"  Indians  of  Guatemala  contains 
cosmogonic,  mythological,  and  historical  material.  It  was  translated  by 
Father  Ximenez  in  the  eighteenth  century.  The  epical  material  of  the 
Malays  may  be  noted  in  the  work  of  R.  Brandstetter,  Charakterisierung 
der  Epik  der  Malaien,  etc.  (Luzern:  1891);  and  Baumgartner's  history 
refers  to  their  narrative  art  on  pp.  619-620  of  the  second  volume. 
For  a  Javanese  poem  see  A.  B.  Cohen  Stuart,  Brata-Joeda,  Indisch- 
Javaansch  Heldendicht  (2  vols.  Batavia:  1860).  T.  Braga's  Epopeas 
da  raga  mosarabe  (Porto :  1871)  opens  another  little-known  field.  Little 
attention  has  been  paid  by  students  of  comparative  literature  to  Armenian 
epical  literature  (see  Baumgartner,  vol.  I,  p.  242  ff.).  V.  V.  Radloff's 
Proben  der  Volkslit.  der  tiirkischen  Stamme  (5  pts.  St.  Petersburg : 
1866-85)  throws  much  light  upon  the  development  of  folk  legends.  On 
Egyptian  story-telling,  see  F.  Petrie,  Egyptian  Tales,  First  and  Second 
Series  (i  893-95);  G.  Maspero,  Contes  populaires  de  PEgypte  ancienne, 
trad,  et  commente's  (4th  ed.  Paris :  1911),  which  includes  bibliography ; 
F.  L.  Griffith,  Stories  of  the  High  Priests  of  Memphis  (demotic  stories). 

XXI.  Folk  Poetry  and  Fairy  Tales. 

The  narrative  art  of  the  folk  tale  and  of  the  fairy  tale  may  be  studied 
in  connection  with  the  art  of  the  early  forerunners  of  the  epic  lay.  The 
animal  epic  and  fable  offer  another  field  of  investigation ;  for  list  of 
authorities  see  under  Foulet,  §  1 1 ,  above.  For  a  long  and  very  conven- 
ient list  of  works  upon  folk  poetry,  and  of  collections  of  folk  poetry, 
see  Paul's  Grundriss  der  germ.  Philol.,  2d  ed.,  2:  I,  11356°.  (Scandi- 
navian 1 1 35  ff. ;  German  and  Netherlandish  1 1 78  ff.).  Works  pertaining 
to  primitive  folk  verse  are  noted  above,  §  6,  under  xxxm  and  also  under 
the  divisions  devoted  to  the  lyrics  of  various  nationalities,  and  in  this 
section  under-  the  preceding  divisions. 


APPENDIX 

A  BRIEF  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE 
HISTORY  OF  POETRY 


CONSPECTUS 

I.  Bibliography  of  Bibliogra-  XIX. 

phies 

II.  Encyclopedias  XX. 

III.  Academic  Dissertations  » 

IV.  Literature  in  General  XXI. 

A.  Bibliography 

1.  Manuals  XXII. 

2.  Library  Catalogues 
(a)  Author  Catalogues 

(t>)  Subject  Catalogues  XXIII. 

B.  Histories 

C.  Periodicals  XXIV. 

1.  Indexes  XXV. 

2.  Bibliographies  XXVI. 

3.  List  of  Periodicals  of  XXVII. 

International  Scope          XXVIII. 
V.  Classical  Poetry  in  Gen- 
eral1 XXIX. 
VI.  Greek  Poetry 

VII.   Pagan    Greek    Poetry  of  XXX. 

Alexandrian    and    Ro-  XXXI. 

man  Periods  XXXII. 

VIII.  Greek  Christian  Poetry 

to       the       Byzantine  XXXIII. 

Period 

IX.  Byzantine  Poetry  XXXIV. 

X.  Roman  Poetry 

XI.  Latin  Christian  Poetry  XXXV. 

XII.  Modern  European  Poetry 

and  Comparative  Liter-          XXXVI. 
ature  XXXVI  {. 

XIII.  French  (including  Proven-      XXXVIII. 

Sal)  Poetry  XXXIX. 

XIV.  Italian  Poetry 

XV.  Spanish  (including   Cata-  XL. 

Ian)  Poetry 

XV a.  Spanish-American  Poetry  XLI. 

XVI.   Portuguese  Poetry  XLI  I. 
XVII.  English  Poetry 

XVIII.  American  (United  States)  XLIII. 

Poetry  XLIV. 


Celtic  Poetry  in  Gen- 
eral 

Irish  (including  Irish- 
English)  Poetry 

Scottish    and     Manx 
Poetry 

Welsh  (including 
Welsh-English) 
Poetry 

Cornish    and    Breton 
Poetry 

German  Poetry 

Dutch  Poetry 

Icelandic  Poetry 

Swedish  Poetry 

Danish-Norwegian 
Poetry 

Slavic  Poetry  in  Gen- 
eral 

Russian  Poetry 

Polish  Poetry 

Cheskian  (Bohemian) 
Poetry 

•Serbian      and     other 
South-Slavic  Poetry 

Hungarian    (Magyar) 
Poetry 

Oriental     Poetry     in 
General 

Turkish  Poetry 

Arabian  Poetry 

Persian  Poetry 

Indian   (Sanskrit  and 
Hindoo)  Poetry 

Sumerfan   and    Baby- 
lonian Poetry 

Egyptian  Poetry 

Ancient  Hebrew 
Poetry 

Chinese  Poetry 

Japanese  Poetry 


1  Under  this  -.nd  subsequent  headings  the  general  method  of  arrangement  is  as 
follows:  A.  Bibliography,  \.  General  (or  Retrospective),  2  etc.  Particular  Periods; 
B.  Histories,  i.  General,  2  etc.  Particular  Periods;  C.  Periodicals  and  Series  of 
Monographs. 

786 


A  BRIEF  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  THE 
HISTORY  OF  POETRY 

TTie  more  important  -works  are  marked  with  asterisks.    Monographs  on  lyric, 

epic,  and  allied  types  are  not  included  in  this  bibliography  ;  they  are  cited  in 

the  historical  sections  (§§  J,  6,  n,  12)  of  this  work. 

I.  Bibliography  of  Bibliographies. 

A.  Retrospective.  J.  PETZHOLD,  Bibliotheca  Bibliographica  (Leipz. :  1866). 
/  L.  VA.  ,LEE,  Bibliographic  des  bibliographies  (2  pts.  Paris:  1883.  Supple- 
ment, 1887).  /  British  Museum  Library,  List  of  Bibliographical  Works  in 
the  Reading  Room  (2d  ed.  Lond. :  1889).  /*H.  STEIN,  Manuel  de  biblio- 
graphic generale  (Paris  :  1897).  See  the  i  ith  division  (Philologie  et  belles- 
lettres)  and  the  3d  appendix  (Repertoire  des  catalogues  d'imprimes  des 
principales  bibliotheques  du  monde  entier).  In  most  respects  the  work  of 
Stein  has  superseded  the  bibliographies  of  Petzhold  and  Vallee. /*W.  P. 
COURTNEY,  Register  of  National  Bibliography,  with  a  selection  of  the  chief 
bibliographical  books  and  articles  printed  in  other  countries  (3  vols.  Lond.: 
1905-1912).  /  *R.  A.  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies:  a  descriptive  cata- 
logue of  the  works  which  register  the  books  published  in  each  country 
(Lond.:  1912), —  a  most  helpful  little  work.  The  following  sentences  from 
the  Preface  should  be  noted  by  every  student :  "  The  official,  semi-official 
and  trade  bibliographies  of  a  country  are  the  bases  of  all  bibliographical 
work.  From  them  we  learn  (imperfectly,  in  most  cases)  what  books  are 
published,  and  their  subject-indexes  give  us  the  first  instalment  of  titles 
for  our  special  bibliographies.  It  is  necessary  for  all  who  make  researches 
in  any  way  touching  the  bibliographical  field  to  become  acquainted  with 
these  most  valuable  tools,  and  in  the  following  pages  they  are  described 
for  the  first  time  at  length."  /  Another  very  helpful  work  of  similar  purpose 
and 'scope  is  the  New  York  State  Library  Bulletin  38,  "  Selected  National 
Bibliographies"  (ist  ed.,  Bulletin  7,  1900;  3d  e'd.,  No.  38,  Albany,  N.Y.: 
1915).  /*A.  B.  KROEGER,  Guide  to  the  Study  and  Use  of  Reference  Books 
(3d  ed.,  by  I.  G.  Mudge.  American  Lib.  Assoc.  Chicago:  1917).  This  little 
manual  (235  pp.)  helps  the  student  to  acquire  quickly  a  knowledge  of  the 
most  important  works  of  reference,  primarily  of  those  written  in  English, 
but  also  of  some  of  the  more  general  works  in  French  and  German.  /  For 
a  similar  work  see  New  York  State  Library  Bulletin  84,  "  A  Selection  of 
Cataloguers'  Reference  Books  in  N.Y.  State  Library"  (Albany,  N.  Y.:  1908). 

787 


788  APPENDIX  [II 

For  other  works  see  A.  G.  S.  Josephson,  Bibliographies  of  Bibliographies 
Chronologically  Arranged  (Chicago:  1901;  2d  ed.  1913;  reprinted  from 
the  Bulletin  of  the  Bibliographical  Soc.  of  America,  1910-1912,  and  the 
Papers  of  the  same  Society,  1912-1913). 

B.  Current.  For  annuals  which  record  new  bibliographies  see  the  Ameri- 
can Library  Annual  (N.  Y.,  Office  of  the  Publishers'1  Weekly :  191 1—1912  + ), 
which  succeeded  the  Annual  Library  Index  (1905-1910)  and  the  previ- 
ous Annual  Literary  Index  (1892-1904).  /  See  also  the  Bibliographic  des 
Bibliotheks-  und  Buchwesens  (Beihefte  zum  Zentralblatt  fur  Bibliotheks- 
wesen.  Leipz. :  1905  + ). 

II.  Encyclopedias. 

ERSCH  and  GRUBER,  Allgemeine  Encyklopadie  der  Wissenschaften  und 
Kiinste  (87  vols.  Leipz.:  1818-1887).  The  most  copious  German,  encyclo- 
pedia, but  not  up  to  date.  /  P.  A.  LAROUSSE,  Grand  dictionnaire  universel 
du  ig6  siecle  (15  vols.  Paris:  1866-1876,  with  two  supplementary  vols. 
in  1878,  1887-1890).  Similar  to  the  Century  Dictionary;  still  important 
and  helpful,  but  not  up  to  date.  /  Nuova  enciclopedia  italiana  (6th  ed.  2  5  vols. 
Torino:  1875-1888";  Supplement,  5  vols.,  1889-1890). /*Lagrande  encyclo- 
pedic (31  vols.  Paris:  1886—1903), —  the  standard  French  encyclopedia./ 
Diccionario  enciclopedico  hispano-americano  (28  vols.  in  29.  Barcelona : 
1887-1910).  /  Brockhaus'  Konversations-Lexikon  (i4th  ed.  17  vols.  Leipz.: 
1892-1895;  the  1908  Jubilaums  ed.was  not  revised).  Admirable  and  popular; 
brief  articles.  /  *Meyers  grosses  Konversations-Lexikon  (6th  ed.  24  vols. 
Leipz.:  1902—1912,  with  biennial  supplements).  / *Enciclopedia  universal 
ilustrada  europeo-americana  (Barcelona:  1905+).  The  standard  Spanish 
work.  /  *The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  (nth  ed.  29  vols.  Cambridge: 
1910-1911).  Replete  with  modern,  authoritative,  and  readable  articles 
which  should  always  be  consulted.  /  *New  International  Encyclopaedia 
(2d  ed.  23  vols.  N.  Y.:  1914-1916). 

III.  Academic  Dissertations. 

A.  Of  Universities  in   General.    Bibliotheque  nationale,  Catalogue  des 
dissertations  et  ecrits  academiques  provenant  des  echanges  avec  les  uni- 
versites  etrangeres  et  recus  par  la  Bibliotheque  nationale,  1883-1912  (Paris: 
1884-1914  ;  published  annually).  "  Arranged  alphabetically  by  universities. 
Useful  principally  for  universities  in  countries  for  which  there  is  no  current 
national  list.    For  French,  German  or  Swiss  theses  the  national  lists  are 
more  useful." 

B.  Of  French  Universities.    For  years  earlier  than  1884  use  A.  MAIRE'S 
Repertoire  alphabetique  des  theses  de  doctoral  es  lettres  des  universites 
fran9aises,  1810-1900  (Paris:   1903),  which  has  a  subject  index  as  well  as 
an  alphabetical   arrangement  by  authors'  names ;   also  *A.  MOURIER  et 
F.  DELTOUR'S  Notice  sur  le  doctorat  es  lettres,  suivie  du  catalogue  et  de 
1'analyse  des  theses  fran9aises  et  latines  admises  par  les  facultes  des  lettres 


IV,  A]  APPENDIX  789 

depuis  1810  (4th  ed.  Paris:  1881),  which  in  large  part  duplicates  Maire's 
Repertoire,  but  gives  a  table  of  contents  for  each  thesis ;  it  contains  in- 
dexes of  authors  and  subjects ;  continued  by  the  same  authors'  annual 
Catalogue  et  analyse  des  theses  fra^aises  et  latines,  etc.  (21  vols.  Paris: 
1882-1901.  No  more  published)./  For  theses  published  from  1884  on,  the 
best  list  is  the  official  *Catalogue  des  theses  et  cents  academiques  of  the 
Ministere  de  1'instruction  publique  et  des  beaux-arts  (Paris:  1885+). 
Published  annually,  arranged  by  universities,  with  an  author  index ;  five 
yearly  issues  make  a  volume  and  each  volume  has  indexes  of  authors 
and  subjects. 

C.  Of  German  and  Austrian  Universities .  R.  KLUSSMANN,  Systematisches 
Verzeichniss  der  Abhandlungen  welche  in  den  Schulschriften  samtlicher 
an  dem  Programmtausche  teilnehmenden  Lehranstalten  erschienen  sind, 
1876-1885,  1886-1890,  1891-1895,  1896-1900  (4  vols.    Leipz. :  1889-1903). 
See  the  same  author's  annual  bibliography  of  dissertations,  programmes, 
etc.  in  the  Berl.  philol.  Wochenschrift.  /  W.  ALTMANN,  Die  Doktordisser- 
tationen  der  deutschen   Universitaten,    1885-1890    (Berlin:    1891).  /  For 
current  bibliography  see  *G.  FOCK'S  Bibliographischer  Monatsbericht  iiber 
neu  erschienene  Schul-  und  Universitatsschriften,  1889  +  (Leipz.:  1890  +  ; 
annual  author  and  subject  indexes),  the  *Jahresverzeichniss  der  an  den 
deutschen  Universitaten  erschienenen  Schriften,  1885+  (Berlin:  1887+; 
author  index  in  each  vol. ;  separate  subject  index  for  vols.  1-5,  after  that 
included  in  each  vol.),  which  is  the  official  list,  as  is  also  the  *Jahresver- 
zeichniss  der  an  den  deutschen  Schulanstalten  erschienenen  Abhandlungen, 
1889+  (Berlin:  1890  +  ). 

D.  Of  Swiss  Universities.   Jahresverzeichniss  der  schweizerischen  Uni- 
versitatsschriften, 1897+  (Basel:  1898+). 

E.  Of  American  Universities.    *Library  of  Congress,  List  of  American 
Doctoral  Dissertations,  1912+   (Washington:    1913+).    Annual  publica- 
tion with  alphabetical  and  classified  lists  and  index  of  subjects.   See  Intro- 
duction to  Vol.  I  for  earlier  printed  lists  of  American  theses. 

F.  Of  Scandinavian    Universities.     See    Kroeger    (cited   above,  under 
I,  A)*  p.  28. 

IV.  Literature  in  General. 

A.  Bibliography. 

i.  Manuals.  G.  GEORGI,  Allgemeines  europaisches  Biicher- Lexicon,  von 
dem  Anfange  des  16.  Seculi  bis  1739  (4  pts.  in  i  vol.  Leipz.:  1742) ;  5th  pt., 
French  authors  (Leipz.:  1753) ;  Erstes  [bis  drittes]  Supplement  1739-1757 
(3  vols.  Leipz.:  1750-1758).  /  R.  WATT,  Bibliotheca  Britannica,  or  a  gen- 
eral index  to  British  and  foreign  literature  (4  vols.  Edinb. :  1824),  —  not 
always  accurate.  /  F.  A.  EBERT,  General  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  from 
the  German  of  F.  A.  Ebert  (4  vols.  Oxford:  1837).  /  *J.  C.  BRUNET, 
Manuel  du  libraire  et  de  1'amateur  de  livres  (5th  augmented  edition.  6  vols. 
Paris :  1860-1865).  Index  in  vol.  VI.  With  this  use  P.  DESCHAMPS  et 


790  APPENDIX  [IV,  B 

G.  BRUNET,  Supplement  au  Manuel  du  libraire  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1878-1880). 
These  works  contain  a  bibliography  of  rare  and  valuable  printed  books  in 
various  languages  ;  especially  rich  in  French  and  Latin  titles  and  in  books 
older  than  the  igth  century.  /  *J.  G.  T.  GRASSE,  Tresor  de  livres  rares  et 
precieux  (7  vols.  Dresden :  1859-1869.  Reprinted,  8  vols.  Paris :  1900- 
1901),  —  similar  to  Brunei,  but  with  a  greater  number  of  German  entries. 

Especially  helpful  to  the  student  of  poetry  are  the  two  handbooks  of 
*Quadrio  (1739-1752)  and  *Sulzer-Blankenburg  (1771-1774;  1796-1798), 
mentioned  above,  §  2. 

Bibliography  of  ancient  and  modern  philology  for  the  years  1848-1897 
is  contained  in  the  *Bibliotheca  Philologica  (Gottingen). 

2.  Library  Catalogues .  (a)  Author  Catalogues.  Reference  to  the  catalogues 
of  the  largest  and  oldest  libraries  is  one  of  the  best  and  readiest  means  of 
gathering  information  concerning  the  published  works  of  authors.  /  *British 
Museum  Library,  Catalogue  of  Printed  Books  (95  vols.  Lend.:  1881-1900). 
Supplement  (13  vols.  Lond.:  1900-1905).  Complete  through  1899. /*Ver- 
zeichniss  der  aus  der  neu  erschienenen  Lit.  von  der  Koniglichen  Bibliothek 
zu  Berlin  erworbenen  Druckschriften  (Berlin:  1892  +),  —  especially  help- 
ful because  it  is  issued  yearly.  /  *Catalogue  general  des  livres  imprimes 
de  la  Bibliotheque  nationale  (67+  vols.  Paris:  1897  +  ).  Vol.  67  (1917)  ex- 
tends to  Halmont.  /  *Library  of  Congress,  Depository  Catalogue.  "  Certain 
libraries  in  leading  centers  of  research  have  been  made  depositories  for  com- 
plete sets  of  Library  of  Congress  printed  cards.  By  consulting  a  depository 
set  one  may  find  out  whether  a  certain  book  is  in  the  Library  of  Congress." 

(b)  Subject  Catalogues.  One  of  the  first  steps  in  compiling  the  bibliography 
of  a  subject  is  to  consult  the  subject  index  of  a  large  library.  Among  pub- 
lished subject-catalogues  the  following  are  especially  valuable :  *British 
Museum  Library,  Subject  Index  of  the  Modern  Works  added  to  the  Library, 
1881-1900  (ed.  by  G.  K.  Fortescue.  3  vols.  Lond.:  1902-1903).  Alpha- 
betically arranged.  No  personal  names  as  headings ;  for  such  see  the 
author  catalogue.  Includes  155,000  entries.  Continued  by  five-yearly  sup- 
plements (1901-1905-.  Lond.:  1906;  1906-1910.  Lond.:  1911). /*London 
Library,  Subject  Index,  by  C.  T.  Hagberg  Wright  (Lond.:  1909). /See 
also  the  subject  indexes  or  dictionary  catalogues  of  the  Astor  Library, 
N.  Y.,  the  Boston  Athenaeum,  the  Peabody  Institute,  Baltimore,  the  Pitts- 
burgh Carnegie  Library,  etc. . 

B.  Histories.  J.  G.  T.  GRASSE,  Lehrbuch  einer  allgemeinen  Literargesch. 
aller  bekannten  Volker  der  Welt  von  der  altesten  bis  auf  die  neueste  Zeit 
(4  vols.  in  7.  1837-1859),  —  a  work  of  extraordinary  industry,  with  much 
bibliographical  material.  /  K.  ROSENKRANZ,  Die  Poesie  und  ihre  Gesch. 
(1855),  —  traces  the  development  of  the  ideals  of  beauty,  wisdom,  and 
freedom  in  the  world's  literature.  Written  by  an  Hegelian  romanticist. 
Compare  his  earlier  HaSidbuch  einer  allgemeinen  Gesch.  der  Poesie  (1832- 
1833).  /  F.  LOISE,  De  1'influence  de  la  civilisation  sur  la  poesie  (Bruxelles: 
1859;  in  Mem.  pub.  par  1'Academie  royale,  vol.  VIII  of  the  octavo 


IV,C]  APPENDIX  791 

collection),  —  an  essay,  not  a  history.  /*M.  CARRIERE,  Die  Kunst  im  Zu- 
sammenhang  der  Culturentwickelung  und  die  Ideale  der  Menschheit  (jd 
ed.  5  vols.  Leipz. :  1877-1886).  Cited  above,  §2;  a  stimulating  work./ 
G.  BORNHAK,  Lexikon  der  allgemeinen  Litteraturgesch.  (Leipz.:  1882).  A 
brief  dictionary  of  non-German  literatures.  /  *A.  DE  GUBERNATIS,  Storia  uni- 
versale  della  lett.  (18  vols.  in  23.  Milano  :  1883-1885).  Cited  above,  §  5.  / 
C.  LETOURNEAU,  L'Evolution  lit.  dans  les  diverses  races  humaines  (Paris : 
1894).  A  suggestive  but  superficial  study  of  the  beginnings  of  literature 
among  primitive  races  and  of  its  development  among  barbaric  and  civilized 
peoples  (to  the  Middle  Ages). /J.  SCHERR,  Allgemeine  Gesch.  der  Lit. 
(Stuttgart:  1850.  gth  ed.  1895), — superficial  and  prejudiced,  but  popular.  / 
*A.  BAUMGARTNER,  Gesch.  der  Weltliteratur  (4th  ed.  5  vols.  Freiburg  i.  B. : 
1901-1905).  Especially  valuable  for  the  literatures  of  the  Orient  (vols.  I, 
II);  contains  helpful  introductions  to  literatures  not  cited  in  the  present 
work,  such  as  the  Coptic,  Ethiopic,  Georgian,  Tamil,  Malayan,  Burmese, 
Thibetan,  and  Tartar.  /  G.  KARPELES,  Storia  universale  della  lett.  (4  vols. 
Milano:  1903-1907).  /  *P.  E.  F.  HINNEBERG  (editor),  Die  Kultur  der 
Gegenwart,  ihre  Entwickelung  und  ihre  Ziele  (22  vols.  Berlin :  1905- 
1914).  The  following  volumes,  of  unequal  merit  but  modern  and  authori- 
tative, are  concerned  with  the  history  of  literature :  T.  I,  Abt.  VII  Die 
Anfange  der  Lit. ;  Die  Lit.  der  primitiven  Volker ;  Die  orientalischen  Lit. 
(1906);  T.  I,  Abt.  VIII  Die  griechische  und  lateinische  Lit.  (1905);  T.  I, 
Abt.  IX  Die  osteuropaischen  Lit.  (1908) ;  T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  i  Die  romanischen 
Lit.  .  .  .  mit  Einschluss  des  keltischen  (i9O9)./*O.  HAUSER,  Weltgesch. 
der  Lit.  (2  vols.  Leipz.:  1910),  —  with  carefully  selected  bibliographies  of 
books  of  reference. 

The  histories  of  literature  by  D.  P.  NORRENBERG  (Allgemeine  Gesch.  d. 
Lit.  2d  ed.  3  vols.  Miinster:  1896)  and  A.  STERN  (Gesch.  d.  Weltlit. 
Stuttgart:  1888)  give  little  aid  to  the  specialist.  For  other  works  see 
R.  F.  ARNOLD'S  Allgemeine  Bucherkunde  (Strassburg:  1910),  pp.  42-50; 
cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  378-379. 

C.  Periodicals. 

i.  Indexes,  (a!)  General.  Bibliographic  der  f  remdsprachigen  Zeitschriften- 
literatur,  1911+  (Leipz.:  1911+  ;  being  Abt.  B  of  the  Internationale  Bib- 
liographic der  Zeitschriftenliteratur),  —  "indexes  about  2000  periodicals 
and  general  works  in  English  and  all  the  principal  foreign  languages 
except  German."  Subject  and  author  indexes. 

(b)  French  and  Belgian.  Argus  des  revues,  indicateur  universel,  contient 
des  articles  provenant  de  pres  de  1000  revues  fran9aises  et  etrangeres 
(Paris :  1880-1914).  A  bimonthly  subject  list  of  the  more  important  articles 
of  general  interest.  Discontinued  at  the  outbreak  of  war,  1914.  /  Repertoire 
bibliographique  des  principales  revues  fran5aises,  1897-1899  (3  vols.  Paris : 
1898-1900),  —  subject  and  author  indexes.  /  Bibliographic  de  Belgique: 
Sommaire  des  periodiques,  1897-1913  (17  vols.  Bruxelles:  1897-1913), 
discontinued  at  the  outbreak  of  war,  1914. 


792  APPENDIX  [IV,  C 

(c)  Italian.   Catalogo  metodico  degli  scritti  contenuti  nelle  pubblicazioni 
periodiche  italiane  e  straniere.    Parte  ia.    Scritti  biografici  e  critici  (7  vols. 
Parlamento,  Camera  dei  deputati,  Biblioteca.    Roma:  1885-1914.    Supple- 
mentary volumes  every  sixth  year).    Subject  and  author  indexes  of  the 
materials  indicated.    Vol.  I,  to  1883;  supplementary  vols.,  1884+-    See 
the  Indice  generale  a  tutto  1'anno  1906  (Roma:  1909),  covering  all  names 
through  1906. 

(d)  English  and  American.    *Poole's    Index  to   Periodical   Literature, 
l8o2-Jan.  I,   1907    (2  vols.     Boston:    1891;    supplements,   5  vols.  .1887- 
1908),  the  most  important  index  to  American  and  English  periodicals; 
subject  index  only.  /  *Review  of  Reviews,  Index  to  the  Periodicals  of 
1890-1902  (13  vols.    Lond.  and  N.  Y.:   1891-1903),  covers  many  English 
periodicals  not  indexed  in  Poole  ;  subject  index  with  some  author  entries.  / 
Annual    Literary   Index,   1892-1904   (13  vols.     N. Y.  Publishers'   Weekly: 
1893-1905),  American  and  English  periodicals,  essays,  book  chapters,  etc.; 
subject,  author,  and  other  indexes,  the  subject  index  serving  as  a  valuable 
supplement  to  Poole.  /  Cumulative  Index  to  a  Selected'List  of  Periodicals, 
1896-1903  (8  vols.    Cleveland,  Ohio :    1897-1903 ;   consolidated  with  the 
Readers'  Guide  (see  below),  July  1903),  —  "  occasionally  useful  for  material 
not  included  in  the  corresponding  volumes  of  Poole."  /  Annual  Library 
Index,  1905-1910  (6  vols.    N. Y.  Publishers'  Weekly:  1906-1911),  the  suc- 
cessor of  the  Annual  Literary  Index,  noted  above;  succeeded  (1911)  by 
the  index  noted  next ;  combined  author  and  subject  indexes  of  American 
and  English  periodicals,  essays,  book  chapters,  etc.  /  *Readers'  Guide  to 
Periodical  Literature,  1900+  (White  Plains,  N. Y.:  1905+),  a  cumulative, 
current  index  with  quinquennial  and  annual  volumes  and  monthly  lists 
cumulating  quarterly,  supplemented  by  special  volumes  containing  indexes 
to  additional  periodicals  for  the  years  1907-1915,  1913-1916;  at  first  of 
narrow  scope,  but  from  1911  on  very  extensive  and  of  admirable  arrange- 
ment. /  *Magazine  Subject-Index  (Boston  :  1908),  subject  index  of  periodi- 
cals not  listed  in  Poole,  Readers'  Guide,  or  Annual  Library  Index,  with 
special  attention  to  English  magazines ;  supplemented  by  annual  volumes, 
1908+  (8+  vols.    Boston:  1909-1916  +  )-  /*Athenaeum  Subject  Index  to 
Periodicals,  1915+  (Lond.:  1916  +  ),  preliminary  class  lists  and  annual 
volumes,  dealing  principally  with  English  and  American  periodicals  but 
also  with  some  foreign  journals. 

(e)  German.    *Bibliographie   der   deutschen    Zeitschriftenliteratur,   mit 
Einschluss  von  Sammelwerken,  1896+  (Leipz. :   1897  +  ),  published  semi- 
annually ;    not  cumulative ;    subject  and  author  indexes ;    later  volumes 
covering   about   3000  periodicals.     Eight  Erganzungsbande   (1908-1915) 
carry  the  indexing  back  to  1885. 

(f)  Danish,  Dutch,  Norwegian,  Russian.    See  KROEGER,  pp.  9,  10. 

(g)  Book  Reviews.    Book  Review  Digest,  1905+   (White  Plains,  N.  Y. : 
1905  + ),  "  A  digest  and  index  of  selected  book  reviews  in  over  fifty  English 
and   American   periodicals,  principally  general   in   character;    from  the 


IV,  C]  APPENDIX  793 

public  library  point  of  view,  less  useful  in  the  college  or  university  library ; 
monthly,  with  semi-annual  and  annual  cumulations."  /  ^Bibliographic  der 
Rezensionen,  mit  Einschluss  von  Referaten  und  Selbstanzeigen  (Leipz. : 
1901  +  ),  very  extensive  (about  3000  German  and  2000  other  periodicals), 
and  useful  in  the  university  library. 

2.  Bibliographies.    Since  the  periodicals  with  which  the  literary  student 
is  concerned  are  for  the  most  part  enumerated  under  the  divisions  below,  ' 
it  is  sufficient  at  this  place  to  refer  the  student  to  the  bibliography  of 
periodicals    (General,    American,    English,    French,    German,    Russian, 
Swedish,  and   Swiss)   listed  in   Kroeger,  pp.  16-19  and   (publications  of 
learned  societies)   29-31.    Concerning  Spanish   periodicals  of  the   igth 
century  the  patient  student  may  gather  information  in  M.  OSSORIO  Y 
BERNARD'S  Ensayo  de  un  catalogo  de  periodistas  espanoles  del  siglo  XIX 
(Madrid:  1903);  more  helpful  is  *D.  E.  HARTZENBUSCH'S  Apuntes  para 
un  catalogo  de  periodicos  madrilenos  desde  el  ajjo  1661  al  1870  (Madrid: 
1894)- 

3.  Short  List  of  Periodicals  of  International  Scope,    (a.)  French.   ^Journal 
des  savants  (Paris :   1665  +  ;  J.  Tissier,  Table  analytique  du  Journal  des 
savants,   1859-1908.    Paris:    1909),  —  reviews;   invaluable  as  a  record  of 
the  chief  works  of  French  literature  since  1665.  /  Mercure  de  France  (Paris : 
1672  + ),  —  radical,  unacademic.  /  Hist,  de  rAcademie  royale  des  inscriptions 
et  belles-lettres,  etc.  (Paris:  1717-1843),  and  Memoires  presentes  par  divers 
savants  a  I'Acadtmie  des  inscriptions  et  belles-lettres  de  rinstitut  imperial  de 
France  (1844  +).  /  Hist,  et  memoires  de  rinstitut  royal  de  France  (Paris: 
1815  +  ;  later,  Memoires  de  rinstitut  national  de  France).  /  *  Revue  des  deux 
mondes  (Paris:  1829+),  —  the  chief  of  French  periodicals.  /  Academie  des 
inscriptions  et  belles-lettres,  comptes  rendus  des  stances   (Paris:    1858 +)./ 
Revue  bleue  (Paris :  1863  + ), —  political  and  literary.  /  * Revue  critique  d'hist. 
et  de  litt.  (Paris:  1866  +  ),  —  critical  reviews,  bibliography.  /  Annales  de  la 
faculte  des  lettres  de  Bordeaux  (Bordeaux:    1879-1894,  /  then,  Revue  des 
universites  du  midi,  1895-1898,  /  then,  Revue  des  etudes  anciennes,  1899, 
and   Bulletin   italien,    1901  +)•  /  *  Revue   des   cours  et  conferences   (Paris: 
1892  +),  —  reviews  of  the  lectures  of  the  most  prominent  French  savants. 

(b)  Italian.   *Nuova  antologia  di  scienze,  lettere  ed  arti  (Firenze,  Roma : 
1866+ ),  continuation  of  Antologia  (Firenze:  1821-1833).  /  Fanfulla  della 
domenica  (Roma:   1879  +  ).  / La  rassegna  nazionale  (Firenze  :  1879  +  ). 

(c)  English.   *The  Gentleman's  Magazine  (Lond.:   1731-1907),  —  an  in- 
valuable record  of  contemporary  opinion  of  works  of  English  literature.  / 
*  The  Monthly  Review  (Lond.:  1749-1845).  /  The  Quarterly  Review  (Lond.: 
i8o9  +  )./7%<?  Edinburgh  Review  (Edinb. :    1814  +  ).  /* Black-wood's  Edin- 
burgh Review,  later,  Magazine  (Edinb.:  1817 +  )./  The  Westminster  Review 
(Lond.:  1824  +)./  The  Foreign  Quarterly  Review  (Lond.:  1827-1847).  /*The 
Athenaum  (Lond. :  1828  + ).  /Eraser's  Magazine  (Lond. :  1830-1882).  /  The 
Spectator  (Lond.:    1832+).  /  The  Dublin   University  Magazine  (Dublin: 
1833-1880).  /*The  Dublin  Review  (Lond.:  1836  +  ).  /  The  North  British 


794  APPENDIX  [V,  A 

Review  (Edinb.,  Lond.:  1844-1871). /*The British  Quarterly  Review  (Lend.: 
1845-1886).  /  Notes  and  Queries  (Lond. :  1850  + ),  —  a  medium  of  communi- 
cation between  students.  /  London  Quarterly  Review  (Lond. :  1853  + ).  /  The 
National  Review  (Theobald,  etc.  Lond.:  1855-1864)  (not  to  be  confused 
with  the  political  National  Review  (Allen  &  Co.,  Lond.:  1883+),  which 
has  little  of  literary  interest).  /  The  Saturday  Review  (Lond.:  1855  +  )./ 
Macmillan's  Magazine  (Lond.:  1859-1907).  /  *The  Cornhill  Magazine 
(Lond.:  1860 +  )./  Temple  Bar  (Lond.:  1860-1906).  /  *The  Fortnightly 
Review  (Lond.:  1865  +  )./* The  Contemporary  Review  (Lond.:  1866 +  )./ 
*The  Academy  (Lond. :  1869  + ).  /  The  Scottish  Review  (Lond. :  1882  +)./  The 
New  Review  (Lond.:  1 889  -i  897 )./ Folk-Lore  ( Lond.:  i89O  +  )./  The  English 
Review  (Lond.:  i()o&+).  /  *TJte  British  Review  (Lond.:  1913+). 

Most  of  the  English  Reviews  contain  excellent  constructive  criticism  of 
works  of  English  and  foreign  literature. 

(d)  American   (United  ^States).     The  Eclectic  Magazine  of  foreign  Lit., 
Science  and  Art  (N.Y.:  1 844-1 907 )./* The  Nation  (N.Y.:  1865  +  ).  /  The 
Princeton  Review,  later,   The  New  Princeton  Revino-(R.\.:  1878-1888).  / 
*TheDial  (Chicago:  1880  +)•  /  The  Critic  (N.  Y.:  1881-1906).  /  The  Forum 
(N.  Y. :  1886  +  )•  /  The  Open  Court  (Chicago  :  1887  + ).  /  Journal  of  American 
Folk-Lore  (Boston,  etc. :  1888  + ).  /  Poet  Lore  (Philadelphia,  Boston :  1889  + ). 
/  The  Arena  (Boston:  1890—1909).  /  The  Sewanee  Review  (Sewanee,  Tenn. : 
1892  +  ).  /  The    Yale  Review   (Boston:    1893  +  ).  /  77ie  Bookman    (N.Y.: 
1895+).  /  *The  International  Monthly,  later,  Quarterly  (Burlington,  Vt., 
N.  Y.:  1900-1906).  /  The  South  Atlantic  Quarterly  (Durham,  N.C.:  1902  +). 
l*The  Mid-West  Quarterly  (N.Y.:   1913+).  /  The  New  Republic  (N.Y.: 
1914+). 

(e)  German.  *Giittingische  gelehrte  Anzeigen  (Gb'ttingen,  Berlin  :  1753  +  5 
continuation  of  Gbttingische  Zeitungen  von  gelehrten  Sachen,  1739-1853), 
—  reviews  of  learned  works  in  all  fields.  /  Sokrates,  formerly  Zeitschr.  fiir 
das  Gymnasialwesen   (Berlin:    1847  +  ).  /  Zeitschr.  fur  die  osterreichischen 
Gymnasien   (Wien:   1850  +  )-  /  Zeitschr.  fiir  Volkerpsychologie  und  Sprach- 
wissenschaft  (1860-1890),  —  especially  valuable  for  the  student  of  the  epic 
and  early  narrative  poetry.  /  Das  literarische  Echo  (Berlin :  1898  + ),  —  belle- 
tristic.  /  Neue  philologische  Rundschau  (Gotha  :    1904-1908),  —  reviews./ 
See  also  the  more  popular  magazines,  such  as  Detitsche  Revue  (1875+), 
Deutsche  Rundschau   (1874  +  ),  Die   Gegenwart  (1871+),  Die   Grenzboten 
(1841+),  Nord  und  Siid  (1877  +  ),  Die  Nation  (1882+).  /  See  also  the 
Lit.  Centralblatt  and  the  Deutsche  Literaturzeitung,  noted  below,  XXIV,  c. 

V.  Classical  Poetry  in  General. 

A.  Bibliography  (editions  and  collections,  translations,  literary  history, 
and  criticism). 

I.  General.  For  an  account  of  the  history  of  classical  philology,  see 
SIR  JOHN  SANDYS'  Hist,  of  Classical  Scholarship  (3  vols.  Vol.  I,  from 
the  6th  cent.  B.C.  to  the  end  of  the  Middle  Ages,  2d  ed.  Cambridge: 


V,  C]  APPENDIX  795 

1906;  vols.  II,  III,  to  the  i8th  and  igth  cents.  1908) ;  for  a  brief  account, 
the  article  Classics  in  the  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.  /  *S.  REINACH'S  Manuel 
de  philologie  classique  (2d  ed.,  with  a  bibliography  for  the  years  1884- 
1904.  Paris :  1904)  and  E.  HUBNER'S  Bibliographic  der  klassischen  Alter- 
tumswissenschaft,  Grundriss  zu  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Geschichte  und 
Encyklopadie  der  klassischen  Philologie  (ad  ed.  Berlin :  1889)  contain 
convenient  lists  of  the  more  important  titles. 

2.  1700-1878.    *W.  ENGELMANN,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Classicorum 
(8th  ed.   2  vols.   Leipz. :  1880-1882),  —  confused,  uncritical,  indispensable. 

3.  1878-1896.   *R.  KLUSSMANN,  Bibliotheca  Scriptorum  Classicorum  et 
Graecorum  et  Latinorum  (in  Bursian's  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte 
der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft:  Greek  writers,  vols.  146, 151.  Leipz.: 
1909-1911 ;  Latin  writers,  vols.  156-165.    1912-1913),  —  an  excellent  work. 

4.  Later  years  and  current.    *BURSIAN'S  Jahresbericht,  just  mentioned 
(1873+),  which  includes  a  Bibliotheca  Philologica  Classica  (1874 +  )./ 
*  Berliner  philologische   Wochenschrift  (Berlin,  etc.:    1881-1882+),  which 
also  includes  a  Bibliotheca  Philologica  Classica  (1887  +  ).  /*  Wochenschrift 
fur  klassische  Philologie  (Berlin :   1884  + ).  /  Bulletin  bibliographique,  etc., 
du  Musee  beige  (Louvain:  1898  +  ). 

B.  Encyclopedias,  Histories.    A.  BOECKH'S  Encyclopadie  und  Methodo- 
logie  der  philologischen  Wissenschaften  (2d  ed.,  edited  by  R.  Klussmann. 
Leipz.:  1886)  is  compendious  and,  although  antiquated  in  many  respects, 
still  valuable  both  for  bibliographical  aid  and  for  Boeckh's  remarks  on  the 
poetic  kinds  and  their  evolution  (cf.  Gayley  and  Scott,  pp.  13,  213,  and 
Index).  /  In  *PAULY-\VISSOWA'S  Real- Encyclopadie  der  classischen  Alter- 
tumswissenschaft (n  vols.    Stuttgart:  1894-1914)  are  some  of  the  most 
authoritative  articles  on  types,  periods,  and  authors. 

The  histories  of  Greek  and  Roman  literature  conjointly  considered  (for 
lists  see  Boeckh,  Encycl.  und  Method.,  2d  ed.,  p.  747  ;  Schanz,  Gesch,  d. 
rom.  Lit.,  3d  ed.,  i :  i,  p.  7)  are  of  little  importance. 

C.  Periodicals.    Rheinisches  Museum  fur  Philol.  (Bonn,  etc. :   1827  +)./ 
Neue  Jahrbiicher fur  Philol.  und  Paedagogik  (Leipz. :  1831-1897),  continued 
as  Neue  Jahrbiicher  fiir  das  klassische  Altertum,  etc.  (Leipz.:  1898+).  / 
*Philologus  (Gottingen :   1846  +).  /  *  Revue  de  philol.,  de  lift,  et  d'hist.  an- 
ciennes  (Paris:   1845  +  ),  containing  the  valuable  *Revtie  des  revues,  —  brief 
resumes  of  the  classical  reviews.  /Mnemosyne  (Leyden:  1852).  /Jahrbiicher 
fiir  classische  Philol.  (Leipz.:   1855-1903).  /  *Hermes   (Berlin:   1866 +  )./ 
*tte  Journal  of  Philology  (Lond. :  1868  + ).  /  Transactions  and  Proceedings 
of  the  American  Philological  Association  (Hartford,  Conn.,  Boston :  1869  +  \ 
—  in  greater  part  devoted  to  the  classics,  but  including  articles  on  modern 
literature.  /  Rivista  difilologia  (Torino  :  1873  + ).  /  Wiener  Studien,  Zeitschr. 
fiir  class.  Philol.  (1879  +  )•  /  *  American  Journal  of  Philol.  (Baltimore,  etc.: 
1880 +  ).  /* Classical  Review  (Lond.:   1887  +  ).  /  Studi  'italiani  di  filologia 
classica  (Firenze:  1893  +  ).  /  *Classtcal Journal  (Chicago:  1905 ;  +  ).  /*Classi- 
cal  Philol.  (Chicago  :   1906  + ).  /  *  Classical  Quarterly  (Lond. :   1907  + ). 


796  APPENDIX  [VI 

Among  the  collections  of  monographs  mention  may  be  made  of  the 
LeipzigerStudienzurclassischen  Philol.  (1878-1902), / Philol.  Untersuchungen 
(1880-1912),  /  Berliner  Studien  fur  dassische  Philol.  und  Archaeol.  (1883- 
1898) ;  and  the  classical  series  of  the  following  universities  :  Berlin,  Bres- 
lau,  California,  Cambridge,  Chicago,  Cornell,  Erlangen,  Halle,  Harvard, 
Leipzig,  Manchester,  Michigan,  Oxford,  Wien,  etc.  (see  Catalogue  of  the 
British  Museum  Library,  under  Academies). 

VI.  Greek  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography. 

1.  Retrospective.    *J.  A.  FABRICIUS,  Bibliotheca  Graeca  (i4vols.    1705- 
1728.    Ed.,  G.  C.  Harless,   12  vols.     Hamburg:    1790-1809,  incomplete; 
index,  1838).  This  great  bibliography  of  manuscripts,  texts,  notices,  mono- 
graphs, etc.,  covering  the  entire  range  of  Greek  literature  down  to  the  fall 
of  Constantinople  (1453))  is  "founded,  so  far  as  possible,  on  a  first-hand 
knowledge  of  every  edition  quoted,  and  it  has  supplied  the  basis  for  all 
subsequent  histories  of  Greek  literature.   The  350  quarto  pages,  assigned 
to  Homer  alone,  include  indices  to  all  the  authors  cited  in  the  scholia 
and  in  Eustathius."   Only  the  advanced  student  will  make  use  of  it.  /  For 
most  practical  purposes  *P.  MASQUERAY'S  little  handbook,  Bibliographic 
pratique  de  la  lit.  grecque  des  origines  &  la  fin  de  la  periode  romaine 
(Paris:  1914),  is  very  helpful./  So  also  is  *L. -LAURAND'S  Manuel  des 
etudes  grecques  et  latines,  Fasc.  II,  Lit.  grecque  (Paris  :  1914). 

2.  Current.    See  above,  v,  A,  4. 

B.  Histories.    H.  ULRICI,  Gesch.  der  hellenischen  Dichtkunst  (2  vols. 
Berlin:  1835).  /  G.  BERNHARDY,  Grundriss  der  griech.  Lit.  (2  pts.    Halle: 
1836-1845;  5th  ed.  of  vol.  I,  by  R.  Volkmann,  1892;  3d  ed.  of  vol.  II,  2d 
impression,  1880).    Bernhardy  was  a  student  and  follower  of  F.  A.  Wolf, 
for  whom  see  above,  §n./K.  O.  MULLER,  Hist,  of  the  Lit.  of  Ancient 
Greece  (3  vols.    Translated  from  the  German  manuscript  by  G.  C.  Lewis 
and  J.  W.  Donaldson,  1840-1842;   completed   by  Donaldson,  1858;   ist 
German  ed.    2  vols.    Breslau :  1841;  4th  German  ed.,  by  E.  Heitz,  1882- 
1884).  /  W.  MURE,  Critical  Hist,  of  the  Lang,  and  Lit.  of  Ancient  Greece 
(5  vols.    Lond. :  1850-1857;  2d  ed.   4  vols.,  to  Alexander,  omitting  drama 
and  oratory,  1859).  /  T.  BERGK,   Griech.   Literaturgesch.   (Berlin:  1872- 
1887;  vols.  II,  III,  ed.  by  G.  Heinrichs;  vol.  IV,  by  R.  Peppmuller).  / 
R.  NICOLAI,  Griech.  Literaturgesch.  in  neuer  Bearbeitung  (3  vols.    Magde- 
burg:  1873-1878;  with  addition  of  Byzantine  literature,  i  vol.,  1883).  / 
*J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  Hist,  of  Classical  Greek  Lit.  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1880 ;  4th  ed. 
!9°3)-  /  K.  SITTL,  Gesch.  der  griech.  Lit.  bis  auf  Alexander  den  Grossen 
(3  vols.    Miinchen:  1884-1887).  /  *A.  and  M.  CROISET,  Hist,  de  la  litt. 
grecque  (5  vols.    Paris:  1887-1899;  -2d  enlarged  ed.    1896-1901;  3d  ed. 
i9io  +  )./*W.  VON  CHRIST,  Gesch.  der  griech.  Lit.  bis  auf  die  Zeit  Jus- 
tinians  (1889;    5th  ed.,  revised  by  O.  Stahlin   and  W.  Schmid,  3  vols. 
Miinchen :  1908-1913 ;  being  Bd.  VII  of  I.  von  Muller's  Handb.  d.  klass. 


IX]  APPENDIX  797 

Altertums-Wissenschaft),  —  authoritative,  recent,  standard,  with  bibliog- 
raphy ;  the  best  work  for  the  student. 

Of  the  smaller  histories  the  following  are  most  useful.  T.  S.  PERRY, 
Hist,  of  Greek  Lit.  (N.  Y. :  1890).  /  *R.  C.  JEBB,  The  Growth  and  Influence 
of  Classical  Greek  Poetry  (Lond. :  1893).  /  G.  MURRAY,  A  Hist,  of  Ancient 
Greek  Lit.  (Lits.  of  the  World,  ed.,  E.  Gosse.  N.  Y. :  1897).  /  *F.  B.  JEVONS, 
Hist,  of  Greek  Lit.  (3d  ed.  1900).  /  H.  N.  FOWLER,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Greek 
Lit.  (N.  Y.:  1902). /A.  and  M.  CROISET,  Manuel  d'hist.  de  la  litt.  grecque 
(1900.  English  trans,  by  G.  F.  Heffelbower.  N.  Y.:  1904).  /  L.  WHIBLEY 
(ed.),  A  Companion  to  Greek  Studies  (2d  ed.  Camb. :  1906). /*E.  BETHE, 
Die  griechische  Poesie,  in  A.  Gercke  and  E.  Norden,  Einleitung  in  die 
Altertumswissenschaft,  Bd.  I  (Leipz. :  1910).  /  Greek  Lit,  A  Series  of 
Lectures  delivered  at  Columbia  University  (N.  Y.:  1912).  /  *U.  VON 
WiLAMOWixz-MoELLENDORFF  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, 
3d  ed.  1912). 

C.  Periodicals.  To  the  list  given  above,  v,  c,  may  be  added  the 
Revue  des  etudes  grecques  (Paris  :  1888  + ),  containing  monographs,  current 
bibliography,  etc. 

VII.  Pagan  Greek  Poetry  of  the  Alexandrian  and  Roman  Periods. 

A.  Bibliography.    See  above,  under  v  and  vi ;  also  SUSEMIHL,  as  noted 
below.    MASQUERAY  and  LAURAND  are  helpful. 

B.  Histories.   G.  BERNHARDY  (1836-1845)  and  R.  NICOLAI  (1873-1878), 
cited  above,  vi,  B.  /  *A.  COUAT,  La  poesie  alexandrine  sous  les  premiers 
Ptolemees  (Paris:  1882). /J.  P.  MAHAFFY,  Greek  Life  and  Thought  from 
the  Age  of  Alexander  to  the  Roman  Conquest  (Lond. :  1887).  /  *W.  SCHMID, 
Der  Atticismus  (5  vols.    Stuttgart:   1887-1897). /*F.  SUSEMIHL,  Gesch. 
der  griechischen  Lit.  in  der  Alexandrinerzeit  (2  vols.   Leipz.:  1891-1892).  / 
*L.  HAHN,  Rom  und  Romanismus  im  griechisch-romischen  Osten  (Leipz.: 
1906).  /  *W.  VON  CHRIST  (1908-1913),  *A.  and  M.  CROISET  (1900  etc.),  and 

U.  VON  WlLAMOWITZ-MOELLENDORFF  (igi2),  cited  above,  VI^B./C.  CESSI, 

La  poesia  ellenistica  (Bari:  1912). 

VIII.  Greek  Christian  Poetry  to  the  Byzantine  Period. 

A.  Bibliography  and  Histories.    G.  KRUGER,  Gesch.  der  altchristlichen 
Lit.  in  den  ersten  drei  Jahrhunderten  (Freiburg:   1895).  /  P.  BATIFFOL, 
Anciennes  litteratures  chretiennes,  I  La  litt.  grecque  (4th  ed.  Paris:  1901 )./ 
O.  BARDENHEWER,  Les  Peres  de  1'figlise,  leur  vie  et  leurs  osuvres  (French 
trans.,  3  vols.  2d  ed.  Paris:  1905;  3d  German  ed.   I  vol.  Freiburg:  1910). / 
See  also  MASQUERAY  and  LAURAND,  cited  above,  vi,  A. 

B.  Periodicals.    See  BATIFFOL,  p.  337. 

IX.  Byzantine  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.  See  above,  under  vi ;  also  KRUMBACHER  and  the 
periodicals  noted  below. 


798  APPENDIX  [X 

B.  Histories.  G.  BERNHARDY  (1836-1845),  K.  O.  MULLER  and  J.  W.  DON- 
ALDSON (1858),  and  NICOLAI  (1883),  cited  above,  vi,  B.  /*K.  KRUMBACHER, 
Gesch.  der  byzantinischen  Lit.  527-1453  (2d  ed.    Mtinchen :  1897;  being 
Bd.  IX,  Abt.  i  of  I.  von  Miiller's  Handb.  d.  klass.  Altertums-Wissenschaft). 
An  admirable  work ;   in  places,  perhaps,  somewhat  one-sided,  as  in  its 
account  of  Byzantine  drama.    It  contains  ample  bibliographies,  prefixed 
and  appended  to  the  work  as  a  whole  as  well  as  to  a  great  variety  of 
names,  periods,  and  topics.  /  For  brief  accounts  by  the  same  authority  see 
*Byzantine  Lit.  (under  the  article  Greek  Lit.)  in  the  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. 
(1910),  and  the  proper  section  in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart  (T.  I  : 
Abt.  8,  3d  ed.    1912). 

C.  Periodicals.    *Die  byzantinische  Zeitschrift  (Leipz. :   1892  +)•/  Vizan- 
tijskij  vremennik  (Petrograd  :  1894  +  )•  /  Byzantinisches  Archiv  (1898  +  )• 

X.  Roman  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography. 

1.  Retrospective.   *J.  A.  FABRICIUS,  Bibliotheca  Latina  (Hamburg:  1697, 
—  classical  period  only;    revised  ed.    3  vols.     1721-1722;   also,  2  vols. 
Venezia :  1728,  which  is  better  than  J.  A.  Ernesti's  ed.,  3  vols.  in  2,  Leipz.: 
1773-1774).    This  work  was  extended  by  Fabricius'  Bibliotheca  Latina 
Mediae  et  Infimae  Aetatis  (5  vols.   1734;  supplement  by  Schbttgen,  1746; 
also,  ed.  by  Mansi,  Padova :  1754;  also,  6  vols.  in  3,  Firenze :  1858-1859). 
This  great  work  is  similar  in  scope  and  method  to  Fabricius'  .Bibliotheca 
Graeca,  described  above,  vi,  A,  i./ For  small  handbooks  see  J.  E.  B.  MAYOR, 
Bibliographical  Clue  to  Latin  Lit.,  edited  after  Dr.  E.  Hiibner  (Lond.: 
1875);  E.  W.  E.  HiiBNER,  Grundriss  zu  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  rbmische 
Littgesch.  (4th  ed.    Berlin:  1878).  /  Particularly  convenient  are  the  biblio- 
graphical notes  in  the  literary  histories  of  BERNHARDY,  TEUFFEL,  and 

*SCHANZ. 

2.  Current.    See  above,  v,  A,  4. 

B.  Histories.   J.  C.  F.  BAHR,  Gesch.  der  rbmischen  Lit.  (1828;  4th  ed. 
3  vols.    1868-1870;  with 'three  supplementary  vols.:  Christian  poets  and 
historians,  1836,  2d  ed.  1872  ;  Christian  theologians,  1837 ;  Carolingian  Age, 
1840).  /  G.  BERNHARDY,  Grundriss  der  romischen  Lit.  (Halle:  1830;  5th  ed. 
Braunschweig:  1872),  —  Hegelian  tendency;  an  attempt  to  view  the  litera- 
ture in  relation  to  national  character  and  culture.  /  *T.  MOMMSEN,  Romische 
Gesch.  (3  vols.     1854-1856),  —  see  the  sections  on  literature.  /  *W.  S. 
TEUFFEL,  Gesch.  der  romischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1870;   5th  ed.,  revised  by 
L.  Schwabe,  1890;  6th  ed.,  ed.  by  W.  Kroll  and  F.  Skutsch,  vol.  II,  1910; 
English  trans.,  Hist,  of  Roman  Lit.,  by  G.  C.  W.  Warr,  2  vols.    Lond.: 
1891-1892).  /*G.  A.  SIMCOX,  A  Hist,  of  Latin  Lit.  from  Ennius  to  Boethius 
(2  vols.    Lond.:   1883).  /  *O.  RIBBECK,  Gesch.  der  romischen  Dichtung 
(3vols.  Stuttgart:  1887-1892;  vols.  I,  II,  2ded.   1 894-1900).  /  *M.  SCHANZ, 
Gesch.  der  romischen  Lit.  bis  zum  Gesetzgebungswerk  des  Kaisers  Justinian 


XI]  APPENDIX  799 

(4  pts.,  in  various  editions.  Miinchen  :  1890-1914;  being  Bd.  VIII  of 
I.  von  Miiller's  Handb.  d.  klass.  Altertums-Wissenschaft),  —  authoritative, 
recent,  standard ;  with  bibliography.  /  *C.  LAMARKE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  latine 
(8  vols.  Paris:  1901-1907),  —  to  the  end  of  the  Augustan  Age. 

Of  the  smaller  histories  the  following  may  be  mentioned.  *W.  Y.  SELLAR, 
The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Republic  (3d  ed.  Oxford  :  1889) ;  *by  the  same, 
The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age  (Oxford:  1892),  Horace  and  the 
Elegiac  Poets  (i892)./*E.  NAGEOTTE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  latine  jusqu'au 
VIe  siecle  de  notre  ere  (5th  ed.  Paris:  1894). / TYRRELL,  Latin  Poetry 
(Lond.:  1895). /*C.  T.  CRUTTWELL,  Hist,  of  Roman  Lit.  to  the  Death  of 
M.  Aurelius  (6th  ed.  Lond.:  1898),  —  an  admirable  guide.  /*].  W.  MACKAIL, 
Latin  Lit.  (3d  ed.  Lond.:  1899).  /  M.  PATIN,  Etudes  sur  la  poesie  latine 
(4th  ed.  2  vols.  Paris:  1900).  /  H.  E.  BUTLER,  Post-Augustan  Poetry 
(Oxford:  1909),  —  Seneca  to  Juvenal.  /  H.  N.  FOWLER,  Hist,  of  Roman 
Lit.  (N.  Y.:  1909). /  F.  PLESSIS,  La  poesie  latine  (Paris:  1909),  —  from 
Livius  Andronicus  to  Rutilius  Namatianus.  /  *J.  W.  DUFF,  A  Lit.  Hist, 
of  Rome  from  the  Origins  to  the  Close  of  the  Golden  Age  (2d  ed.  Lond.: 
1910).  /  E.  NORDEN  (in  Bd.  I,  1910,  of  Gercke  and  Norden  as  cited  above, 
vi,  B,  2d  paragraph,  under  E.  Bethe)./*J.  E.  SANDYS  (ed.),  A  Companion 
to  Latin  Studies  (Camb.  Univ.:  1910),  — a  valuable,  concise  account  of 
Roman  culture  in  general ;  see  Chap.  VIII,  Poetry,  by  A.  W.  Verrall  and 
W.  C.  Summers.  /  ZOELLER-MARTINI,  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  der  romischen 
Lit,  —  to  the  end  of  the  sth  century  (vol.  I,  1910).  /  F.  LEO  (in  Hinne- 
berg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  3d  ed.  1912).  /  R.  PICHON,  Hist,  de  la 
litt.  latine  (sthed.  Paris:  1912).  /  *M.  S.  DIMSDALE,  Hist,  of  Latin  Lit. 
(N.Y.:  1915). 

C.  Periodicals.    See  above,  v,  c. 

XI.  Latin  Christian  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.    See  J.  A.  FABRICIUS,  Bibliotheca  Latina  Mediae  et 
Infimae  Aetatis,  as  noted  above,  x,  A,  i ;  the  references  above,  v,  A,  4 ; 
and  the  histories  noted  below,  especially  those  of  KRUGER,  MANITIUS, 
EBERT,  GROBER,  HARNACK,  SCHANZ,  and  BAHR. 

B.  Histories.  For  works  by  J.  C.  F.  BAHR  (1836,  1872^  *TEUFFEL  (1870, 
1910),  BERNHARDY  (1872),  *SCHANZ  (1890-1914),  and  NORDEN  (1910), 
see  above,  x,  B;  for  works  by  DONALDSON  (1864),  *£BERT  (1874-1889), 
*MANITIUS  (1891,  1911),  CRUTTWELL  (1893),  *HARNACK  (1893,  1897), 
*KRUGER  (1897),  *BAUMGARTNER  (1900),  *TAYLOR  (1901),  BARDENHEWER 
(1902),  *GROBER  (1902),  and  *KER  (1904),  see  above,  §  12,  iv;  for  *PAUL 
(1900),  see  above,  §  5.    See  also  P.  MONCEAUX,  Hist.  litt.  de  1'Afrique 
chretienne  depuis  les  origines  jusqu'a  1'invasion  arabe  (4  vols.    1901-1912) ; 
*H.  JORDAN,  Gesch.  der  altchrist.  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1911). 

C.  Periodicals.     See  above,  v,  c ;    also   Texte  und  Untersuchungen  sur 
Gesch.  der  altchrist.  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1883+). 


800  APPENDIX  [XII,  A 

XII.  Modern  European  Poetry  and  Comparative  Literature. 

A.  Bibliography. 

1.  General.    See  above,  I ;  IV,  A. 

2.  To  1500.    For  bibliographies  of  early  printed  books  and  incunabula 
see  the  references  to  Hain,  Copinger,  Reichling,  Burger,  Mattaire,  Panzer, 
Pellechet,  Proctor,  Pollard,  etc.  in  A.  B.  KROEGER'S  Guide  to  the  Study 
and  Use  of  Reference  Books  (3d  ed.,  by  I.  G.  Mudge.    Chicago:  1917. 
Pp.  175-176);  or  see  R.  A.  PEDDIE'S  *Fifteenth-Century  Books,  a  Guide 
to  their  Identification  (Lond. :  1913)  and  *Conspectus  Incunabulorum,  an 
Index  Catalogue, of  Fifteenth-Century  Books  (2  pts.    Lond.:  1910-1913). 

3.  Since  1300.    See  below,  under  the  various  European  nations  ;  also  the 
periodicals  mentioned  under  c,  below,  many  of  which  contain  valuable 
reviews.    Particularly  valuable  for  current  bibliography  and  reviews  of 
works  (books,  monographs,  articles  in  periodicals,  etc.)  on  Romance  and 
Germanic  philology  and  literature  is  the  * Literaturblatt  fur  germanische 
und  romanische  Philologie  (Leipz. :   1880  + ). 

4.  Comparative  Literature.   J.  BLANC,  Bibliographic  italico-fra^aise  uni- 
verselle,  ou  catalogue  methodique  de  tous  les  imprimes  en  langue  fr.  sur 
1'Italie  ancienne  et  moderne,  1475-1885  (2  vols.    1886). /*L.  P.  BETZ,  La 
litterature  comparee,  essai  bibliographique  (Strasbourg:  1900.    2d  ed.  by 
F.  Baldensperger.    1904),  —  lists  of  critical  and  historical  works  on  the 
literary  interrelation  of  the  chief  modern  European  nations,  including  a 
section  on  Greek  and  Roman  antiquity  and  the  Orient  as  represented  in 
the  literatures  of  France,  England,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain;  arranged 
by  nations  and  subjects.  /  *A.  L.  JELLINEK,  Bibliographic  der  vergleichenden 
Literaturgeschichte  (Berlin:  1903),  —  covers  the  year  from  the  middle  of 
1902  to  the  middle  of  1903 ;    publication  discontinued.  /  L.   M.   PRICE, 
English  >  German  Literary  Influences,  Bibliography  and  Survey,  Part  I 
Bibliog.  (in  Univ.  of  Calif .  Pubs.  Mod.  Philol.,  9:  i-m.   Berkeley:  1919). 

B.  Histories. 

I.  General.  *QuADRlo  (1739-1752)  and  *SuLZER-BLANKENBURG  (1771- 
I7745  1796-1798),  —  noted  above,  .§2./J.  G.  EICHHORN,  Allgemeine 
Gesch.  der  Kultur  und  Lit.  des  neueren  Europa  (2  vols.  1796-1799).  / 
*F.  BOUTERWEK,  Gesch.  der  Poesie  und  Beredsamkeit  seit  dem  Ende  des 
13.  Jahrh.  (12  vols.  Gottingen :  1801-1819;  with  a  I3th  vol.  on  Spanish 
lit.,  by  E.  Brinckmeier,  1850),  —  containing  much  independent  research 
and  dealing  originally  and  suggestively  with  the  prose  both  of  knowledge 
and  of  power  as  well  as  with  poetry.  /  J.  C.  L.  SIMONDE  DE  SISMONDI,  Hist, 
de  la  litt.  du  midi  de  1'Europe  (4  vols.  Paris :  1813 ;  Eng.  trans,  by  T.  Roscoe, 
2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Bohn,  1846).  /  C.  SCHLOSSER,  Gesch.  des  18.  Jahrh.  (Heidel- 
berg :  1823  ;  cf.  his  Weltgeschichte,  Frankfurt:  1815-1824),  —  one  of  the 
first  attempts  to  show  the  relation  of  literature  to  the  development  of 
institutions,  customs,  and  ideas.  /  *H.  HALLAM,  Introd.  to  the  Lit.  of 
Europe  in  the  isth,  i6th,  and  i7th  Centuries  (4  vols.  1837-1839),  —  one 
of  the  most  successful  attempts  at  a  general  history  of  literature.  It  must, 


XII,  B]  APPENDIX  801 

of  course,  be  checked  at  every  step  by  reference  to  the  results  of  later 
research,  but  it  is  judicious  in  its  interpretation  of  books  and  authors, 
showing  little  inclination  to  sweeping  generalization.  See  the  preface  for 
an  account  of  previous  works  of  similar  scope  (Possevin  1593,  Morhof 
1688,  Andre  1782-1799,  etc.).  /*H.  HETTNER,  Literaturgesch.  des  18.  Jahrh. 
(3  pts.  in  5  vols.  Braunschweig  :  1856-1870;  4th,  5th,  6th  eds.,  1893-1912  ; 
Pt.  I  England,  II  France,  III  Germany),  —  an  indispensable  guide  to  the 
literary  movements  of  the  i8th  century  in  relation  to  religious,  philosoph- 
ical, and  political  backgrounds.  /  *G.  VOIGT,  Die  Wiederbelebung  des 
klassischen  Altertums  oder  das  erste  Jahrh.  des  Humanismus  (1859;  3d  ed., 
by  M.  Lehnert,  2  vols.,  1893),  —  a  standard  work. /*G.  BRANDES,  Haupt- 
strdmungen  der  Lit.  des  19.  Jahrh.  (Danish  original,  lectures  at  the  Univ. 
of  Copenhagen,  1871  +  ;  German  trans,  by  Strodtmann,  4  vols.  1872- 
1876;  a  later  rev.  ed.  begun  by  Brandes  as  Die  Lit.  des  19.  Jahrh.  in 
ihren  Hauptstromungen  dargestellt,  Leipz. :  1882-1891 ;  Eng.  trans.,  6  vols., 
N.Y.:  1901-1905;  vol.  I  Emigrant  Lit.,  II  Romantic  School  in  Germany, 
III  Reaction  in  France,  IV  Naturalism  in  England,  V  Romantic  School 
in  France,  VI  Young  Germany),  —  a  most  spirited  work,  distinguished  by 
a  political  and  philosophical  radicalism.  /  *A.  EBERT,  Allgemeine  Gesch. 
der  Lit.  des  Mittelalters  im  Abendlande  bis  zum  Beginne  des  n. 'Jahrh. 
(3  vols.  Leipz.:  1874-1887;  2ded.,  vol.  I,  1889;  French  trans,  by  J.  Ayme- 
ric,  etc.,  3  vols.  Paris :  1883-1889),  —  a  standard  work,  now  supplemented 
and  corrected  by  the  works  of  Manitius,  Kriiger,  and  Grober  mentioned 
above,  under  xi,  B.  /  J.  DEMOGEOT,  Hist,  des  litts.  etrangeres  considerees 
dans  leurs  rapports  avec  le  developpement  de  la  litt.  fran9aise  (2  vols. 
Paris:  1880),  —  on  the  influence  of  Italian,  Spanish,  English,  and  German 
literatures  on  the  literature  of  France.  /  A.  STERN,  Gesch.  der  neueren 
Lit.  (7  vols.  Leipz.:  1882-1885),  —  from  the  I4th  to  the  last  quarter  of  the 
igth  century./  For  other  titles  see  GAYLEY  and  SCOTT,  pp.  378-379. 

The  best  conspectus  in  English  is  contained  in  the  series,  *Periods  of  Eu- 
ropean Lit,  edited  by  G.  Saintsbury  (12  vols.  N.  Y. :  1897-1907),  containing 
the  following  volumes  :  *The  Dark  Ages,  by  W.  P.  Ker  (1904) ;  *The  Flour- 
ishing of  Romance  and  the  Rise  of  Allegory,  by  ,G.  Saintsbury  (1897) ;  *The 
Fourteenth  Century,  by  F.  J.  Snell  (1899) ;  *The  Transition  Period,  by  G.  G. 
Smith  (1900);  *The  Earlier  Renaissance,  by  G.  Saintsbury  (1901) ;  *The 
Later  Renaissance,  by  D.Hannay(  1 898);  *The  First  Half  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  by  H.  J.  C.  Grierson  (1906) ;  *The  Augustan  Ages,  by  O.  Elton 
(1899) ;  *The  Mid-Eighteenth  Century,  by  J.H.Millar  (1902);  *The  Roman- 
tic Revolt,  by  C.  E.  Vaughan  (1907);  *The  Romantic  Triumph,  by  T.  S. 
Omond  (1900) ;  *The  Later  Nineteenth  Century,  by  G.  Saintsbury  (1907). 

2.  Romance  Literatures.  *G.  KORTING,  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie 
der  romanischen  Philologie  mit  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  des  franz.  und 
ital.  (4  pts.  in  2.  Heilbronn :  1884-1888). /*G.  GROBER,  Grundriss  der 
romanischen  Philologie  (2  vols.  in  4.  Strassburg:  1888-1902),  —  authori- 
tative, standard ;  with  the  most  important  bibliography. 


802  APPENDIX  [XII,  C 

For  a  suggestive  essay  see  F.  LOISE,  De  Pinfluence  de  la  civilisation  sur 
la  poesie ;  1'Italie  et  la  France,  precedees  d'une  etude  sur  la  poesie  en 
Europe  dans  les  premiers  siecles  du  christianisme  et  aux  temps  barbares 
(Bruxelles:  1862;  in  Mem.  de  PAcademie  royale  de  Belgique,  vol.  XIV 
of  the  octavo  collection;  for  other  parts  of  the  same  work  see  above,  iv,  B, 
and  below,  xv,  B). 

3.  Germanic  Literatures.  *H.  PAUL,  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philo- 
logie  (2  vols.  Strassburg:  1891-1893;  2d  ed.  3  vols.  in  4.  1900-1909; 
3d  ed.  5  +  vols.  1911  +  ,  —  not  yet  advanced  to  the  sections  on  history  of 
literatures;  see  vol.  II  of  the  ist  and  ad  editions), — standard,  authoritative, 
accurate ;  with  bibliography. 

C.  Periodicals  and  Series  of  Monographs. 

1.  General.   *Archiv  fur  das  Studium  der  neueren  Sprachen  und  Litera- 
tiiren,  —  often  cited  as  Herrig's  Archiv  (Braunschweig :   1846  + ).  /  *Litera- 
turblatt  fur  germanische  und  romanische  Philologie  (Heilbronn:   1880 +  ), 
—  reviews  of  books  and  articles.  /  *Publications  of  the  Modern  Language 
Assoc.  of  America  (Baltimore  and  Cambridge,  Mass.:   1884  +  ).  /* Modem 
Language  Notes  (Baltimore:  1885  + ).  /  *Zeitschriftfiirvergleichende  Littera- 

*  turgesch.  (1887—1910).  /  Berliner  Beitrdge  zur germanischen  und romanischen 
Philologie  (Berlin:  1893 +  )./  Die  neueren  Sprachen  (Marburg  i.  H.:  1894 +  )./ 
Forschungen  zurneueren  Litteraturgesch.  (Miinchen,  etc. :  1896  + ).  /  Studien 
zur  vergleichenden  Litteraturgesch.  (Berlin  :  1901-1909). /  *Modem  Philology 
(Chicago :  1903  + ).  /  Untersuchungen  zurneueren  Sprach-  und Literaturgesch. 
(Bern,  Leipz. :  1903-1912).  /  Breslauer  Beitrdge  zur  Literaturgesch.  (Leipz.: 

•  1904  + ).  /  *Studi  medievali  (Torino :  1904  + ).  /  *  Modern  Language  Review 
(Cambridge,  Eng.:  igo$  +  )./*Studi di  filologia  moderna  (Catania:  1908  +  ). /. 
* Germanisch-romanische  Monatsschrift  (Heidelberg:  1909  + ).  /  Consult  also 
the  references  given  above,  iv,  c,  3. 

See  also  the  publications  in  modern  philology  of  many  universities, 
such  as  Harvard  (Studies  and  Notes  in  Philol.  and  Lit.,  1892  +  ;  Studies 
in  Comparative  Lit.,  1910  +),  Yale,  the  universities  of  Pennsylvania, 
Illinois,  California,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Colorado,  North  Caro- 
lina, etc. 

2.  Romance  Literatures.  Revue  des  langiies  romanes  (Montpellier:  1870  +  ), 
— much  material  on  Proven9al  poetry.  /* Romania  (Paris:  1872  +)./  Rivista 
di  filologia  romanza  (Imola:   1872-1876),  succeeded  by  Giornale  di  filologia 
romanza  (Roma,  etc.:  1878—1882),  succeeded  by  Studj  di  filologia  romanza 
(Roma,  etc.:   1884-1903),  succeeded  by  Studj  romanza  (Roma  :  1903  +  )•/ 
Romanische  Studien  (Strassburg:  1875-1895).  /*  Zeitschrift  fiir  romanische 
Philologie  (Halle.-  1875  +  ),  with  bibliographical  supplements  of  unequal 
value.  /  Ausgaben  und  Abhandlungen  aus  dem  Gebiete  der  romaniscken  Philo- 
logie (Marburg:  1882  + ).  /  * Romanische  Forschungen  (Erlangen  :  1883  + ).  / 
*Kritischer  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der  romanischen   Philologie 
(Miinchen  und  Leipz. :  1892  + ),  bibliography  and  reviews.  /  Gesellschaft  fiif 
romanische  Lit.  (Dresden:   1903  +  ).  /  *  Romanic  Review  (N.  Y. :  1910  +  ), 


XIII,  A]  APPENDIX  803 

covering  the  period  to  the  end  of  the  i6th  century.  /  Harvard  Studies  in 
Romance  Languages  (Cambridge  :  191 5  +  )•  /  Also  publications  in  Romance 
philology  of  other  universities  of  America  and  Europe. 

3.  Romance  and  English   Literatures.     *Jahrbuch  fiir  romanische  und 
englische  Literatur  (Berlin :  1859-1876),  —  with  bibliography  and  reviews.  / 
*Miinchener  Beitrdge  zur  romanischen  und  englischen  Philologie  (Erlangen 
und  Leipz. :  1890  +  ). 

4.  Germanic  Literatures.    *Quellen  und  Forschungen  zur  Sprach-  und 
Culturgesch.  der  germanischen  Vblker  (Strassburg:    1874  +  ),  —  a  series  of 
monographs.  /  *Jahresberichte  iiber  die  Erscheinungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der 
germanischen  Philologie  (Berlin,  etc.:  1880  + ),  —  an  excellent  bibliographical 
journal,  with  brief  reviews  of  the  more  important  works.  /  Ada  Germanica, 
Organ  fur  deutsche  Philologie  (Berlin  :  1889  + ),  —  a  series  of  monographs.  / 
*Joumal  of  Germanic  Philology  (Bloomington,  Ind.,  U.S.A.:  1897  +  ;  from 
Sept.  1903  under  the  title  Journal  of  English  and  Germanic  Philology)./ 
*Palaestra,  Untersuchungen  und  Texte  aus  der  deutschen  und  englischen 
Philologie  (Berlin:    1898  +  ),  —  monographs.  /  Teutonia,  Arbeiten  zur  ger- 
manischen Philologie  (Konigsberg  i.   Pr. :    1902  +).  /  *Revue  germanique 
(Paris:   1905  +). 

See  also  the  Columbia  University  Germanic  Studies  (N.Y.:  1902  +)  and 
other  similar  publications  of  American  and  European  universities. 

XIII.  French  (including  Provencal)  Poetry.  , 

A.  Bibliographies. 

1.  General.    For  national  bibliographies  see  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliog- 
raphies, pp.  9-10;  /N.   Y.  State  Library  Bulletin  38,  "Selected  National 
Bibliographies,"  pp.  26-30. 

2.  Medieval.    G.  BRUNET,  La  France  litt.  au  i5e  siecle,  ou  catalogue 
raisonne  des  ouvrages  en  tout  genre  imprimes  en  langue  fran9aise  jusqu'i 
1'an  1500  (Paris:  1865).  /  H.  L.  D.  WARD,  Catalogue  of  Romances  in  the 
Dept.  of  MSS.  in  the   British   Museum   (3  vols.     Lond.:    1883-1910).  / 
G.  RAYNAUD,  Bibliographic  des  chansonniers  fran9ais  des  XIIIe  et  XIVe 
siecles,  comprenant  la.  description  de  tous  les  manuscrits,  la  table  des 
chansons  classees  par  ordre  alphabetique  de  rimes  et  la  liste  des  trouveres 
(2  vols.    Paris:  1884). /  C.  CHABANEAU,  Les  biographies  des  troubadours 
.  .  .  et  la  liste  alphabetique  de  tous  les  poetes  ou  auteurs'proven9aux  dont 
les  noms  ont  ete  conserves  jusqu'i  la  fin  du  1 5e  siecle  (new  ed.   Toulouse  : 
1885),  —  with  bibliography.  /  C.  WAHLUND,  Livres  proven9aux  rassembles 
.  .  .  et  offerts  a  la  Bibliotheque  de  1'Universite  d'Upsala  (Upsala :  1892).  / 
J.  BEDIER  and  M.  ROQUES,  Bibliographic  des  travaux  de  Gaston  Paris 
(Paris :   1904).  /  *L.  FOULET,  Bibliography  of  Medieval  French  Lit.  for 
College   Libraries   (Yale  Univ.   Press:  1915),  —  a  compact,  convenient 
guide. 

3.  The  z6th  Century.  Les  bibliotheques  fran9oises  de  La  Croix,  Du  Maine 
et  de  Du  Verdier,  Sieur  de  Vauprivas  (new  ed.  by  Rigoley  de  Juvigny. 


804  APPENDIX  [XIII,  A 

6  vols.  Paris  :  1772-1773).  /  See  also  reference  No.  53  in  Lanson's  Manuel. 
"The  1 6th  century  in  France,  as  in  nearly  every  other  country,  is  the 
worst  period  for  the  bibliographer"  (PEDDIE). 

4.  The  ibth  and  ijth  Centuries.    C.  SOREL,  Bibliotheque  fran9aise  (1644; 
2d  ed.    Paris  :  1667),  —  titles,  without  dates. 

5.  The  ijth  Century.  *F.  LACHEVRE,  Bibliographic  des  recueils  collectifs 
de  poesies  publics  de  1597  a  1700  (3  vols.  and  Suppl.    Paris  :  1901-1905).  / 
See  also  Lanson,  No.  56  and  Suppl.  56. 

6.  The  i8th  Century.    J.  S.  ERSCH,  La  France  litt.,  1771-1796  (3  vols. 
Hamburg:  1797-1798  ;  with  two  supplements,  carrying  the  bibliography  to 
1805). /J.  M.  QUERARD,  La  France  litt.  (10  vols.   1827-1839;  Suppl.,  2  vols. 
1854-1864),  —  from  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  century  to  1826. 

7.  The   igth   and  2oth   Centuries,     (a)   Retrospective.    J.   M.   QUERARD, 
MAURY,  LOUANDRE,  et  BOURQUELOT,  La  litt.  fran9aise  contemporaine,  1827- 
1849  (6  vols.    Paris:  1842-1857).  /  P.  CHERON,  Catalogue  general  de  la 
librairie  fr.  au  ig6  siecle,  1800-1855  (3  vols.   Paris:  1856-1859),  —  includes 
works  not  given  in  Querard  or  Lorenz ;  discontinued  after  the  letter  D.  / 
*G.  VICAIRE,  Manuel  de  1'amateur  de  livres  du  ige  siecle,  1801-1893  (7  vols. 
Paris:   1894-1910;   a  supplement,  1894-1900,  and  a  subject  index  have 
been  announced),  —  traverses  approximately  the  same  period  as  Lorenz, 
but  gives  more  information  about  fewer  titles.  /  A.  LAPORTE,  Bibliographic 
contemporaine,  hist.  litt.  du  ig6  siecle  (6  vols.    Paris:  1884-1889),  —  with 
special  reference  to  rare  books ;  arranged  by  authors  and  not  carried 
beyond  Hat.  /  H.  LE  SOUDIER,  Bibliographic  franchise  (10  vols.    2d  ed. 
Paris:  1900);  *Deuxieme  serie —  especially  valuable  (vol.  I,  1900-1904, 
Paris:  1908;  vol.  II,  1905-1909,  Paris:  1911),  —  covers  books  and  annuals; 
continued  by  the  annual  indexes  of  the  Memorial  de  la  librairie  fra^aise.  / 
*E.  BLANC  and  H.  VAGANAY,  Repertoire  bibliographique  des  auteurs  et 
des  ouvrages  contemp.  de  langue  fr.  ou  latine,  etc.  (Paris :  1902).  /  *H.  P. 
THIEME,  Guide  bibliographique  de  la  litt.  franchise  de  1800  a  1906  (Paris: 
1907),  —  an  incomplete  but  valuable  list   of  authors   and  first  editions. 
Under  each  author  is  a  list  of  references,  —  biographical,  critical,  etc. 

For  an  attempt  to  arrange  the  poets  of  the  igth  and  2oth  centuries  by 
schools  see  a  table  prefixed  to  R.  FEDERN'S  Repertoire  bibliographique  de 
la  litt.  fr.  des  origines  a  1911  (Leipz. :  1913). 

(b)  Retrospective  and  Current.  *Bibliographie  de  la  France,  ou,  journal 
general  de  rimprimerie  et  de  la  librairie  (Paris:  1811+),  —  weekly  notices 
of  current  publications,  supplemented  by  annual  indexes,  alphabetical  and 
analytical.  /  *O.  LORENZ,  Catalogue  general  de  la  librairie  fra^aise  depuis 
1840  (25  +  vols.  Paris  :  1867  +  ), —  an  inclusive  list,  published  periodically, 
of  current  literature  from  1840  on ;  a  double  arrangement  by  authors 
and  subjects  facilitates  reference.  /  Bibliographic  de  Belgique  (Bruxelles: 
1876  +  ), —  fortnightly  notices  of  current  publications;  annual  author  and 
subject  index.  /  Catalogue  mensuel  de  la  librairie  fra^aise,  1876  + 
(Paris:  1876  +  ).  /  *Bibliotheque  nationale,  Bulletin  mensuel  des  recentes 


XIII,  B]  APPENDIX  805 

publications  franfaises  (since  1882).  /•  Memorial  de  la  librairie  franfaise, 
1910+  (Paris:  1910  +  ),- — supplements  Le  Soudier,  noted  above,  (a); 
weekly,  with  monthly'and  annual  indexes. 

See  also  the  periodicals  listed  below,  c,  and  in  Lanson's  Manuel  (noted 
just  below),  Nos.  295-328,  Suppl.  No.  322. 

8.  Belles-Lettres.  The  student  of  literature,  however,  is  largely  inde- 
pendent of  these  general  bibliographies  because  he  has  in  *G.  LANSON'S 
Manuel  bibliographique  de  la  litt.  fra^aise  moderne,  1500-1900  (5  vols. 
Paris:  1909-1914),  a  most  admirable  guide  and  repository.  For  general 
bibliographies,  retrospective  and  current,  see  vol.  I,  pp.  4,  5  ff.,  23  ff.,  and 
supplements  in  vol.  V ;  for  general  histories  and  collections,  I,  26  ff.,  30  ff ., 
and  supplements  in  vol.  V ;  for  bibliography  of  special  periods  and  move- 
ments, including  histories,  monographs,  editions  of  writers,  etc.,  see  the 
rest  of  the  work.  No  student  of  French  literature  can  afford  to  neglect 
this  most  clear  and  satisfactory  manual.  /  For  earlier  similar  works,  but  far 
narrower  in  scope,  see  C.  FRIESLAND,  Wegweiser  durch  das  dem  Studium 
der  franz.  Sprache  und  Lit.  dienende  bibliog.  Material  (Gb'ttingen :  1897); 
A.  SCHULZE,  tjber  einige  Hilfsmittel  franz.  Bibliog.  (in  Herrig's  Archiv, 
vol.  99.  1897) ;  E.  G.  W.  BRAUNHOLTZ,  Books  of  Reference  for  Students  and 
Teachers  of  French  (Lond. :  1901).  /  See  also  the  bibliographical  notes 
in  many  of  the  histories  of  the  literature,  especially  those  of  PETIT  DE 

JULLEVILLE,  WRIGHT,  BRUNETIERE  (Manuel),  GROBER,  and  KoRTING. 

First  editions:  J.  LE  PETIT,  Bibliographic  des  principales  editions 
originales  des  ecrivains  fran$ais  du  15*  au  i8e  siecle  (Paris:  1888). 

B.  Histories. 

i.  General.  *Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  (1733  +  ;  new  ed.,  vols.  I-XII  edited 
by  Paulin  Paris,  34+  vols.  Paris:  1865-1914+), —  begun  by  the  Benedic- 
tines of  Saint- Maur  and  continued  by  members  of  the  Institut;  the  most 
extensive  attempt  at  writing  the  history  of  French  literature.  The  work 
begins  with  the  Gauls  before  the  Christian  era ;  the  34th  vol.  brings  the 
history  into  the  i4th  century.  /  *D.  NISARD,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  (Paris: 
1844-1861;  I7th  ed.,  4  vols.  1883).  /  J.  DEMOGEOT,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr. 
(Paris:  1852;  many  later  eds.;  28th  ed.  1899).  /  H.  VAN  LAUN,  Hist,  of 
French  Lit.  (3  vols.  N.Y. :  1876-1877). /*F.  BRUNETIERE,  Etudes  critiques 
sur  1'hist.  de  la  litt.  fr.  (various  vols.,  1880-1907), —  valuable  studies  in 
many  fields.  /  *G.  SAINTSBURY,  Short  Hist,  of  French  Lit.  (Oxford  :  1882  ; 
7th  ed.  1917).  /*V.  ROSSEL,  Hist.  litt.  de  la  Suisse  romande  des  origines  a 
nos  jours  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1889-1891).  /  P.  GODET,  Hist.  litt.  de  la  Suisse  fr. 
(Paris  :  1890).  /  E.  LiNTiLHAC,  Precis  hist,  et  critique  de  la  litt.  fr.  (2  vols. 
Paris:  1890),  —  convenient  for  ready  reference  and  concise  bibliographical 
information.  /  *G.  LANSON,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  (1894,  and  many  later  eds.; 
1 2th  ed.  Paris:  1912), —  the  best  of  the  shorter  histories. /*L.  PETIT  DE 
JULLEVI-LLE  (editor),  Hist,  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litt.  fr.  (8  vols.  Paris: 
1896-1899), —  a  standard  work,  though  the  chapters,  written  by  different 
authorities,  are  of  unequal  merit.  /  *E.  DOWDEN,  Hist,  of  French  Lit. 


806  APPENDIX  [XIII,  B 

(Lond.:  1897), —  contains  a  short  list  (pp.  429—436)  of  monographs  on 
the  various  types  in  French  literature ;  furnishes  an  excellent '  introduc- 
tion for  the  student  whose  acquaintance  with  French  letters  is  slight.  / 
*F.  BRUNETIERE,  Manuel  de  1'hist.  de  la  litt.  fr.  (Paris:  1898;  English 
trans,  by  R.  Derechef,  1898), —  with  brief  bibliographical  footnotes  that 
are  very  helpful ;  general  arrangement  somewhat  difficult,  but  nevertheless 
one  of  the  handiest  of  French  handbooks  on  the  subject.  /  R.  DOUMIC, 
Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  (i6th  ed.  Paris:  1900;  26th  ed.  1911), —  clear  and 
concise.  /  fi.  FAGUET,  Hist  de  la  litt.  fr.  (6th  ed.  2  vols.  Paris :  1900 ; 
English  trans.,  A  Lit.  Hist,  of  France,  Lond.:  1907). /*H.  SUCHIER  and 
A.  BiRCH-HiRSCHFELD,  Gesch.  der  franz.  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1900;  2d  ed.  2  vols. 
19I3)-/G.  PEL'LISSIER,  Precis  de  1'hist.  de  la  litt.  fr.  (Paris:  1902),  —  clear 
and  concise.  /  *F.  BRUNETIERE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  classique,  1515-1830 
(4  vols.  Paris:  1904-1917),  —  "continued  after  the  author's  death  by 
friends  and  pupils,  the  work  being  revised  by  M.  Cherel  under  the 
supervision  of  Rene  Doumic."/  L.  CLARETIE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.,  900-1900 
(2d  ed.,  etc.  5  vols.  Paris  :  1905-1912),  —  anecdotic  and  gossiping.  /  A.  L. 
KONTA,  Hist,  of  French  Lit.  (N. Y. :  1910),  —  divided  according  to  types; 
readable  and  popular.  /  *C.  H.  C.  WRIGHT,  Hist,  of  French  Lit.  (1912), — a 
valuable  handbook  ;  with  bibliographical  appendix. 

2.  Medieval.  ].  J.  AMPERE,  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  avant  le  i2e  siecle 
(3  vols.  Paris:  1839-1840;  vols.  I~II  entitled  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France  avant 
Charlemagne ;  3d  ed.  1870).  /  J.  V.  LE  CLERC  and  E.  RENAUD,  Hist.  litt.  de 
la  France  au  i4e  siecle  (2d  ed.  2  vols.  1865).  /  W.  BESANT,  Studies  in 
Early  French  Poetry  (Lond.:  1868), —  dealing  in  the  main  with  the  I5th 
century.  /  *K.  BARTSCH,  Grundriss  zur  Gesch.  der  provenzalischen  Lit. 
(Elberfeld:  1872  ;  new  ed.  in  preparation).  For.  other  works  on  Provenfal 
poetry,  see  above,  p.  208  ff.  /  A.  FRANKLIN,  Dictionnaire  des  noms,  surnoms 
et  pseudonymes  latins  de  1'hist.  litt.  du  moyen  age,  iioo  a  1530  (Paris: 
1&75)-  /  M.  C.  AUBERTIN,  Hist,  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age 
(1876.  2d  ed.  2  vols.  Paris:  1883).  /  *G.  KORTING,  Encyclopadie  und 
Methodologie  der  romanischen  Philologie  (3  vols.  and  Supplement  in 
2  vols.  Heilbronn:  1884-1888).  /  *G.  PARIS,  La  poesie  du  moyen  age 
(2  vols.  Paris:  1885-1895;  vol.  I,  5th  ed.;  II,  3d  ed.  1903-1906), — 
miscellaneous  essays. /*G.  GROBER,  Grundriss  der  romanischen  Philologie 
(2  vols.  Strassburg:  1888-1897;  2d  ed.  1897-1906;  see  vol.  II,  pt.  i,  for 
Latin  and  French  lit,  by  Grober;  vol.  II,  pt.  ii,  for  Proven9al  lit,  by 
A.  Slimming), — an  admirable  foundation;  bibliography.  / *G.  PARIS,  Ma- 
nuel, la  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age,  nth  to  I4th  century  (Paris:  1888;  5th  ed. 
1914), — the  best  manual ;  extensive  bibliography.  /  A.  RESTORI,  Letteratura 
provenzale  (Milano:  1891),  —  small  but  good.  /  P.  ALBERT,  La  litt.  fr.  des 
origines  k  la  fin  du  i6e  siecle  (8th  ed.  Paris:  1894).  /  G.  PARIS,  Medieval 
French  Lit.  (Temple  Primers  Series,  Lond.:  1903),  —  a  brief  introductory 
sketch.  /  C.  VORETZSCH,  Kinfuhrung  in  das  Studium  der  altfranz.  Lit. 
(1905),  —  helpful. /P.  A.  BECKER,  Grundriss  der  altfranz.  Lit  (Heidelberg: 


XIII,  B]  APPENDIX  SO/ 

1907).  /  P.  MEYER,  Provensal  Literature  (in  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.  1910).  / 
*G.  PARIS,  Esquisse  historique  de  la  litt.  fr.  au  moyen  age  depuis  les 
origines  jusqu'a  la  fin  du  i5e  siecle  (2d  ed.  Paris:  1913). 

3.  The  ibth  Century.    E.  PASQUIER,  Les  recherches  de  la  France  (ed., 
A.  Duchesne.   3  vols.    Paris:  1619),  —  see  Book  VII  (1611),  and  cf.  Tilley 
i :  300-301  (work  cited  below).  /  ABBE  GOUJET,  Bibliotheque  fr.,  ou  1'hist.  de 
la  litt.  fr.  (18  vols.    1740-1756),  —  especially  for  i6th  and  I7th  centuries.  / 
*C.-A.  SAINTE-BEUVE,  Tableau  hist,  et  critique  de  la  poesie  fr.  et  du 
theatre  fr.  au  i6e  siecle  (2  vols.   Paris:  1828;  new  ed.   i  vol.    1843,  omit- 
ting the  selection  from  Ronsard  and  adding  a  second  part  of  eight  separate 
studies;  2  vols.    1876;  etc.), — see  notice  of  this  work  above,  p.  217.7 
P.  CHASLES,  Etudes  sur  le  i6e  siecle  en  France  (Paris:  1848),  —  to  be 
used  with  caution.  /  L.  FEUGERE,  Caracteres  et  portraits  litt.  du  i6e  siecle 
(new  ed.    2  vols.    Paris:  1859), —  chiefly  of  prose  writers;   to  be  used 
cautiously,  as  also  his  Les  femmes  poetes  au  i6e  siecle  ( 1860).  /  SAINT- 
MARC  GIRARDIN,  Tableau  de  la  litt.  fr.  au  i6e  siecle  (Paris:  1862), — 
another  work  that  should  not  be  trusted.  /*A.  DARMESTETER  and  A.  HATZ- 
FELD,  Le  i6e  siecle  en  France  (Paris:  1878;  7th  ed.  c.  1901), — an  admirable 
summary,  but  not  up  to  date ;  arranged  by  types;  quotations,  bibliography.  / 
*A.  BiRCH-HiRSCHFELD,  Gesch.  der  franz.  Lit.  seit  Anfang  des  16.  Jahrh., 
Erstes  Buch,  Das  Zeitalter  Ludwig's  XII  und  Franz's  I  (Stuttgart :  1889), — 
"  thorough  and  sound,  with  full  and  accurate  bibliography."  /  E\  FAGUET, 
Le   i6e  siecle  (Paris:    1894;   gth  ed.   1898),  —  essays  on  chief  writers./ 
*H.  MORF,  Gesch.  der  neueren  franz.  Lit.,  vol.  t  Renaissance  (Strassburg: 
1898),  — excellent  brief  introduction;  bibliography.  /  *F.  BRUNETIERE,  Hist, 
de  la  litt.  fr.  classique,  vol.  I,  in  3  pts.,  De  Marot  a  Montaigne,  1515-1595 
(Paris:    1904-1908). /*A.  TILLEY,  The  Lit.  of  the  French  Renaissance 
(2  vols.   Cambridge:   1904),  —  very  complete,  helpful,  and  trustworthy./ 
*H.  GUY,  Hist,  de  la  poesie  fr.  au  i6e  siecle,  vol.  I  L'ecole  des  rhetoriqueurs 
(Paris:    1910),  —  detailed,  authoritative.  /  A.  LEFRANC,  Grands  ecrivains 
fr.  de  la  renaissance  (Paris:  1914). 

For  detailed  bibliography  of  origins  of  the  Renaissance,  of  humanism, 
literary  relations  with  Italy  and  other  nations,  authors,  movements,  and 
language,  see  G.  Lanson's  Manuel  bibliog.,  i  :  53-238,  5:  1535-1561. 

4.  The  ijth  Century.    F.  ROBIOU,  Essai  sur  1'hist.  de  la  litt.  et  des  mceurs 
pendant  la  premiere  moitie  du  17°  siecle  (Paris:  1858).  /  J.  DEMOGEOT, 
Tableau  'de  la  litt.  fr.  au  i7e  siecle,  avant  Corneille  et  Descartes  (1859).  / 
V.  FOURNEL,  La  litt.  independante,  i7e  siecle  (Paris:  1862). /  F.  LOTHEIS- 
SEN,  Gesch.  der  franz.   Lit.  im  17.  Jahrh.  (4  vols.   Wien :  1878-1884).  / 
fi.  FAGUET,  Les  grands  maitres  du  J7e  siecle  (Parts:  1885;  later  eds.  with 
title  Le  17=  siecle,  etudes  litt.    igth  ed.    1898).  /  P.  ALBERT,  La  litt.  fr.  au 
i7e  siecle  (7th  ed.    Paris:  1886).  /  V.  COUSIN,  La  societe  fr.  au  17*  siecle 
(6th  ed.   Paris:  1886),  —  brilliant,  but  not  always  trustworthy.  /  P.  JANET,. 
Les  passions  et  les  caracteres  dans  la  litt.  au  i7e  siecle  (Paris:  1888).  / 
T.  F.  CRANE,  La  societe  fr.  au  i7e  siecle  (N.  Y. :  1889),  with  bibliography.  / 


8o8  APPENDIX  [XIII,  B 

PERE  G.  LONGHAYE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  au  17*  siecle  (4  vols.  1895-1896), — 
clerical  point  of  view.  /  *A.  TILLEV,  From  Montaigne  to  Moliere,  or 
the  Preparation  for  the  Classical  Age  of  French  Lit.  (Lond. :  1908).  / 
*F.  BRUNETIERE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  classique,  vol.  II  (Paris:  1912).  / 
H.  BREMOND,  Hist.  litt.  du  sentiment  religieux  en  France  depuis  la  fin 
des  guerres  de  religion  jusqu'a  nos  jours,  vol.  I  L'humanisme  devot  1580- 
1660,  vol.  II  L'invasion  mystique  1590-1620  (Paris:  1916). 

5.  The  i8th  Century.   N.  LEMOYNE,  dit  Desessarts,  Les  siecles  litt.  de  la 
France,  ou  nouveau  diet,  hist.,  critique,  et  bibliog.  de  tous  les  ecrivains 
fr.,  morts  et  vivants,  jusqu'a  la  fin  du  i8e  siecle  (7  vols.   Paris :  1800-1803). 
/A.  G.  P.  B.  DE  BARANTE,  La  litt.  fr.  pendant  le  i8e  siecle  (Paris:  1809; 
5th  ed.    1832;  English  trans.    Lond.:  1833). /A.  F-  VILLEMAIN,  Tableau 
de  la  litt.  fr.  au  i8e  siecle  (4  vols.    1828).  /  A.  R.  VINET,  Hist,  de  la  litt 
fr.  au  i8e  siecle  (2  vols.    Paris:  1853;  English  trans,  by  J.  Bryce,  Edinb. : 
1854).  /  fi.   BERSOT,  Eludes  sur  le   i8e  siecle  (2  vols.     Paris:    1855).  / 
H.  HETTNER,  as  noted  above,  under  xn,  B,  i  (1856-1870;  6th  improved 
ed.  of  the  Gesch.  der  franz.  Lit.,  1912).  /  P.  ALBERT,  La  litt.  fr.  au  i8e  siecle 
(Paris:  1874;  8th  ed.    1895). /E.  M.  CARD,  La  fin  du  i8e  siecle  (2  vols. 
Paris:  1880).  /  fi.  FAGUET,  Le  i8e  siecle,  etudes  litt.  (Paris:  1890;  later 
eds.).  /  E.  SCHERER,  Etudes  sur  la  litt.  au  i8e  siecle  (Paris  :  1891).  /  L.  M.  E. 
BERTRAND,  La  fin  du  classicisme,  etc.  (Paris:  1897). /*F.  BRUNETIERE, 
Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  classique,  vol.  Ill  (Paris:    1912).  /  D.  MORNET,  Le 
romantisme  en  France  au  i8e  siecle  (Paris:  1912). 

6.  The  iqth  and  zoth   Centuries.    G.  PLANCHE,  Portraits  litt.   (2  vols. 
1836,  1848),  and  other  literary  studies.  /J.  A.  MICHIELS,  Hist,  des  idees  litt. 
en  France  au  ig6  siecle  (2  vols.   Paris  :  1842  ;  4th  ed.   1863).  /  A.  R.  VINET, 
Etudes  sur  la  litt.  fr.  au  19=  siecle   (3  vols.    Paris:  1849-1851). /A.  F. 
NETTEMENT,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  sous  la  restauration  (2  vols.   Paris :  1853) 
et  sous  le  gouvernement  de  juillet  (2  vols.    1854).  /  E.  DE  MIRECOURT,  Les 
contemporains  (1854-1860,  100  pts. ;  1862-1872,  140  pts.)./A.  FERRARD 
DE  PONTMARTIN,  Causcries  litt.  (3  vols.    1854-1856),  and  other  Causeries, 
etc.,  of  various  dates.  /  fi.  SCHERER,  Etudes  sur  la  litt.  contemp.  (10  vols. 
Paris :   1863-1895).  /  Recueil  de  rapports  sur  le  progres  des  lettres  et  des 
sciences  en  F  ranee,  Rapport  sur  le  progres  des  lettres :  Discours  prelimi- 
naire,    S.   de    Sacy ;    Romans,    P.   Feval ;    Poesie,  T.   Gautier ;    Theatre, 
E.  Thierry  (Paris:  1868).  /  *G.  BRANDES,  as  noted  above,  under  xn,  B,  i 
(1871,  etc.)./J.  P.  CHARPENTIER,  La  litt.  fr.  au  ige  siecle  (Paris:  1875).  / 
G.  MERLET,  Tableau  de  la  litt.  fr.  de  1800  a  1815,  etc.  (3  pts.    1878-1883). 
/P.  ALBERT,  La  litt.  fr.  au  ige  siecle  (2  vols.    Paris:  1882;  etc.)./Cele- 
brites  contemp.  (1882-1888,  42  pts.)./*J.  LEMA!TRE,  Les  contemporains 
(8  vols.,  various  dates  and  eds.,  1885 +  )./£.  FAGUET,  Etudes  litt.  sur  le 
I9e  siecle  (Paris:  1887;  later  eds.).  /  E.  BIRE,  Portraits  litt.  (Lyon:   1888), 
and  other  Portraits,  Causeries,  etc. /*G.  PELLISSIER,  Le  mouvement  litt. 
au  19°  siecle  (Paris:  1889;  6th  ed.    1900;  English  trans,  by  A.  G.  Brinton, 
N.  Y.:    1897). /*M.  ALBERT,  Litt   fr.  sous  la  revolution,  1'empire  et  la 


XIII,  C]  APPENDIX  809 

restauration,  1789-1830  (Paris:  1891;  4th  ed.  1898),  —  crowned  by  the 
Academy.  /  D.  NISARD,  Essais  sur  1'ecole  romantique  (Paris:  1891).  / 
R.  DOUMIC,  Portraits  d'ecrivains  (Paris  :  1892),  and  other  studies.  /  G.  LAR- 
ROUMET,  Etudes  de  litt.  et  d'art  (4  series,  1893-1896),  and  other  Etudes, 
Portraits,  etc.  /  G.  PELLISSIER,  Essais  de  litt.  contemp.  (Paris :  1893), 
and  Nouveaux  essais,  etc.  (1895),  and  Etudes  de  litt.  contemp.  (2  vols. 
1898-1901).  /  A.  SYMONS,  Symbolist  Movement  in  Lit.  (Lond.:  1899).  / 
V.  THOMPSON,  French  Portraits  (Boston  :  1900).  /  A.  BEAUNIER,  La  poesie 
nouvelle  (Paris:  1902).  /  J.  ERNEST-CHARLES,  La  litt.  fr.  d'aujourd'hui 
(Paris  :  1902),  and  other  studies.  /  Les  celebrites  d'aujourd'hui  (ed.  by 
E.  Sansot-Orlando,  R.  Le  Brun,  Ad.  van  Bever,  Paris':  1903+).  / 
*C.  MENDES,  Sur  le  mouvement  poetique  fr.  de  1867  k  1900  (Paris:  1903), 
—  with  bibliography.  /  R.  CANAT,  Une  forme  du  mal  du  siecle,  du  senti- 
ment de  la  solitude  morale  chez  les  romantiques  et  les  parnassiens  (Paris : 
1904).  /  R.  DE  GOURMONT,  Promenades  litt.  (5  vols.  Paris:  1904-1913), 
and  other  studies.  /  G.  PELLISSIER,  Etudes  de  litt.  et  de  morale  contemp. 
(Paris:  1905).  /  *G.  CASELLA  and  E.  GAUBERT,  La  nouvelle  litt,  1895- 
1905  (2d  ed.  Paris:  1906),  —  with  bibliography./  P.  LASSERRE,  Le  roman- 
tisme  fr.,  etc.  (new  ed.  Paris :  1908).  /  L.  CLARETIE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr., 
vol.  IV  igth  century  (1909),  V  1900-1910  (1912), — gossipy. /C.  LEGOFFIC, 
La  litt.  fr.  au  19=  siecle  (Paris:  1910),  —  brief ./ L.  MAIGRON,  Le  roman- 
tisme  et  les  moeurs,  etc.  (Paris:  i9io)./R.  CANAT,  La  renaissance  de  la 
Grece  antique,  1820-1850  (Paris:  1911). /L.  MAIGRON,  Le  romantisme 
et  la  mode,  etc.  (Paris:  i9ii)./*F.  STROWSKI,  Tableau  de  la  litt.  fr.  au 
i9e  siecle  (Paris  :  1912).  /A.  HEUMANN,  Le  mouvement  litt.  beige  d'expres- 
sion  fr.  depuis  1880  (2d  ed.  Paris:  1913). /J.  BITHELL,  Contemp.  Belgian 
Lit.  (Lond.:  191 5). /*A.  LOWELL,  Six  French  Poets  (2d  rev.  ed.  N.Y.: 
1916),  —  with  bibliography.  /  G.  TOURQUET-MILNES,  Some  Modern  Belgian 
Writers  (Lond.:  1916). /*F.  BRUNETI£RE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fr.  classique, 
vol.  IV  (Paris:  1917). 

Information  may  also  be  found  in  such  biographical  dictionaries  as 
G.  VAPERAU'S  Diet,  universel  des  contemporains  (6th  ed.  Paris :  1893) 
and  Diet,  universel  des  litteratures  (2d  ed.  Paris  :  1884) ;  C.  E.  CURINIER'S 
Diet,  national  des  contemporains  (Paris:  1900). 

C.  Periodicals.  *Zeitschrift  fur  franz.  (neufranz.  1879-1888)  Sprache 
und  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1879  +  ),  —  very  important  because  of  its  complete, 
current  bibliography.  /  Franz.  Studien  (Heilbronn:  1881—1889;  Berlin: 
1893-1897,  Neue  Folge),  —  linguistic  studies  for  the  most  part.  Revue 
de  philologie  fr.  (Paris:  1887  +)•  /  *Annales  du  midi,  revue  archtologique, 
historique,  et philologique  de  la  France  mfridionale  (Toulouse:  1888  +  ), — 
especially  for  Proven9al  lit.  and  bibliography.  /  *Revue  d'hist.  litt.  de  la 
France  (1894  +  ),  —  with  bibliography.  /  Revue  de  la  renaissance  (Paris: 
1901  +  ).  /  Revue  du  i8e  siecle  (Paris:  1913 +  ). /Zd-j  annales  romantiques, 
revue  d'hist.  du  romantisme  (Paris:  1904+),  —  with  bibliography.  /  Revue 
du  i6e  siecle,  formerly  Rev.  des  ttudes  rabelaisiennes  (Paris :  1913  +). 


8 10  APPENDIX  [XIV,  A 

See  also  the  French  periodicals  mentioned  above,  under  iv,  c,  3,  (a) ; 
especially  the  *Joumal  des  savants,  *Revue  des  deux  mondes,  *  Revue  des 
cours  et  conferences,  and  * Revue  critique  d'histoire  et  de  Hit.  /  See  also  certain 
periodicals  listed  above,  under  xn,  c,  2  and  3 ;  especially  * Romania, 
*  Romanische  Forschungen,  *  Romanic  Review,  *Zeitschrift  fiirroman.Philol., 
*Jahrb.fur  roman.  und  eng.  Lit.,  and  *Krit.  Jahresbericht. 

XIV.  Italian  Poetry.  • 

A.  Bibliography. 

1.  Bibliography  of  Bibliographies.  *G.  OTTINI  and  G.  FUMAGALLI,  Biblio- 
theca  Bibliographica  Italica  (vol.  I  Torino :   1889 ;   vol.  II,  Supplemento 
1895;  further  supplements  1895-1896,  1896-1899,  1900,  1902),  —  a  list  of 
bibliographies  published  in  or  relating  to  Italy.    The  student  of  literature 
will  be  especially  interested  in  §§  XIV,  XV,  XVI,  XXVI,  XXVIII,  XXXIII. 
With  this  should  be  used  the  appendix  by  C.  Mazzi,  Indicazioni  di  biblio- 
grafia  italiana  (Firenze  :   1893). 

2.  General.    For  the  period  up  to   1835   (see  below,  under  4,  Bibliog. 
italiana)  there  is  no  satisfactory  bibliography  of  works  printed  in  all  parts 
of  Italy ;  but  there  are  many  *regional  bibliographies,  for  which  see  Ottini 
and  Fumagalli,  §  XVI  Bibliografie  regionali  di  scrittori  italiani.   In  addition 
the  following  three  works  may  be  consulted :  *G.  M.  MAZZUCHELLI,  Gli 
scrittori  d'ltalia  (2  vols.  in  6  pts.  Brescia:  1753-1763),  —  "This  great  work 
never  advanced  beyond  the  letter  B,  but  for  the  letters  A-B  it  is  absolutely 
without  compare.    A  biographical  notice  of  each  author  is  followed  by  a 
list  of  his  works  and  their  editions"  (Peddie) ;  /  N.  F.  HAYM,  Biblioteca 
italiana  (2  vols.    Milano  :  1771-1773;  6th  ed.   4  vols.    1803),  —  a  classified 
catalogue  —  history,  poetry,  prose,  arts,  science  —  of  the  rarer  books,  with 
an  author  index ;  /  B.  GAMBA,  Sejie  dei  testi  di  lingua  e  di  altre  opere 
important!   nella   ital.   lett.   scritte   dal   secolo    14   al   19   (1805.    4th  ed. 
Venezia:  1839). 

3.  Early  Period  to  i8th  Century.   F.  ZAMBRINI,  Le  opere  .volgari  a  stampa 
dei  secoli  13  e  14  indicate  e  descritte  (4th  ed.  Bologna:  1884).  /A.  F.  DONI, 
La  libreria  del  Doni  fiorentino  divisa  in  tre  trattati,  etc.  (new  ed.  Venezia : 
1557),  —  containing  both  the  first  (1550)  and  second  (1551)  catalogues  of 
Doni.  /  G.  M.  CRESCIMBENI,   Istoria  e  commentari  della  volgar  poesia 
(6 vols.  Venezia:  1730-1731). /*F.  S.  QUADRIO,  Della  storiae  della  ragione 
d'ogni  poesia  (7  vols.    Bologna-Milano :   1739-1752),  —  see  above,  §  2.  / 
G.  MELZI  and  P.  A.  Tosi,  Bibliografia  dei  romanzi  di  cavalleria  italiani 
(Milano:  1865).   For  similar  works  see  Ottini  and  Fumagalli,  §  XXVI,  g.  / 
L.  BELLARDI,  Biblioteca  degli  anni  1792  e  1793  (Torino:  1794), — the  more 
important  works  only.  /  L.  VICCHI,  Quarto  estratto  del  libro  intitolato 
Vincenzo  Monti,  le  lettere  e  la  politica  in  Italia  dal  1750  al  1830  (Fusignano, 
Ravenna:    1887),  —  see   pp.  606-652.  /  For  other  works   see   Ottini  and 
Fumagalli,  especially  §  XVI. 


XIV,  B]  APPENDIX  811 

4.  Nineteenth  Century.  (^Retrospective.  *  Bibliografia  italiana,  Anno  I— 10. 
N.  S.  Anno  1-2.    1835-1846.    Issued  monthly  with  an  annual  index,  classi- 
fied by  subjects;  continued  into  1847.7  Bibliografiad' Italia  (3  vols.  Firenze: 
1867-1869). /*G.  BERTOCCI,  Repertorio  bibliografico  delle  opere  stampate 
in  Italia nelsecolo  19(3  vols.  Roma:  1876-1887). / *Catalogo  collettivo  della 
libreria  ital.,  1878-1891  (4  vols.    Milano  :  1878-1891).  /  U.  HOEPLI,  Scelta 
delle  migliori  opere  della  lett.  ital.  moderna  (Milano:  1911). /U.  HOEPLI, 
Catalogo  completo  delle  edizioni  Hoepli,  1871-1914  (Milano:  1914). 

(b)  Retrospective  and  Current.  * Bibliografia  italiana,  giomale  del?  Asso- 
ciazione  tipografico-libraria  ital.  (4+  vols.  Firenze:  1870  +  ))  —  a  continu- 
ation of  the  Bibliog.  d'  Italia  ( 1 867-1 869),  noted  above.  /  *Biblioteca  nazionale 
di  Firenze,  bollettino  delle  pubblicazioni  ital.  ricevute  per  diritto  di  stampa, 
1886+  (Firenze:  1886 +  ),  —  a  monthly  classified  list,  supplemented  by  an 
annual  index  of  authors.  /  Giomale  della  libreria,  della  tipografia  e  delle  arti 
e  Industrie  affini  (Milano:  1888 +  ).  /  *A.  PAGLIANI,  Catalogo  generale 
della  libreria  ital.  dalP  anno  1847  (4  vols.  Milano:  1901  +  ;  vols.  I-III, 
1847-1899;  vol.  IV  Supplemento,  1900-1910).  For  index  of  subjects  see 
the  Indice  per  materie  (2+  vols.  1910  +  ).  A  very  valuable  work.  /  See 
also  periodicals  noted  below. 

5.  Belles-Lettres.    For  brief  manuals  for  the  student  of  literature  see 
*G.  MAZZONI,  Avviamento  allo  studio  critico  delle  lettere  italiane  (2d  rev. 
ed.   Firenze  :  1907) ;  /  *O.  BACCI,  Indagini  e  problemi  di  storia  lett.  ital.  con 
notizie  e  norme  bibliografiche  (Livorno  :  1910).  /  See -also  the  histories  of 
literature,  especially  those  by  D'  ANCONA   and   BACCI  (Manuale,  etc.), 
FLAMINI  (Compendio),  Rossi,  TORRACA,  CASINI  (in  Grober),  GASPARY 
(especially  the   English  and   Italian  translations  of  the  work),  and  the 
volumes  of  the  Storia  lett.  d' Italia  (Vallardi,  Milano).  /  Help  also  may 
be  had  from  E.  M.  OETTINGER,  Bibliographic  biographique  universelle 
(Paris :  1866) ;  /  V.  TURRI,  Dizionario  storico  manuale  della  lett.  ital.,  1000- 
1900  (3d  ed.  Torino:  1905)  ;/G.  FINZI  and  L.  VALMAGGI,  Tavole  storico- 
bibliografiche  della  lett.  ital.  (Torino:  1889). 

B.  Histories. 

i.  General.  G.  M.  CRESCIMBENI,  Istoria  della  volgar  poesia  (Roma: 
1698;  *3d  enlarged  ed.,  with  commentary,  6  vols.  Venezia:  1730-1731).  / 
*F.  S.  QUADRIO,  Delia  storia  e  della  ragione  d'  ogni  poesia  (7  vols.  Bologna- 
Milano :  1 739-1 752), — see  above,  §  2 .  /  *G.  Ti RABOSCHI,  Storia  della  lett.  ital. 
(n  vols.  Modena:  1772-1795;  i6vols.  Milano:  1822-1826.  In  Collezione 
de'  classici  italiani,  vols.  302-3 17),  —  dealing  more  with  the  history  of  various 
branches  and  schools  of  learning  than  with  the  literature  itself;  little  literary 
criticism ;  continued  by  Lombards.  /  G.  B.  CORNIANI,  I  secoli  della  lett. 
ital.  dopo  il  suo  risorgimento  (9  vols.  1804-1813;  rev.  and  enlarged  ed., 
8  vols.  Torino:  1854-1856).  /  P.  L.  GINGUENE,  Histoire  litt.  d'ltalie 
(14  vols.  Paris:  1811-1835;  vols.  X-XIV  by  Salfi),  —  "written  from  an 
18th-century  point  of  view  now  entirely  antiquated";  but  full  of  valuable 
information,  especially  as  regards  the  work  of  minor  authors.  The  history 


8 12  APPENDIX  [XIV,  B 

is  carried  through  the  i6th  century.  /  J.  C.  L.  SIMONDE  DE  SISMONDI, 
Histoire  de  la  litt.  du  midi  de  1'Europe  (4  vols.    Paris:  1813  ;  Eng.  trans, 
by  T.  Roscoe,  2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Bohn,  1846),  —  famous  but  superseded./ 
G.  MAFFEI,  Storia  della  lett.  ital.  dalF  origine  della  lingua  fino  al  secolo  19 
(3  vols.    Milano :  1824;  new  ed.  1858).  /  E.  RUTH,  Gesch.  der  ital.  Poesie 
(2  vols.   Leipz. :  1844-1847).  /  P.  EMILIANI  GIUDICI,  Storia  della  lett.  ital. 
(1855;  ^th  ed.  2  vols.    Firenze  :  1896). /*L.  SETTEMBRINI,  Lezioni  di  lett. 
ital.  (1866+ ;  i6thed.  3  vols.  Napoli:  1894), —  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic 
of  the  smaller  histories.  /  *F.  DE  SANCTIS,  Storia  della  lett.  ital.  (2  vols. 
Napoli:  1870;  new  ed.,  by  B.  Croce,  Bari :  1912),  —  one  of  the  best  of  the 
briefer  accounts.  /  *A.  GASPARY,  Gesch.  der  ital.  Lit.  (2  vols.   Berlin  und 
Strassburg:  1885-1888;    Eng.  trans,  of  the  first  n  chaps.,  together  with 
the  author's  additions  to  the  Italian  trans.  (1887)  and  with  supplementary 
bibliographical  notes  (1837-1899),  by  H.  Oelsner,  Hist,  of  Early  Ital.  Lit. 
to  the  Death  of  Dante,  Lond.:  1901 ;  Ital.  trans.,  with  additions  and  com- 
pleter  bibliographical  notes,  by  N.  Zingarelli  and  V.  Rossi,  2  vols.,  Torino: 
1887-1891), — a  standard  work  of  great  value.  /  T.  CASINI,  Manuale  di  lett. 
ital.  ad  uso  dei  licei  (4  pts.  Firenze  :  1886  +  5  2d  ed.   1891).  /  L.  ETIENNE, 
Hist,  de  la  litt.  ital.  (Paris:  1875;  another  ed.  1884),  —  an  admirable  short 
history. /* Storia  lett.  d' Italia  (Vallardi,  Milano:  1878  +  ),  —  an  important 
series,  the  vols.  of  which  are  noted  below  in  their  proper  places  according 
to  centuries.  /  *F.  TORRACA,  Manuale  della  lett.  ital.  (3  vols.    1886-1887; 
7th  ed.   3  vols.  in  4. .  Firenze  :  1914-1915),  —  an  admirable  edition  for  use 
in  the  schools.  /  C.  FENINI,  Lett.  ital.  (1889;  6th  ed.,  rev.  by  V.  Ferrari, 
1908.    Manuali  Hoepli),  —  a  small  handbook,  useful  in  gaining  a  first  view. 
/*A.  D'ANCONA  and  O.  BACCI,  Manuale  della  lett.  ital.  (5  vols.    Firenze: 
1892-1895;  many  editions  of  each  vol.;  new  ed.  6  vols.    Firenze:  1904- 
1909),  —  an  anthology  with  most  helpful  biographical,  critical,  and  biblio- 
graphical materials.  Vol.  VI  (1909)  contains  notices  of  contemporary  writers 
and  a  bibliog.  supplement  to  the  entire  work.  /  F.  J.  SNELL,  Primer  of  Italian 
Lit.  (Oxford:  1893),  —  an  English  coup  d'oeil.  /*T.  CASINI,  Gesch.  der  ital. 
Lit  (in  Grober's  Grundriss,  II.  Bd.   3.  Abt.    1896-1897.    1901)  is  the  best- 
arranged  and  clearest  short  account. "/ *  Storia  lett.  d' Italia  scritta  da  una 
societa  di  professor!  (9  vols.  Vallardi,  Milano:  1897  +), — vols.  noted  below. 
This  series  is  modern,  standard,  authoritative, —  the  best  for  the  advanced 
student. /*R.  GARNETT,  Hist  of  Ital.  Lit.  (Lond.:  1898),  —  an  admirable 
outline,  the  best  in  English ;  far  more  readable  and  suggestive  than  most 
brief  literary  histories.  /  E.  MESTICA,  Compendio  storico  della  lett.  ital. 
(1898-1901;  2d  I'd.  3vols.  Livorno:  1904  +  ), — forschools.  /  [A.  SOLERTI], 
Indice  analitico  della  storia  della  lett.  ital.  (Firenze  :  1898).  /  G.  GIANNINI, 
Tavole  sinottiche  per  lo  studio  della  storia  lett.  d'  Italia  (Livorno :  1899).  / 
F.  TRAIL,  A  Hist,  of  Ital.  Lit.  (2  vols.  in  i.  N.  Y.:  1903-1904), — superficial. 
/  W.  EVERETT,  The  Ital.  Poets  since  Dante,  Lowell  Institute  Lectures,  1904 
(N.Y.:  1904). /«B.  WIESE  and  E.  PERCOPO,  Storia  della  lett.  ital.  (Torino: 
1904;  German  ed.  Leipz.:  1899), —  illustrated.  /  E.  BOGHEN-CONIGLIANI, 


XIV,  B]  APPENDIX  813 

Storia  della  lett.  ital.  (3  vols.  Firenze  :  1905),  —  another  school  history./ 
F.  FLAMINI,  A  Hist,  of  Ital.  Lit.,  1265-1907,  trans,  by  E.  M.  O'Connor 
(limited  ed.  de  luxe,  The  National  Alumni.  N.Y.:  c.  1906). /*H.  HAUVETTE, 
Litt.  ital.  (Paris:  1906;  2d  ed.  1910),  —  brief,  admirable.  /  *V.  Rossi,  Storia 
della  lett.  ital.  per  uso  dei  licei  (3  vols.  Milano :  1907;  4th  ed.  1911), — 
among  the  best  of  its  kind.  /  *F.  FLAMINI,  Compendio  di  storia  della  lett. 
ital.  (i2th  ed.  Livorno  :  1914),  —  for  ready  reference  and  first  aid  biblio- 
graphical, the  best  one-volume  history. 

2.  Through  the  itfh  Century.  *A.  BARTOLI,  Storia  della  lett.  ital.  (7  vols. 
in  8.    Firenze:   1878-1889),  —  authoritative;  based  on  careful,  extensive 
research.  /  A.  GASPARY,  Die  sicilianische  Dichterschule  des  13.  Jahrh. 
(Berlin:    1878;    Ital.  trans.,  with  additions,   by  S.  Friedmann,  La  scuola 
poetica  siciliana  del  secolo  13,  Livorno  :  1882). /A.  BARTOLI,  I  primi  due 
secoli  (Vallardi,  Milano:    1880).  /  E.  CELESIA,  Storia  della  lett.  in  Italia 
ne'  secoli  barbari  (2  vols.   Genova :  1882).  /  A.  D'  ANCONA,  Studi  sulla  lett. 
ital.  de' primi  secoli  (Ancona :   1884).  /  U.  RONCA,  Cultura  medioevale  e 
poesia  latina  d'  Italia  nei  secoli  n  e  12  (Memoria  premiata  dalla  R.  Accad. 
dei  Lincei.   2  vols.    Roma:  1892),  —  bibliog.,  2:  103  ff.  /  G.  A.  CESAREO, 
La  poesia  siciliana  sotto  gli  Svevi  (Catania:   1894).  /  *G.  VOLPI,  II  tre- 
cento (Storia  lett.  d'  Italia.  Vallardi,  Milano  :  1897-1898).  /  *N.  ZINGARELLI, 
Dante  (Storia  lett.  d' Ital.    Vallardi,  Milano:    1899-1904).  /  A.  SOLERTI, 
Vite  di  Dante,  Petrarca,  e  Boccaccio  (Storia  lett.  d'ltal.  Vallardi,  Milano: 
I9O4--I9O5).  /  G.  MAZZONI,  Esercitazioni  sulla  lett.  religiosa  in  Ital.  nei 
secoli  13  e  14  (Firenze:  1905).  /  *G.  BERTONI,  II  duecento  (Storia  lett. 
d'  Ital.  Vallardi,  Milano  :  191 1).  /  *G.  BERTONI,  I  trovatori  d'  Ital.,  biografie, 
testi,  traduzioni,  note   (Modena:   1915.    608  pp.),  —  a  valuable  work  that 
should  have  been  noted  above,  p.  227. 

3.  The  i$th  Century.   *].  A.  SYMONDS,  Renaissance  in  Italy,  especially 
vols.  IV,  V  (5  vols.  Lond.  ='1875-1881;  newed.  Lond.:  1902).  /  *G.  INVER- 
NIZZI,  II  risorgimento  (Vallardi,  Milano:    1878).  /  *G.  KORTING,  Gesch. 
der  Lit.  Italiens  im  Zeitalter  der  Renaissance  (3  vols.    Leipz. :  1878-1884; 
vol.  II  Boccaccio,  III  Anfange  d.  Ren.-Lit.)./*V.  Rossi,  II  quattrocento 
(Storia  lett.  d' Italia,  Vallardi,  Milano:    1897-1898).  /  *P.  MOUNIER,  Le 
quattrocento,  essai  sur  1'hist.  litt.  du  i5esiecle  italien  (2  vols.  Paris:  1901; 
new  ed.    1908),  —  an  admirable  work,  crowned  by  the  French  Academy  ; 
excellent  account  of  interrelation  of  literature  and  social  conditions  ;  bibli- 
ography. /  I.  G.  ISOLA,  Critica  del  rinascimento  (2  <vols.   Livorno:  1907). / 
C.  HARE  (Mrs.  Marian  Andrews),  Life  and  Letters  in  the  Italian  Renaissance 
(N.Y.:   1915). 

4.  The  ibth  Century.  *U.  A.  CANELLO,  Lett.  ital.  nei  secolo  16  (Vallardi, 
Milano  :  1881).  /  *F.  FLAMINI,  II  cinquecento  (Storia  lett.  d'  Ital.,  Vallardi, 
Milano :  1898-190.2). 

5.  The  i^th  Century.  *M.  MORSOLIN,  II  seicento  (Vallardi,  Milano:  1880). 
/  *A.  BELLONI,  II  seicento  (Storia  lett.  d'  Ital.,  Vallardi,  Milano:   1898- 
1899). 


814  APPENDIX  [XIV,  C 

6.  The  i8th  Century.    C.  UGONI,  Delia  lett.  ital.  nella  seconda  meti  del 
secolo  18  (3  vols.  Brescia:  1820-1822;  new  ed.  1856-1858).  /A.  LOMBARDI, 
Storia  della  lett.  ital.  nel  secolo  18  (4  vols.  Modena :  1827-1830).  /  G.  GUER- 
ZONI,  II  terzo  rinascimento  (Palermo:    1874;   3d  ed.    Verona:    1888).  / 
*V.  LEE  (Violet  Paget),   Studies  of  the  i8th  Century  in  Italy  (Lond.: 
1880 ;  2d  ed.  1907), — "  now  a  recognized  text-book  in  Italy."  /  *G.  ZANELLA, 
Storia  della  lett.  ital.  dalla  meta  del  settecento  ai  giorni  nostri  (Vallardi, 
Milano:  1880),  —  briefer  ed.  of  the  same,  Della  lett.  ital.  nelP  ultimo  secolo 
(Citta  di  Castello:  1886). /*T.  CONCARI,  II  settecento  (Storia  lett.  d'ltal., 
Vallardi,   Milano:    1898-1900).  /  *M.   LANDAU,   Gesch.  der  ital.  Lit.  im 
18.  Jahrh.  (Berlin:    1899).  /  P.  HAZARD,  La  revolution  fran9aise  et  les 
lettres  ital.,  1789-1815  (Paris:  1910). 

7.  The  iqth  Century.    A.  LEV  ATI,  Saggio  sulla  storia  della  lett.  ital.  nei 
primi  25  anni  del  secolo  19  (Milano:  1831). /*A.  Roux,  Hist,  de  la  litt. 
ital.  contemporaine,  1800-1850  (Paris:    1870).  /  F.  DE  SANCTIS,  La  lett. 
ital.  nel  secolo  19  (from  lectures  delivered  1872-1876;  Napoli :   1902).  / 
A.  Roux,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  contemp.  en  Italic  sous  le  regime  unitaire, 
1859-1874  (Paris:  1874).  /  G.  BARZELLOTTI,  La  rivoluzione  e  la  lett.  in 
Italia  avanti  e  dopo  gli  anni  1848  e  1849  (Firenze :  1875). /*G.  ZANELLA, 
as  noted  above,  under  6  (1880).  /  *G.  MESTICA,  Manuale  della  lett.  ital. 
nel  secolo  19  (2  vols.  in  3.    Firenze:  1882-1887).  /  A.  Roux,  La  litt.  con- 
temp,  en  Italic,  3e  periode,  1873-1883  (Paris:  1883). /*W.  D.  HOWELLS, 
Modern  Italian  Poets  (N.  Y. :  1887).  /  A.  Roux,  La  litt.  contemp.  en  Ifalie, 
dernfere  periode,  1883-1896  (Paris:   1896).  /  *G.  MAZZONI,  L'ottocento 
(Storia  lett.  d'  Ital.,  Vallardi,  Milano  :  1898-1913),  —  the  chief  work  on  the 
period.  /  J.  DORNIS  (Mme.  G.  Beer),  La  poesie  ital.  contemp.  (Paris  :  1898). 
/  M.  MURET,  La  litt.  ital.  d'aujourd'hui  (Paris  :  1906).  /  A.  REGGIO,  L'ltalie 
intellectuelle  et  litt.  au  debut  du  19'  siecle  (Paris:  1907). /*L.  COLLISON- 
MORLEY,  Modern  Italian  Lit.   (Lond.:    1911). /V.  FERRARI,  Lett.  ital. 
moderna  e  contemporanea,  1748-1911  (Manuali  Hoepli,  3d  ed.    1911),— 
a  brief  introduction.  /  P.  MONTI,  Lett,  ital.,  moderna  e  contemp.,  appunti 
critico-polemici  (Brescia:  1911). /D.  MANTOVANI,  Lett,  contemp.  (1913). 
/  See  also  articles,  with  valuable  bibliography,  by  B.  CROCE  in  La  critica; 
also  the  collection  I  contemporanei  (Perrella,  Napoli). /For  dictionaries 
of   biography,   see   A.   DE   GUBERNATIS,    Dictionnaire   international   des 
e"crivains    du    jour    (new    ed.     Rome:    1905;    Supplement,    1906),    and 
Dizionario  biografico  degli  scrittori  contemp.  (Firenze :  1879).* 

C.  Periodicals.  *Il profugnatore  (Bologna :  1868-1886;  new  series  1887- 
1893)-  /  *Giornale  storico  della  lett.  ital.  (Torino:  1883  +  ).  /  Rivista  critica 
della  lett.  ital.  (Firenze,  Roma:  1884-1892).  /  Bullettino  della  societa  dantesca 
ital.  (Firenze  :  1890^1892  ;  2d  series,  1893  +).  /  Giomale  dantesco  (continu- 
ation of  L'Alighieri,  1890-1892.  Firenze  :  1893  + ).  /  *Ra$segna  bibliografica 
della  lett.  ital.  (Pisa:  1893  +  ).  /*Rassegna  critica  della  lett.  ital.  (Napoli: 
1896  +  ),  —  especially  valuable  book-reviews.  / *Rivista  d' Italia  (Roma: 
)'/* Bulletin  italien  (Bordeaux:  1901  +).  / *La  critica,  rivista  di 


XV,  A]  APPENDIX  815 

lett.,  storia  e  filosofia  (Croce,  Napoli :  1903  +  ).  /  See  also  the  following 
series  of  monographs :  F.  Torraca's  Biblioteca  critica  della  lett.  ital. 
(Firenze  :  1895-1903) ;  /  E.  Percopo's  Studi  di  lett.  ital.  (Napoli :  1899  +  );/ 
B.  Croce's  Studi  di  lett,  storia  e  filosofia. 

XV.  Spanish  (including  Catalan)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography, 

1.  General.    J.  P.  FUSTER,  Biblioteca  valenciana  de  los  escritores  que 
florecieron  hasta  nuestros  dfas  (2  vols.  Valencia:  1827-1830),  —  a  regional 
bibliography ;  for  many  others,  some  of  them  very  important,  see  Elias  de 
Molins,  as  noted  below,  under  5.  /  *D.  HIDALGO,  Diccionario  general  de 
bibliograffa  espanola  (7  vols.    Madrid:  1862-1881),  —  author  and  subject 
indexes  in  the  last  two  vols.  /  B.  J.  GALLARDO,  Ensayo  de  una  biblioteca 
espanola  de  libros  raros  y  curiosos  (4  vols,  Madrid :  1863-1889).  /  P.  SALVA 
Y  MALLEN,  Catalogo  de  la  biblioteca  de  Salva  (2  vols.   Valencia:  1872).  / 
J.  L.  WHITNEY,  Catalogue  of  the  Spanish  Library  and  of  the  Portuguese 
Books  bequeathed  by  George  Ticknor  to  the  Boston  Public  Library,  etc. 
(Boston  Pub.  Libr.:  1879).  /  D.  GARCIA  PERES,  Catalogo  razonado  biografico 
y  bibliografico  de  los  autores  Portugueses  que  escribieron  en  castellano 
(Madrid  :  1890).  /  R.  HEREDIA,  Catalogue  de  la  bibliotheque  de  M.  Ricardo 
Heredia  (4  vols.    Paris  :  1891-1894))  —  includes  the  Salva  catalogue,  but  is 
classified  more  minutely.  /  M.  MENENDEZ  Y  PELAYO,  Bibliograffa  hispano- 
latina  classica,  etc.  (vol.  I,  Madrid :  1902 ;  in  Biblioteca  de  la  revista  de 
archives,  bibliotecas  y  museos),  —  a  list  of  classical  studies,  editions  of  the 
classics,  and  monographs  on  classical  influences. 

2.  Through  the  i$th  Century.  M.  ANTONIO,  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Vetus, 
sive,"Hispani  Scriptores  qui  ab  Octaviani  Augusti  Aevo  ad  Annum  .  .  . 
1500  floruerunt  (2  vols.   Matriti :  1788).  /*K.  HAEBLER,  Bibliograffa  iberica 
del  siglo  15  (La  Haya:  1903;  Segunda  Parte,  supplement  to  the  1903  ed., 
Leipz. :  1917), — an  author  catalogue,  with  index  of  printers,  of  all  books 
known  to  have  been  printed  in  Spain  and  Portugal  during  the  I5th  century. 

3.  The  i6th  and  ifth  Centuries.    M.  ANTONIO,  Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova, 
sive,  Hispanorum  Scriptorum  qui  ab  Anno  1500  ad  1684  floruere  Notitia 
(2d  enlarged  ed.    2  vols.    Matriti:  1783-1788).  /  C.  PEREZ  PASTOR,  Bib- 
liograffa madrilena,  1566-1625  (3  vols.    Madrid:  1891-1907).    See  similar 
works  for  Medina  del  Campo  (1895)  an^  Toledo  (1887);  and  for  other 
regions,  as  noted  by  Elias  de  Molins  (work  cited  below,  under  5).   A  late 
work  of  this  sort  is  J.  M.  SANCHEZ,  Bibliograffa  aragonesa  del  siglo  15 
(2  vols.    Madrid:  1913-1914).  /  See  further  in  Gallardo,  Salva,  Heredia, 
and  Whitney,  as  noted  above,  under  i. 

4.  The  1 8th  and  iqth  Centuries,   (a)  Retrospective.-  See  Hidalgo  and  Whit- 
ney, as  already  noted,  under  i./*J.  P.  "CRIADO  Y  DOMINGUEZ,  Literatas 
espanolas  del  siglo  19,  apuntes  bibliograficos  (Madrid:  1889), —  helpful 
classified  lists.  /  A.  EL! AS  DE  MoLf  NS,  Diccionario  biografico  y  bibliografico 
de  escritores  y  artistas  catalanes  del  siglo  19  (2  vols.  Barcelona:  1889-1895). 


8l6  APPENDIX  [XV,  B 

/  Also  the  following  periodicals :  El  bibliografo  espanol  y  estranjero 
(Madrid:  1843-1850),  succeeded  by  Boletin  bibliogrdfico  espanol  (9  vols. 
Madrid:  1861— 1869)57 Boletin  de  la  libreria  (Madrid:  1874-1909). 

(b)  Retrospective  and  Current.  Revista  de  bibliografia  catalana  (Barce- 
lona :  1901  +  );/  * Bibliografia  espanola  (Madrid  :  1902  + ),  —  fortnightly  ;  / 
*Archivo  bibliogrdfico  hispano-americano  (Madrid:  1909  +) ;  /  Anuario  de 
la  librerta  espanola,  portuguesa  /  hispano-americana  (Madrid:  igia+J./ 
For  other  bibliographical  periodicals  of  the  i8th  and  igth  centuries,  see 
Elias  de  Molins,  i:  143-148,  of  the  work  noted  below;  see  also  the 
periodicals  noted  below,  under  c. 

5.  Belles- Lettres.  '*A.  ELIAS  DE  MoLfNS,  Ensayo  de  una  bibliografia 
literaria  de  Espana  y  America,  noticias  de  obras  y  estudios  relacionados 
con  la  poesia,  teatro,  historia,  novela,  critica  literaria,  etc.  (2  vols.  in  i. 
Madrid:  1902;  also  in  Revista  critica  de  hist,  y  lit.,  etc.,  vols.  V-VII, 
1900-1902),  —  a  small  but  helpful  work.  /  W.  HANSSLER,  Handy  Biblio- 
graphical Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  Spanish  Language  and  Lit.  (St.  Louis, 
Mo.:  c.  1915), —  of  no  aid  to  the  advanced  student.  /  Literary  histories  by 
the  following  are  rich  in  bibliography :  Fitzmaurice-Kelly  (very  helpful ; 
the  1916  Spanish  ed.  is  superior  in  bibliog.  to  earlier  English,  French,  and 
Spanish  eds.),  Korting,  Baist,  Michaelis  de  Vasconcellos  and  Braga, 
Cejador-  y  Franca  (extensive). 

B.  Histories. 

i.  General.  F.  BOUTERWEK  (see  vol.  Ill,  1804,  of  the  work  cited  above, 
under  xn,  B,  i ;  English  trans,  by  T.  Ross,  Hist,  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
Lit.,  2  vols.,  Lond. :  1823  and  later  eds.;  Spanish  trans.,  Madrid:  1829). / 
*G.  TICKNOR,  Hist,  of  Spanish  Lit.  (3  vols.  Boston:  1849;  4th  ed.,  en- 
larged and  rev.,  Boston  :  c.  1891 ;  French  trans,  by  J.-'G.  Magnabal,  3 'vols., 
Paris:  1864-1872;  Spanish  trans.,  with  additions,  4  vols.,  Madrid:  1851- 
1856),  —  antiquated,  but  still  valuable.  /  J.  VALERA  Y  ALCALA  GALIANO, 
Critica  literaria,  essays  published  1854-1905,  15  vols.  (Obras  completas, 
Madrid:  1908-1912,  vols.  XIX-XXXIII), —  many  valuable  studies  of  vari- 
ous aspects  of  Spanish  lit.  /  F.  LOISE,  Hist,  de  la  poesie  en  rapport  avec 
la  civilisation;  la  poesie  espagnole  (Bruxelles:  1868;  in  Mem.  pub.  par 
1'Academie  royale,  vol.  XX  of  the  octavo  collection).  /  *E.  BARET,  Hist,  de 
la  litt.  espagnole  (Paris:  1884),  —  a  good  handbook.  /  G.  KORTING,  Ency- 
klopadie  und  Methodologie  der  roman.  Philol.  (4  pts.  in  2.  Heilbronn : 
1884-1888;  for  histories  of  Catalan  and  Spanish  lit.  see  3:  542-547).  / 
A.  MOREL-FATIO,  Etudes  sur  1'Espagne  (3  vols.  Paris :  1888-1904).  / 
H.  B.  CLARKE,  Spanish  Lit,  an  Elementary  Handbook  (Lond.:  1893; 
2d  ed.  1909),  —  useful.  /  V.  M.  O.  DENK,  Einfiihrung  in  die  Gesch.  der 
altcatalanischen  Lit.  vdn  deren  Anfangen  bis  zum  18.  Jahrh.  (Miinchen : 
f893).  /  M.  MENENDEZ  Y  PELAYO,  Estudios  de  critica  lit.  (5  vols.  Madrid : 
1893-1908).  /  *J.  FITZMAURICE-KELLY,  A  Hist,  of  Spanish  Lit.  (Lond.: 
1898;  Spanish  trans.,  Madrid:  1901,  2d  ed.  1916,  —  the  best;  French  trans., 
2d  ed.,  Paris:  1913),  —  the  chief  short  account;  excellent  bibliography 


XV,  B]  APPENDIX  Si/ 

in  the  1916  Spanish  ed.  /  R.  BEER,  Span.  Literaturgesch.  (Sammlung 
Goschen.  2  vols.  Leipz. :  1903),  —  brief  conspectus./*?.  A.  BECKER, 
Gesch.  der  span.  Lit.  (Strassburg:  1904), — brief  but  helpful.  /  B.  SAN- 
VISENTI,  Manuale  di  lett.  spagnuola  (Milano:  1907),  —  a  good  handbook./ 
*E.  MERIMEE,  Precis  d'hist.  de  la  litt.  espagnole  (Paris:  1908),  —  another 
helpful  handbook.  /  *J.  CEJADOR  Y  FRANCA,  Hist,  de  la  lengua  y  lit.  caste- 
liana,  etc.  (vols.  I-IX  Madrid  :  1915-1918  ;  other  vols.  announced ;  vol.  IX 
covers  the  period  1-870-1887),  —  most  complete  and  authoritative  ;  includes 
Spanish- American  authors ;  excellent  bibliog.  /  A.  SALCEDO  Y  Ruiz,  La 
lit.  espanola,  resumen  de  historia  critica  (ad  enlarged  ed.  3  vols.  Madrid : 
191 5-1916),  —  popular. 

2.  Through  the  i$th  Century.     L.  CLARUS  (W.  Volk),  Darstellung  der 
span.  Lit.  im  Mittelalter  (2  vols.     Mainz:    1846),  —  antiquated;  use  with 
caution.  /  *F.  J.  WOLF,  Studien  zur  Gesch.  der  span,  und  portug.  Nationallit. 
(Berlin:  1859;  Spanish  trans.,  with  additions  and  notes,  by  M.  de  Unamuno, 
Hist,  de  las  lits.  castellana  y  portuguesa,  2  vols.,  Madrid:  1895-1896), — 
still  valuable,  especially  in  the  Spanish  ed.  /  *J.  AMADOR  DE  LOS  Rfos, 
Hist,  critica  de  la  lit.  espanola,  to  1500  (7  vols.    Madrid:    1861-1865), — 
use  with  caution.  /  COMTE  TH.  DE  PUYMAIGRE,  Les  vieux  auteurs  castillans, 
hist,  de  1'ancienne  litt.  espagnole  (1861-1862;  2d  ed.,  incomplete,  Paris: 
1888-1890).  /  V.  BALAGUER,  Hist,  polftica  y  lit.  de  los  trovadores  (6  vols. 
Madrid:  1878-1879;  2d  ed.    1882-1883;  vols.  II I-VI  of  Obras),  — should 
have  been  cited  above,  p.  250.  /  COMTE  TH.  DE  PUYMAIGRE,  La  cour  litt.  de 
Don  Juan  II,  1419-1454  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1893).  /*G.  BAIST,  Spanische  Lit. 
(in  Grober's  Grundriss,  2.  Bd. '  2.  Abt.    1897;  cited  above,  xn,  B,  2),  —  to 
end  of  i6th  century.  /  *A.  MOREL-FATIO,  Katalanische  Lit.  (also  in  Grober), 

—  only  a  brief  notice  of  works  later  than  the  i6th  century.  /  E.  DE  LA  BARRA, 
Lit.  arcaica,  estudios  criticos  (Valparaiso:  1898).  /J.  FITZMAURICE-KELLY, 
Chapters  on  Spanish  Lit.  (Lond. :  1908). /*M.  MENENDEZ  Y  PELAYO,  Hist, 
de  la  poesfa  castellana  en  la  edad  media  (2  vols.    Madrid:   1911-1913; 
vol.  IV  of  Obras  completas). /*E.  CARRE  ALDAO,  Influencias  de  la  lit. 
gallega  en  la  castellana,  estudios  criticos  y  bibliograficos  (Madrid:  1915), 

—  useful,  especially  for  the  troubadour  lyric ;  bibliography.  /  C.  R.  POST, 
Mediaeval  Spanish  Allegory  (Harvard  Studies  in  Comp.  Lit,,  vol.  IV.   1915). 

3.  The  i6th  and  ijth  Centuries.    P.  CHASLES,  La  France,  1'Espagne  et 
1'Italie  au  I7e  siecle  (Paris:  1877). /*A.  MOREL-FATIO,  L'Espagne  au  i6e 
et  i7e  siecle  (Heilbronn:  1878). /*D.  HANNAY,  The  Later  Renaissance 
(N.  Y. :  1898).  /  A.  SCHNEIDER,  Spaniens  Anteil  an  der  deutschen  Lit.  des 
16.  und  17.  Jahrh.  (Strassburg:    1898).  /  B.  DE  LOS  Rios  DE  LAMPEREZ, 
Del  siglo  de  oro,  etc.  (Madrid :   1910).  /  See  also  some  of  the  works  listed 
above,  under  2,  especially  those  by  Baist,  Morel-Fatio,  and  Carre  Aldao. 

4.  The  i8th  Century.  *L.  A.  DE  CUETO,  MARQUES  DE  VALMAR,  Hist.  crit. 
de  la  poesia  castellana  en  el  siglo  18  (3d  rev.  ed.    3  vols.    Madrid:  1893). 
/  V.  CIAN,  Italia  e  Spagna  nel  secolo  18  (Torino:  1896). /*E.  COTARELO 
Y  MORI,  Iriarte  y  su  epoca  (Madrid :  1897). 


8l8  APPENDIX  [XV,  C 

5.  The  igth  Century.  G.  DIERCKS,  Das  moderne  Geistesleben  Spaniens 
(Leipz. :  1883).  /  R.  FERNANDEZ  VILLA  VERDE  Y  GARCIA  DEL  RIVERO,  La 
escuela  didactica  y  la  poesia  politica  en  Castilla  durante  el  siglo  19  (Madrid: 
1902).  /  P.  GENER,  Cosas  de  Espana  (Barcelona:  1903),  —  Catalan  renas- 
cence, etc.  /  J.  LE£N  PAGANO,  Al  traves  de  la  Espana  lit.  (2  vols.  3d  ed. 
Barcelona:  1904),  —  brief  papers  on  modern  writers.  /  E.  PINEYRO,  El 
romanticismo  en  Espana  (Paris:  1904).  /  J.  M.  AICARDO,  S.J.,  De  lit. 
contemporanea,  1901-1905  (zd  enlarged  ed.  Madrid:  1905),  —  includes 
notices  of  Catalan  and  Spanish-American  writers.  /  *F.  BLANCO  GARC/ A, 
La  lit.  espanola  en  el  siglo  19  (3d  ed.  2  vols.  Madrid:  1909-1910).  / 
R.  CANSINOS  ASSENS,  La  nueva  lit,  1898-1916  (2  vols.  Madrid:  1917). 

C.  Periodicals.  For  bibliography  of  Spanish  periodicals,  see  above,  iv,  c,  2. 
The  most  important  journal  is  the  * Revue  hispaniqtie  (Paris  :  1894  +  ),  de- 
voted to  Spanish,  Catalan,  and  Portuguese  history  and  literature.  /  See  also 
Memorias  de  la  Academia  espanola  ( Madrid :  1 870  + ) ;  /  Revista  contemporanea 
(Madrid:  1875  +)  >  /  *  Bulletin  hispanique  (Bordeaux:  1899  +) ;  /  Revista 
espanola  de  lit.,  hist,  y  aite  (1901  + ) ;  /  Cultura  espanola  (Madrid  :  1906  + ) ; 
/  Revista  de  filologia  espanola  (1914  +  ). 

XV «.  Spanish-American  Poetry. 

For  bibliography  and  literary  histories,  see  A.  L.  COESTER,  A  Bibliog, 
of  Spanish-American  Lit.  (N. Y.:  1912;  Romanic  Rev.,  vol.  Ill,  J^o.  ij; 
also  the  same  writer's  The  Lit.  Hist,  of  Spanish  America  (N.  Y. :  1916), 
which  contains  useful  bibliog.  notes.  For  national  bibliographies  see 
Kroeger,  p.  177  (note  the  work  by  J.  B.  Kais"er) ;  Peddie,  pp.  i,  2,  4,  5,  8,  24; 
N.  Y.  State  Library  Bulletin  38,  p.  38.  The  works  of  Kroeger  and  Peddie 
and  Bulletin  38  are  cited  above,  I,  A. 

XVI.  Portuguese  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.  For  national  bibliographies  see  R.  A.  Peddie,  National 
Bibliographies  (Lond.:   1912),  pp.  26-27  ;  N.  Y.  State  Library  Bulletin  38, 
Selected  National  Bibliogs.  (Albany  :  1915),  p.  38.   For  Portuguese  authors 
who  wrote  in  Spanish  see  D.  Garcia  Peres,  noted  above,  xv,  A,  i.    For 
select  bibliography  of  belles-lettres,  literary  histories,  monographs,  etc., 
see  the  works  of  prb'ber,  Korting,  and  Prestage,  as  noted  below. 

B.  Histories. 

i.  General.  F.  BOUTERWEK  (1805),  as  cited  above,  xv,  B,  i.  /  SISMONDI 
(1813.  Vol.  IV,  pp.  260-562),  as  cited,  with  other  works  which  may  be 
consulted,  above,  xil,  B,  i.  /  F.  J.  WOLF  (1859),  as  cited  above,  xv,  B,  2.  / 
*T.  BRAGA,  Hist,  da  poesia  portugueza  (4  vols.  Porto:  1871-1872) ;  Hist, 
da  litt.  portugueza  (2  vols.  1909-1914).  Braga's  works  are  the  most 
extensive  and,  though  they  are  marred  by  crotchet  and  caprice  and 
must  be  used  with  care,  yet  they  are  a  monument  of  earnest  and  patriotic 
endeavor.  /  «G.  KORTIM;  (1884-1888),  as  cited  above,  xn,  B,  2;  helpful 
bibliographical  notes.  /  *T.  BRAGA,  Curso  da  hist,  da  litt.  portugueza 


XVII,  A]  APPENDIX  819 

(Lisboa:  1885),  —  a  school  text,  but  a  valuable  survey.  /  *A.  LOISEAU,  Hist. 
de  la  litt.  portugaise  (Paris  :  1886).  /  C.  VON  REINHARDSTOETTNER,  Zur  lit. 
Gesch.  Portugals,  in  Aufsatze  und  Abhandlungen,  vornehmlich  zur  Litgesch. 
(Berlin  :  1887).  /  *C.  MICHAELIS  DE  VASCONCELLOS  and  T.  BRAGA,  Gesch. 
der  portugiesischen  Lit.,  in  Grober's  Grundriss  (Bd.  II,  Abt.  II.  1897),  as 
cited  above,  xn,  B,  2.  This  is  the  best,  most  authoritative  work  ;  valuable 
bibliography.  See  also  Michaelis  de  Vasconcellos'  article,  Portugal,  Littera- 
ture,  in  La  grande  encyclopedic.  /  MENDES  DOS  REMEDIOS,  Hist,  da  litt. 
portugueza  desde  as  origenes  ate  a  actualidade  (3d  ed.  Coimbra:  1908).  / 
*E.  PRESTAGE,  Article,  Port.  Lit.,  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.  (igii)./).  DE 
BARROS,  La  litt.  portugaise,  esquisse  de  son  evolution  (Porto:  1910).  / 
*A.  F.  G.  BELL,  Studies  in  Port.  Lit.  (Oxford:  1914),  —  sympathetic, 
informing  ;  bibliography. 

2.  The  igth  and  zoth  Centuries.  LOPES  DE  MENDONCA,  Memorias  da  litt. 
contemporanea  (1855).  /A.  R.  ORTIZ,  La  lit.  portuguesa  en  el  siglo  19 
(Madrid:  1870).  /*M.  BARRETO,  Litt.  portugueza  contemporanea  (in  Revista 
de  Portugal,  July  1889).  /  *T.  BRAGA,  As  modernas  ideias  na  litt.  portugueza 
(2  vols.  Porto:  1892).  /  M.  FORMONT,  Le  mouvement  poetique  contem- 
porain  en  Portugal  (in  Revue  du  siecle,  1892).  /  P.  LEBESQUE,  Le  Portugal 
litt.  d'aujourd'hui  (Paris:  1904).  /  *E.  PRESTAGE,  Port.  Lit.  of  the  igth 
Cent.  (Chap.  VI  in  G.  Saintsbury's  The  Later  igth  Cent.  Lond.:  1907).  / 
F.  DE  FIGUEIREDO,  Hist,  da  litt.  romantica  portugueza,  1825-1870  (Lisboa: 


C.  Periodicals.  Revista  litteraria,  etc.  (Porto:  1838-1843).  /  Revista  portu- 
gueza (Porto  :  1894  +). 

XVII.  English  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography. 

i.  General.  R.  WATT,  Bibliotheca  Britannica,  or  a  General  Index  to 
British  and  Foreign  Lit.  (4  vols.  Edinb.  :  1824).  /  W.  T.  LOWNDES,  Bib- 
liographers' Manual  of  English  Lit.,  containing  an  account  of  rare,  curious, 
and  useful  books,  etc.  (1834.  New  ed.,  rev.  and  enlarged.  6  vols.  Lond.: 
1885).  /J.  P-  COLLIER,  Bibliographical  and  Critical  Account  of  the  Rarest 
Books  in  the  English  Language  (4  vols.  N.  Y.:  1866).  /  W.  C.  HAZLITT, 
Handbook  to  the  Popular,  Poetical,  and  Dramatic  Lit.  of  Great  Britain, 
from  the  Invention  of  Printing  to  the  Restoration  (Lond.:  1867);  by  the 
same,  Bibliographical  Collections  and  Notes  on  Early  English  Lit,  1474- 
1700  (6  vols.  Lond.:  1876-1903).  With  these  may  be  used  G.  J.  Gray's 
General  Index  to  Hazlitt's  Handbook  and  his  Bibliog.  Collections  (Lond.: 
'893).  /  S.  A.  ALLIBONE,  Critical  Dictionary  of  English  Lit.  and  British 
and  American  Authors  .  .  .  from  the  earliest  account  to  the  latter  half  of 
the  igth  century  (3  vols.  Philadelphia:  1899)  !  Supplement,  by  J.  F.  Kirk 
(2  vols.  Philadelphia  :  1899).  /  A.  GROWOLL,  Three  Centuries  of  English 
Book-Trade  Bibliography,  1595  +  (N.  Y.  Dibdin  Club:  1903),  containing  a 
list  of  catalogues  published  1595-1902,  by  W.  Eames. 


820  APPENDIX  [XVII,  A 

2.  Middle  English.   *J.  E.  WELLS,  A  Manual  of  the  Writings  in  Middle 
English  1050-1400  (Yale  Univ.  Press:  1916). 

3.  i$th  Century.  W.  BLADES,  The  Biography  and  Typography  of  William 
Caxton  (2d  ed.    Lond. :  1882).  /S.  DE  RICCI,  A  Census  of  Caxtons  (Lond.: 
1909),  description  of  all  known  copies.  /  E.  G.  DUFF,  Fifteenth  Century 
English  Books,  a  Bibliography,  etc.  (Oxford  Univ.  Press:  1917). 

4.  14.75-1640.  C.  SAYLE,  Early  English  Printed  Books  in  the  University 
Library  of  Cambridge,  1475-1640  (4  vols.   Camb. :  1900-1907). 

5.  1501-1556.   *E.  G.  DUFF  and  Others,  Handlists  of  Books  printed  by 
London  Printers,  1501-1556  (Lond.  Bibliog.  Soc. :   1913),  lists  of  books 
from  eighty-nine  printers,  up  to  the  granting  of  a  charter,  1557,  to  the 
Stationers'  Company. 

6.  1554-1640.   *Stationers'  Company,  Transcript  of  the  Registers  of  the 
Company  of  Stationers  of  the  City  of  London,  1554-1640,  ed.  by  E.  Arber 
(5  vols.    1875-1877;  Birmingham:  1894). 

7.  To  1640.   *British  Museum  Library,  Catalogue  of  Books  in  the  Li- 
brary printed  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  of  Books  in  English 
printed  Abroad  to  1640  (3  vols.    Lond.:    1884). /John  Rylands  Library, 
Catalogue  of  Books  in  the  John  Rylands  Library,  Manchester,  printed  in 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  and  of  Books  in  English  printed  Abroad 
to  the  End  of  the  Year  1640  (Manchester:  1895). 

8.  1640-1661.   *British  Museum  Library,  Catalogue  of  the  Pamphlets, 
Books,   Newspapers,   and   Manuscripts   relating   to   the   Civil  War,   the 
Commonwealth,  and  Restoration,  collected  by  George  Thomason,  1640- 
1661,  ed.  by  G.  K.  Fortescue  (2  vols.    Lond.:  1908). 

9.  1640-1708.    *Stationers'  Company,  Transcript  of  the   Registers  of 
the  Worshipful  Company  of  Stationers,  1640-1708,  ed.  by  G.  E.  B.  Eyre, 
transcribed  by  H.  R.  Plomer  (3  vols.    Lond.:  1913-1914). 

10.  1668-1700..   *E.  ARBER,  The  Term  Catalogues,  1668-1709  (3  vols. 
Lond.:   1903-1906),  including  the  Easter  Term  of  1911;  a  collation  of  the 
very  rare  published  lists  of  books  for  each  law  term. 

n.  1700-1786.  W.  BENT,  A  General  Catalogue  of  Books  in  all  Lan- 
guages, Arts,  and  Sciences,  printed  in  Great  Britain  and  published  in 
London,  1700-1786  (Lond.:  1786);  for  the  last  years  of  the  i8th  century, 
W.  Bent,  The  London  Catalogue  of  Books,  corrected  to  August,  1811 
(Lond.:  1811).  These  quite  unsatisfactory  works  are  the  only  ones  of 
their  kind  for  the  i8th  century.  /  See  also  the  lists  of  new  books  printed 
in  each  number  of  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  the  London  Magazine,  etc. 

12.  1801  to  date.  *English  Catalogue  of  Books.  For  the  period  1801- 
1836  see  R.  A.  PEDUIK  and  Q.  WADDINGTON,  The  English  Cat.  of  Books, 
i8or-i836  (Lond.:  1914),  which  supersedes  the  London  Catalogues  for 
the  period  edited  by  W.  Bent  (Lond.:  1831)  and  T.  Hodgson  (Lond.: 
1846).  The  years  1835-1915  are  covered  in  nine  volumes,  listing  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  books ;  from  vol.  5  on  the  Catalogue  contains  authors  and 
subjects  in  one  alphabetical  list ;  for  subject  index  to  the  first  four  vols. 


XVII,  B]  APPENDIX  821 

use  the  Index  to  the  English  Cat.  of  Books  (4  vols.  Lond. :  1858-1893). 
Continued  as  an  annual  catalogue,  with  appendixes  giving  the  publications 
of  learned  societies. 

13.  Current.    *English  Catalogue  of  Books,  annual,  as  noted  above./ 
The  Bookseller  (1858  to  date),  a  monthly  record  of  British  and  foreign 
literature.  /  * Publishers1    Circular  and  Booksellers1   Record  of  British   and 
Foreign  Lit.  (1837  to  date),  weekly  trade  journal,  —  the  basis  of  the  annual 
English  Catalogue. 

14.  Belles-Lettres.    There  is  no  adequate,   separate  handbook  like  G. 
Lanson's   Manuel  bibliographique  for  French  literature,  but  the  biblio- 
graphical appendixes  of  the  Cambridge  Hist,  of  Lit.  are  extensive  and  well 
selected.    Korting's  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  der  eng.  Lit.  (5th  ed.)  is  helpful 
as  a  partial  record  of  scholarship  up  to  1910.    For  the  Anglo-Saxon  period 
Wiilker's  Grundriss  was  authoritative  up  to  the  year  1885 ;  it  must  now  be 
checked  with  later  works. 

15.  For  Irish,  Scottish,  and  Welsh  literature,  see  below,  xx,  A;  xxi,  A; 
XXII,  A. 

1 6.  Canadian.    For  national  bibliographies  see  R.  A.  Peddie,  National 
Bibliographies  (Lond. :  1912),  p.  3  ;  N.Y.  State  Library  Bulletin  38,  Selected 
National  Bibliogs.  (Albany :  1915),  p.  24.    See  also  A.  MacMurchy,  A  Hand- 
hook  of  Canadian'Lit.  (Toronto:  1906). 

17.  Australasian.  See  Peddie,  pp.  i,  23;  H.  G.Turner  and  A.  Sutherland, 
The  Development  of  Australian  Lit.  (Lond.:  1898). 

18.  Anglo-Indian.    E.  F.  Oaten,  A  Sketch  of  Anglo-Indian  Lit.  (Lond. : 
1908). 

B.  Histories. 

i.  General.  H.  A.  TAINE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  anglaise  (4  vols.  Paris:  1863- 
1864;  8 th«  enlarged  ed.  1892;  English  trans,  by  H.  Van  Laun,  2  vols. 
N.  Y. :  1871,  and  later  editions).  This  famous  work  is  subjective  in  attack, 
arbitrary  in  method  (application  of  preconceived  ideas  of  literary  growth), 
and  for  the  earlier  periods  worthless  from  the  scientific  point  of  view ;  but 
it  is  eminently  readable  and,  for  the  mature  student  who  can  check  the 
author's  slips  and  vagaries,  deeply  suggestive.  /  *G.  KORTING,  Grundriss 
der  Gesch.  der  eng.  Lit.  (Minister  i.  W. :  1887;  5th  rev.  ed.  1910), — a 
very  convenient  survey,  with  valuable  critical  paraphernalia.  /  *H.  MOR- 
LEY,  English  Writers  (n  vols.  Lond.:  1887-1895), —  extensive,  detailed, 
scholarly;  much  bibliography.  The  last  volume,  completed  by  W.  H. 
Griffin,  treats  of  the  age  of  James  I.  /  *J.  J.  JUSSERAND,  Hist.  litt.  du  peuple 
anglais  (2  vols.  Paris :  1894,  etc. ;  English  trans.,  A  Lit.  Hist,  of  the 
English  People,  3  vols.  N.  Y. :  1895-1909). /*W.  J.  COURTHOPE,  A  Hist, 
of  English  Poetry  (6  vols.  Lond.:  1895-1910), —  a  valuable  work  which 
has  aroused  much  criticism. /*R.  P.  WULKER,  Gesch.  der  eng.  Lit.  (Leipz. : 
1896;  2d  rev.  ed.  2  vols.  1906-1907). /*R.  GARNETT  and  E.  W.  GOSSE, 
English  Lit.,  An  Illustrated  Record  (4  vols.  Lond.:  1903). /*The  Cam- 
bridge Hist,  of  English  Lit.,  ed.  by  A.  W.  Ward  and  A.  R.  Waller  (14  vols. 


822  APPENDIX  [XVII,  B 

Lond. :  1907-1917),  —  with  extensive  bibliographical  appendixes.  This  is 
the  most  considerable  and  serious  effort  to  construct  an  adequate  history, 
but  the  chapters,  by  different  writers,  are  of  very  unequal  value.  /  W.  R. 
NICOLL  and  T.  SECCOMBE,  A  Hist,  of  English  Lit.  (3  vols.  N.  Y.:  1907).  / 
*J.  W.  MACKAIL,  The  Springs  of  Helicon,  A  Study  in  the  Progress  of 
English  Poetry  from  Chaucer  to  Milton  (Lond.:  1909).  /  E.  DE  SELINCOURT, 
English  Poets  and  the  National  Ideal  (Lond.:  1915). 

Of  the  many  smaller  manuals  the  following  may  be  mentioned :  *S.  A. 
BROOKE,  English  Lit.  (Lond.:  1876,  and  later  eds. ;  new  ed.,  rev.  and  cor- 
rected, with  appendix  on  American  lit,  by  J.  H.  Patton,  N.  Y. :  1882,  and 
later  eds.),  —  one  of  the  best  of  the  briefer  handbooks.  /  H.  MORLEY,  A 
First  Sketch  of  English  Lit.  (Lond.:  1892;  new,  enlarged  ed.  1912).  / 
*E.  W.  GOSSE,  A  Short  Hist,  of  Modern  English  Lit.  (Lond.:  1897;  Short 
Hists.  of  Lits.  of  the  World  Series).  /  F.  S.  CORBETT,  A  Hist,  of  British 
Poetry  (Lond.:  1904)..  /  *W.  V.  MOODY  and  R.  M.  LOVETT,  A  Hist,  of 
English  Lit.  (N.  Y.:  1907).  /  H.  S.  PANCOAST,  An  Introd.  to  English  Lit. 
(3d  enlarged  ed.  N.Y. :  1907).  /  W.  H.  CRAWSHAW,  The  Making  of  English 
Lit.  (Boston:  1907,  etc.)./*W.  J.  LONG,  English  Lit.  (Boston:  c.  1909), — 
a  convenient  textbook.  /  A.  LANG,  Hist,  of  English  Lit.  (2d  rev.  ed. 
N.Y.:  1912). 

See  also  *English  Men  of  Letters,  ed.  by  J.  Morley  (38  vols.  Lond>: 
1884-1911);  /  F.  RYLAND,  Chronological  Outlines  of  English  Lit.  (Lond.: 
1890,  etc.) ;  /  T.  J.  TUCKER,  The  Foreign  Debt  of  English  Lit.  (Lond. :  1907). 

2.  To  the  Age  of  Elizabeth.  T.  WARTON,  Hist,  of  English  Poetry  from 
the  I2th  to  the  Close  of  the  i6th  Century  (Lond. :  1774  ;  ed.  W.  C.  Hazlitt, 
4  vols.,  Lond.:  1871). /E.  KOLBING,  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden  Gesch. 
der  romantischen  Poesie  und  Prosa  des  Mittelalters,  unter  besonderer 
Beriicksichtigung  der  englischen  und  nordischen  Lit.  (Breslau:  1876).  / 
*B.  TEN  BRINK,  Gesch.  der  eng.  Lit.  (2  vols.  Berlin  :  1^77  ;  English  trans, 
by  H.  M.  Kennedy,  1883,  and  later  as  2  vols.  in  3,  N.  Y.:  1889-1896),  —  to 
the  death  of  Surrey.  Still  a  highly  valuable  work,  but  it  must  be  checked 
with  later  investigations.  /  *R.  P.  WIJLKER,  Grundriss  zur  Gesch.  der 
angelsachsischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1885),  —  with  bibliography  of  the  older 
critical  material.  /  *S.  A.  BROOKE,  Hist,  of  Early  English  Lit.  (Lond.:  1892). 
/»B.  -BEN  BRINK,  Altenglische  Lit.  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  ist  ed.,  vol.11, 
'893).  /  C.  M.  LEWIS,  The  Beginnings  of  English  Lit.  (Boston:  1901), — 
a  brief  but  spirited  textbook.  /*F.  J.  SNELL,  The  Age  of  Chaucer  (Lond.: 
1901)  and  The  Age  of  Transition,  1400-1580  (Lond.:  1905).  /  *VV.  H. 
SCHOFIEI.D,  English  Lit.  from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  Chaucer  (N.  Y.: 
1906),  —  standard,  authoritative  ;  bibliography.  /  *A.  BRANDL,  Altenglische 
Lit.,  and  Mitteleng.  Lit.,  both  in  Paul's  Grundriss  (vol.11,  1893;  ad  ed. 
1908),  cited  above,  xn,  B,  3,  —  authoritative,  scientific;  bibliography./ 

F.  J.  SNEI.L,  The  Age  of  Alfred,  664-1154  (Lond.:  i9i2)./W.  P.  KER, 
English  Lit.,  Medieval  (Lond.:  1912.    Home  University  Library,  No.  45).  / 

G.  SARRAZIN,  Von  Kadmon  bis  Kynewulf  (Berlin:  1913).  /  C.  S.  BALDWIN, 


XVII,  B]  APPENDIX  823 

Introd.  to  English  Medieval   Lit.  (N. Y.:    1914),  Beowulf  to  Chaucer./ 
*J.  E.  WELLS,  Manual  of  the  Writings  in  Middle  English  1050-1400  (1916). 

3.  Age  of  Elizabeth  to  the  i8th  Century.    E.  P.  WHIFFLE,  Lit.  of  the  Age 
of  Elizabeth  (Boston:  1869).  /  *E.  W.  GOSSE,  Seventeenth  Century  Studies 
(Lond. :  .1883 ;  2d  rev.  ed.   1885)  and  From  Shakespeare  to  Pope,  an  inquiry 
into  the  causes  and  phenomena  of  the  rise  of  classical  poetry  in  England 
(Camb. :  1885).  /  C.  H.  HERFORD,  Studies  in  the  Lit.  Relations  of  England 
and  Germany  in  the  i6th  Century  (Camb.:  1886).  /*G.  E.  B.  SAINTSBURY, 
A  Hist,  of  Elizabethan  Lit.  (Lond.:   1887,  and  later  eds.)./E.  W.  GotsE, 
The  Jacobean  Poets  (N.Y.:    1894).  /  R.  GARNETT,  The  Age  of  Dryden 
(Lond.:  1895). /J.  H.  B.  MASTERMAN,  The  Age  of  Milton  (Lond.:  1897).  / 
J.  G.  UNDERBILL,  Spanish  Lit.  in  the  England  of  the  Tudors  (N.  Y. :  1899), 
— with  bibliography.  /  T.  SECCOMBE  and  J.  W.  ALLEN,  The  Age  of  Shake- 
speare, 1579-1631  (2  vols.    Lond.:  1903). /B.  WENDELL,  The  Temper  of 
the  I7th  Century  in  English  Lit.  (1904). /A.  H.  UPHAM,  The  French 
Influence  in  English  Lit.  from  the  Accession  of  Elizabeth  to  the  Restora- 
tion (N.  Y.:  1908), — with  bibliography.  /  *S.  LEE,  The  French  Renaissance 
in  England  (N.  Y. :.  1910), — with  bibliography.  /  *F.  E.  SCHELLING,  English 
Lit.  during  the  Lifetime  of  Shakespeare  (N.  Y.:  1910), — with  bibliography. 
/  J.  M.  ROBERTSON,  Elizabethan  Lit"  (N.Y.:  1914.  Home  University  Library, 
No.  89). /G.  WATERHOUSE,  The  Lit.  Relations  of  England  and  Germany 
in  the  I7th  Century  (Camb.:  1914),  —  with  bibliography. 

4.  The  i8th  Century.    J.  NICHOLS,  Illustrations  of  the  Lit.  Hist,  of  the 
i8th  Century  (8  vols.   Lond.:  1817-1858).  /*H.  HETTNER,  Gesch.  der  eng. 
Lit.,  1660-1770,  being  Th.  I  of  his  Litgesch.  des  18.  Jahrh.  (1856-1870; 
6th  rev.  ed.  Braunschweig:  i9i2)./*SiR  LESLIE  STEPHEN,  Hist,  of  English 
Thought  in  the   i8th  Century   (2  vols.     Lond.:    1876;    3d  ed.     1902).  / 
*A.  BELJAME,  Le  public  et  les  hommes  de  lettres  en  Angleterre  au  i8e 
siecle,   1660-1744   (Paris:    1881).  /  M.  O.  OLIPHANT,  The  Lit.  Hist,  of 
England  in  the  End  of  the  i8th  and  the  Beginning  of  the  igth  Century 
(3  vols.    Lond.:   1882).  /  T.  S.  PERRY,  English  Lit.  in  the  i8th  Century 
(N.Y.:   1883). /*E.  W.  GOSSE,  A  Hist,  of  i8th  Century  Lit,  1660-1780 
(Lond.:   1889),  —  with  bibliography.  /  W.  L.  PHELPS,  The  Beginnings  of 
the  English  Romantic  Movement  (Boston:  1893). /J-  DENNIS,  The  Age 
of  Pope  (Lond.:  1894).  /  E.  DOWDEN,  The  French  Revolution  and  English 
Lit.  (Lond.:  1897).  /*H.  A.  BEERS,  A  Hist,  of  English  Romanticism  in  the 
i8th  Century  (N.  Y.:   1899),  — with  bibliography.  /  T.  SECCOMBE,  The  Age 
of  Johnson,  1748-1798  (Lond.:   1900).  /  *SiR  LESLIE  STEPHEN,  English 
Literature  and  Society  in  the  i8th  Century  (Lond.:  1904). /*C.  CESTRE, 
La  revolution  francaise  et  les  poetes  anglais,  1789-1809  (Paris:  1906).  / 
T.  E.  CASSON,  i8th  Century  Lit.  (Oxford:    1909).  /  C.  B.  TINKER,  The 
Salon  and  English  Letters,   etc.   (N.  Y.:    1915). /G.  E.  B.  SAINTSBURY, 
The  Peace  of  the  Augustans,  etc.  (Lond.:  1916). 

5.  The  iqth  and  soth  Centuries.    *G.  BRANDES,  Main  Currents  in  igth 
Cent.  Lit.  (Danish  original,  1871+),  as  cited  above,  xn,  B,  i./H.  B. 


824  APPENDIX  [XVIII 

FORMAN,  Our  Living  Poets  (Lond. :  1871).  /  W.  J.  COURTHOPE,  The  Liberal 
Movement  in  English  Lit.  (Lond.:  1885).  /  G.  SARRAZIN,  Renaissance  de 
la  poesie  anglaise,  1798-1889  (Paris:  1889).  /  M.  O.  and  F.  R.  OLIPHANT, 
Victorian  Age  of  English  Lit.  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1892).  /  W.  R.  NICOLL  and 
T.  J.  WISE,  Lit.  Anecdotes  of  the  igth  Century  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1895-1896). 
/  H.  WALKER,  The  Greater  Victorian  Poets  (Lond.:  1895)  and  The  Age 
of  Tennyson  (Lond.:  1897). /*H.  A.  BEERS,  A  Hist,  of  English  Romanti- 
cism in  the  igth  Century  (N.Y.:  1901),  —  with  bibliography.  /  C.  H. 
HE^IFORD,  The  Age  of  Wordsworth  (Lond.:  1901).  /  W.  ARCHER,  Poets 
of  the  Younger  Generation  (Lond.:  1902). /*E.  C.  STEDMAN,  Victorian 
Poets  (Lond.:  1876;  rev.  and  enlarged  ed.  Boston:  c.  1903),  —  a  spirited 
and  scholarly  work.  /  *G.  E.  B.  SAINTSBURY,  A  Hist,  of  igth  Century  Lit., 
1780-1895  (Lond.:  1904). /W.  M.  PAYNE,  The  Greater  English  Poets  of 
the  i  gth  Century  (N.  Y. :  1907).  /  A.  SYMONS,  The  Romantic  Movement 
in  English  Poetry  (N.  Y. :  1909).  /  L.  MAGNUS,  English  Lit.  in  the  igth  Cen- 
tury (Lond.:  1909). /*H.  WALKER,  The  Lit.  of  the  Victorian  Era  (Camb. : 
1910),  —  valuable;  also  his  Outlines  of  Victorian  Lit.  (1913).  /  H.  RICHTER, 
Gesch.  der  eng.  Romantik  (2  vols.  Halle  a.  S.:  i9ii)./*O.  ELTON,  A 
Survey  of  English  Lit.,  1780-1830  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1912),  —  on  an  ex- 
tended scale.  /  J.  M.  KENNEDY,  English  Lit.  1880-1905  (1912).  /  G.  K. 
CHESTERTON,  The  Victorian  Age  in  Lit.  (Lond.:  1913.  Home  University 
Library),  —  brief,  stimulating,  clever. /H.  JACKSON,  The  Eighteen  Nine- 
ties '(1913).  /  M.  C.  STURGEON,  Studies  of  Contemporary  Poets  (1916).  / 
H.  WILLIAMS,  Modern  English  Writers  (1918).  /  *J.  W.  CUNLIFFE,  English 
Lit.  during  the  last  Half-Century  (N.  Y.:  1919). 

6.  For  Irish  and  Scottish  Poetry  see  below,  XX,  XXI. 

C.  Periodicals  and  Series  of  Monographs.  Deutsche  Shakespeare-Gesellschaft, 
Jahrbiich  (Berlin,  Weimar:  1865  +  ). / Englische Studien  (Heilbronn:  1877+ ). 
/  *Anglia,  Zeitschr.filr  englische  Philologie  (Halle  a.  S. :  1878  + ).  /  *Anglia 
Beiblatt,  Mitteilungen  aus  dem  gesammten  Gebiete  der  englischen  Sprache 
und  Lit.  (Halle  a.  S. :  1890  + ), —  reviews,  current  bibliography.  /  Erlanger 
Beirtdge  zur  englischen  Philologie  (Erlangen  und  Leipz. :  1889— 1904).  / 
Wiener  Beitrdgf  zrir  englischen  Philologie  (Wien  und  Leipz.:  1895  +  ).  / 
Studien  zur  englischen  Philologie  (Halle  a.  S. :  1897  +).  /  Banner  Beitrdge 
zur  Anglistik  (Bonn:  1898-1908),  continued  as  Banner  Studien  zur  engli- 
sfhen  PAilologie(\C)QC)+)./ Anglistische Forschungen  (Heidelberg:  1901  +)./ 
Ifesferia,  Schriften  zur  englischen  Philologie  (Gottingen :  1913  +  )- 

See  also  the  English  series  of  various  European,  English,  and  American 
universities ;  also  above,  iv,  c ;  xu,  c. 

XVIII.  American  (United  States)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.  For  general  bibliographies  see  KROEGER  (cited  above, 
I,  A), pp.  1 77-180; /PEDDIE  (also  above,  i,  A),  pp.  32-33 ;/N.Y.  State  Library 
Bulletin  38  (also  above,  I,  A),  pp.  14-18.  For  bibliography  of  belles-lettres 
in  particular  and  of  literary  histories,  monographs,  etc.  see  the  Cambridge 
Hist,  of  American  Lit.,  now  in  course  of  publication  (noted  below). 


XIX]  APPENDIX  825 

^.Histories.  *M.  C.  TYLER,  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.,  1607-1765  (2  vols.  N.Y.: 
1878).  /  *E.  C.  STEDMAN,  Poets  of  America  (Boston :  1885).  /  C.  F.  RICH- 
ARDSON, Am.  Lit.  (2  vols.  N.Y.:  1887).  /  H.  A.  BEERS,  Initial  Studies  in 
Am.  Letters  (N.  Y.:  1895).  /  J.  B.  MATTHEWS,  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Am. 
Lit.  (N.Y.:  1896). /*M.  C.  TYLER,  The  Lit.  Hist,  of  the  Am.  Revolution, 
1763-1783  (2  vols.  N.  Y.:  1897).  /  H.  S.  PANCOAST,  Introd.  to  Am.  Lit. 
(N.Y.:  1898;  2d  rev.  ed.  c.  1912).  /  K.  L.  BATES,  Am.  Lit.  (N.Y.:  1898). 
/W.  C.  BRONSON,  A  Short  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.  (Boston:  1900).  /  *A.  G. 
NEWCOMER,  Am.  Lit.  (Chicago:  c.  1901).  /  J.  L.  ONDERDONK,  Hist,  of 
Am.  Verse,  1610-1897  (Chicago:  1901).  / *B.  WENDELL,  A  Lit.  Hist,  of 
America  (N. Y.:  1901),  —  with  bibliography.  /  R.  BURTON,  Lit.  Leaders 
of  America  (N.  Y.:  1902).  /  W.  C.  LAWTON,  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Am. 
Lit.  (N.Y.:  1902). /J.  W.  ABERNETHY,  Am.  Lit.  (N.Y.:  1903).  /  T.  W. 
HIGGINSON  and  H.  W.  BOYNTON,  A  Reader's  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.  (Boston : 
1903).  /*W.  P.  TRENT,  A  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.,  1607-1865  (N.Y.:  1903. 
Short  Hists.  of  the  Lits.  of  the  World  Series).  /  G.  E.  WOODBERRY, 
America  in  Lit.  (N.  Y. :  1903).  /  L.  SEARS,  Am.  Lit.  in  the  Colonial  and 
National  Periods  (2d  ed.  Boston :  1905).  /  C.  HOLLIDAY,  A  Hist,  of 
Southern  Lit.  (Washington :  1906).  /  J.  B.  RITTENHOUSE,  The  Younger 
American  Poets  (Boston :  1906).  /  E.  W.  Bo  WEN,  Makers  of  Am.  Lit. 
(N.Y.:  1908). /M.  J.  MOSES,  The  Lit.  of  the  South  (N.Y.:  1910).  /  R.  P. 
HALLECK,  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.  (N.  Y.:  1911).  /  F.  V.  N.  PAINTER,  Introd.  to 
Am.  Lit.  (rev.  ed.  Boston:  1911).  /  W.  B.  CAIRNS,  A  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit. 
(N.Y.:  1912).  /  B.  PERRY,  The  American  Mind  (Boston:  1912).  /  C.  A. 
SMITH,  Die  amerikanische  Lit.  (Berlin:  1912),  —  with  bibliography./ 
W.  P.  TRENT  and  JOHN  ERSKINE,  Great  Writers  of  America  (N.Y. : 
1912).  /  F.  L.  PATTEE,  A  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.  since  1870  (N.Y.:  1915).  / 
*The  Cambridge  Hist,  of  Am.  Lit.,  ed.  by  W.  P.  Trent,  J.  Erskine,  S.  P. 
Sherman,  C.  van  Doren  (2  +  vols.  N.  Y. :  1917-1919  +  ),  —  the  only  exten- 
sive and  the  most  authoritative  history ;  with  bibliography. 

See  also  English  Men  of  Letters,  American  Series  (28  vols.  N.  Y. : 
1902-1911). 

XIX.  Celtic  Poetry  in  General. 

A.  Histories  and  Essays.    E.  RENAN,  Poetry  of  the  Celtic  Races  (in 
Rev.  des  deux  mondes,  1854;  English  trans,  by  W.  G.  Hutchinson,  Lond. : 
1896). /M.  ARNOLD,  The  Study  of  Celtic  Lit.  (Lond.:  1867). /*H.  D'ARBOIS 
DE  JUBAINVILLE,  Cours  de  litt.  celtique  (12  vols.    Paris:    1883-1902).  / 
SIR  J.  RHYS,  Celtic  Heathendom  (Hibbert  Lects.,  1886.    Lond.:  1888).  / 
*M.  MACLEAN,  The  Lit.  of  the  Celts  (Lond. :  1902).  /  *H.  ZIMMER,  Sprache 
und  Lit.  der  Kelten  im  Allgemeinen  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, 
T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  i.    Berlin:  1909). 

B.  Periodicals.    * Revue  celtique  (Paris:    1870+).  /  The  Celtic  Magazine 
(Inverness  :   1875-1888),  merged  into  the  Scottish  Highlander,  —  popular.  / 
The  Scottish    Celtic  Review  (Glasgow:    1881-1885).  /  The   Gaelic  Journal 


826  APPENDIX  [XX 

(i  vol.  Dublin:  1882-1883).  /  *Zeitschr.  fur  celtische  Philologie  (Halle 
a.  S. :  1897  +  ).  /  *The  Celtic  Review  (Edinb.:  1904  +  ).  /  *Eriu,  Journal  of 
the  School  of  Irish  Learning,  Dublin  (Dublin:  1904  +  ).  /  Gadelica,  A 
Journal  of  Modern  Irish  Studies  (Dublin:  1912). 

See  also  Trans,  of  the  Gaelic  Soc.  of  Dublin  (vol.  I,  Dublin :  1808) ;  / 
Trans,  of  the  Ossianic  Soc.,  1853-1858  (6  vols.  Dublin :  1854-1861) ;  /  Trans, 
of  the  Gaelic  Soc.  of  Inverness  (Inverness:  1872+);  /  *Pubs.,  Irish  Texts 
Soc.  (Lond. :  1899  +) ;  /  Pubs.,  Univ.  of  Manchester,  Celtic  Series  (1909  +  )• 

XX.  Irish  (including  Irish-English)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.    For  many  Irish  writers  see  the  bibliographies  cited 
above,  xvn,  A;  from  KROEGER,  pp.  180-181,  and  PEDDIE,  p.  20  (works 
cited  above,  I,  A),  the  following  are  taken. 

Catalogue  of  Books  printed  in  Ireland  and  published  in  Dublin  from 
1700  (Dublin  :  1791),  —  very  rare  ;  a  copy  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin. /*H.  D'ARBOIS  DE  JUBAINVILLE,  Essai  d'un  catalogue  de  la  litt, 
epique  de  1'Irlande  (Paris:  1883).  /  E.  R.  M.  Dix,  Catalogue  of  Early 
Dublin  Printed  Books,  1601-1700  (4  vols.  in  2.  Dublin:  1898-1905).  / 
S.  J.  Brown,  A  Guide  to  Books  on  Ireland  (Dublin:  1912).  /  *National 
Library,  Dublin,  Bibliog.  of  Irish  Philol.  and  of  Printed  Irish  Lit.  (Dublin : 
1913).  See  also  the  histories  that  follow. 

Very  helpful  is  D.  J.  O'DoNOGHUE's  The  Poets  of  Ireland,  a  Bio- 
graphical and  Bibliographical  Dictionary  of  Irish  Writers  of  English 
Verse  (Dublin  and  Lond.:  1912). 

B.  Histories.     SIR   JAMES   WARE,   The   Writers   of   Ireland   (1746).  / 
E.   O'REILLY,   A   Chronological    Account   of   Nearly  400    Irish    Writers 
(Dublin:  1820;  Trans,  of  Iberno-Celtic  Soc.).  /  E.  O'CuRRY,  Lects.  on 
the  Manuscript  Materials  of  Ancient  Irish  Hist.  (Dublin:   1861)  and  On 
the  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Irish  (3  vols.    Lond.:  1873).  / 
*H.  MORLEY,  English  Writers,  vol.  I  (1866-1867),  —  on  the  ancient  litera- 
ture of  the  Gael  and  Cymry  ;  bibliography.  /  D^  HYDE,  The  Story  of  Early 
Gaelic  Lit.  (Lond.:  1895)  and  *A  Lit.  Hist,  of  Ireland  from  Earliest  Times 
to  the  Present  Day  (Lond. :  1899).  /  G.  DOTTIN,  La  litt.  gaelique  de  1'Irlande 
(in  Rev.  de  synthese  historique,  3:   60-97.    Paris:   1901).  /  D.  HYDE,  Irish 
Poetry  (Dublin:  1902).  /  LADY  GREGORY,  Poets  and  Dreamers,  Studies 
and  Translations  from  the  Irish  (Dublin  :  1903).  /  *E.  HULL,  A  Text  Book 
of  Irish  Lit.  (2  vols.    Dublin  :  1906-1908).  /  *K.  MEYER,  Die  irisch-galische 
Lit.   (in   Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,   T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  i.     Berlin : 
1909).  /  C.  M.  Fox,  Annals  of  the  Irish  Harpers  (N.Y.:  1912). /A.  P. 
GRAVES,  Irish  Lit.  and  Musical  Studies  (Lond.:  1913). 

C.  Some  Works  on  Recent  Irish  Literature.   M.  MONOHAN,  Nova  Hibernia, 
Irish  Poets  and  Dramatists  of  To-day  and  Yesterday  (N.  Y. :  1914).  /  E.  A. 
BOYD,  Ireland's  Lit.  Renaissance  (N.Y.:.  1916).  /  T.  MACDONAGH,  Lit.  in 
Ireland  (N.  Y.:   1916).  /  L.  R.  MORRIS,  The  Celtic  Dawn,  A  Survey  of  the 
Renaissance  in  Ireland,  1889-1916  (N.Y.:  1917). 


XXII]  APPENDIX  827 

XXI.  Scottish  and  Manx  Poetry. 

A.  Scottish  (including  Scottish- English  Writers'). 

1.  Bibliography.    For  many  Scottish  writers  see  the  bibliographies  cited 
above,  xvn,  A;  from  KROEGER,  p.  181,  and  PEDDIE,  p.  28  (works  cited 
above,  I,  A),  the  following  are  taken. 

H.  G.  ALDIS,  A  List  of  Books  printed  in  Scotland  before  1700,  etc. 
(Edinb. :  1904).  /  *D.  MACLEAN,  Typographia  Scoto-gadelica,  or  Books 
printed  in  the  Gaelic  of  Scotland,  1567-1914  (Edinb.:  1915).  See  also  the 
histories  that  follow. 

2.  Histories.    T.  MACLAUCHLAN,  Celtic  Gleanings,  or  Notices  of  the 
Hist,  and  Lit.  of  the  Scottish  Gael  (Edinb.:  1857). /J.  S.  BLACKIE,  The 
Lang,  and  Lit.  of  the   Scottish  Highlands  (Edinb.:  1876).  /  J.  M.  Ross, 
Scottish  Hist,  and  Lit.  to  the  Period  of  the  Reformation  (1884).  /  N.  MAC- 
NEILL,  The  Lit.  of  the  Highlanders,  A  Hist,  of  Gaelic  Lit.  from  the  Earliest 
Times   to   the    Present   Day   (Inverness :   1892).  /  *H.  WALKER,   Three 
Centuries  of  Scottish  Lit.  (2  vols.   Glasgow:  1893).  /  *T.  F.  HENDERSON, 
Scottish  Vernacular  Lit.  (Lond.:  1898;  3d  rev.  ed.    Edinb.:  1910).  /  H.  G. 
GRAHAM,  Scottish  Men  of  Letters  in  the  i8th  Century  (Lond.:  1901). / 
*J.  H.  MILLER,  Lit.  Hist,  of  Scotland  (Lond.:  1903).  /  G.  DOTTIN,  La  litt. 
gaelique   de  1'ficosse   (in  Rev.  de  synthhe  historique^  8 :    78-90.     Paris : 
1904). /M.  MACLEAN,  The  Lit.  of  the  Highlands  (Lond.:  1904). /*L.  C. 
STERN,  Die-schottisch-galische  und  die  manx  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur 
der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  i.    Berlin:  1909).  /  D.  MACLEAN,  The  Lit. 
of  the  Scottish  Gael  (Edinb.:  1912). 

B.  Manx. 

Histories.  H.  JENNER,  The  Manx  Lang.,  its  Grammar,  Lit.,  and  Present 
State  (Philol.  Soc.  Trans.,  1875). /A.  W.  MOORE,  A  Hist,  of  the  Isle  of 
Man  (Lond.:  1900).  /  G.  DOTTIN,  as  cited  under  A,  2,  above. /*L.  C. 
STERN,  as  cited  above. 

XXII.  Welsh  (including  Welsh-English)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.    For  many  Welsh  writers  see  the  bibliographies  cited 
above,   xvn,   A.  /  W.    ROWLANDS,    Cambrian    Bibliography,    1546-1800 
(Danidloes:  1869),  —  in  Welsh.  /  J.  BALLINGER  and  J.  I.  JONES,  Catalogue 
of  Printed  Lit.  in  the  Welsh  Dept.,  Cardiff  Free  Libraries  (Cardiff:  1898).  / 
E.  OWEN,  A  Catalogue  of  the   MSS.  relating  to  Wales  in  the   British 
Museum  (Lond.:  1900). /J.  G.  EVANS,  Report  on  MSS.  in  the  Welsh  Lang. 
(2  vols.   Lond.:  1898-1902). /J.  H.  DAVIES,  A  Bibliog.  of  Welsh  Ballads 
printed  in  the  i8th  Century  (Aberystwyth :    1911;   Trans.  Hon.  Soc.  of 
Cymmrodorion)./  National  Library  of  Wales,  Bibliotheca  Celtica  (Aberyst- 
wyth: 1910  +  ;   quarterly  bulletin),  —  "a  register  of  publications  relating 
to  Wales  and  the  Celtic  peoples  and  languages."  /  See  also  the  histories 
that  follow. 

B.  Histories.   *T.  STEPHENS,  The  Lit.  of  the  Kymry,  I2th-i4th  Century 
(Lond.:  1849;  2d  ed-    1876).  /  C.  WILKINS,  Hist,  of  the  Lit.  of  Wales, 


828  APPENDIX  [XXIII 

1300-1650  (Cardiff :  1884).  /  G.  DOTTIN,  La  litt.  galloise  (in  Rev.  de  synthese 
historique,  6  :  317-362.  Paris  :  1903).  /  *J.  C.  MORRICE,  A  Manual  of  Welsh 
Lit.,  500-1800  (Bangor:  1909).  /*L.  C.  STERN,  Die  kymrische  (walisische) 
Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  I.  Berlin:  1909). 

XXIII.  Cornish  and  Breton  Poetry. 

A.  Cornish. 

Histories.  R.  POLWHELE,  The  Lang.,  Lit.,  and  Lit.  Characters  of  Corn- 
wall (pt.  I  Lond. :  1806;  pt.  II  in  vol.  V  of  2d  ed.,  1816,  of  his  Hist,  of 
Cornwall).  /  W.  P.  JAGO,  The  Remains  of  Cornish  Lit.,  in  his  English 
Cornish  Diet.  (Lond.:  1887),  pp.  vii-xv.  /  G.  DOTTIN,  La  litt.  cornique  (in 
Rev.  de  synthese  historique,  8:  91-93.  Paris:  1904).  /  H.  JENNER,  A 
Handbook  of  the  Cornish  Lang.  (Lond.:  1904).  /  *L.  C.  STERN,  Die 
kornische  und  die  bretonische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, 
T.  I,  Abt.  XI,  i.  Berlin:  1909). 

B.  Breton. 

1.  Histories.  J.  LOTH,  Chrestomathie  bretonne, —  armoricain,  gallois,  cor- 
nique (Paris:   1890,  pt.  I).  /  G.  DOTTIN,  pp.  93-104  of  the  essay  noted 
above,  A.  /  *L.  C.  STERN,  as  noted  above. 

2.  Periodical.    Annales  de  Bretagtte  (Rennes :  .1886  +  ),  —  with  bibliog- 
raphy, since  1901,  of  works  on  Breton  literature. 

XXIV.  German  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography. 

1.  General.    There  is  no  bibliography  of  the  output  of  German  literature 
as  a  whole ;  but  see  the  works  listed  above,  under  iv,  A. 

2.  To  1526.    G.  W.  PANZER,  Annalen  der  alteren  deutschen  Lit.  .  .  . 
bis  1520  (Niirnberg:   1788);   Zusatze  bis  1520  (Leipz.:  1802),  1521-1526 
(Niirnberg:  1805).  /  E.  WELLER,  Repertorium  Typographicum,  die  deutsche 
Lit.  im  ersten  Viertel  des  16.  Jahrh.,  im  Anschluss  an  Hains  Repertorium 
und  Panzers  Annalen  (Nordlingen :  1864);  Supplement  I  (1874),  II  (1885). 

3.  1700-1892.   W.  HEINSIUS,  Allgemeines  Biicher- Lexicon,  1700-1892 
(19  vols.  in  20.    Leipz.:  1812-1894). 

4.  7750-7970.   *C.  G.  KAYSER,  Vollstandiges  Biicher- Lexicon,  1750  + 
(36+  vols.    Leipz.:  1834-1911  +  );  with  a  Sachregister  containing  indexes 
to  the  first  six  vols.,  1750-1832  (Leipz.:  1838),  and  a  Sach-  und  Schlagwort- 
register  to  vols.  27-36,  1891-1910  (Leipz.:  1896-1912).    Subject  indexes 
for  the  years  1871  to  1890  may  be  had  in  J.  C.  Hinrichs,  Repertorium  iiber 
die   nach .  den   halbjahrlichen   Verzeichnissen,    1871-1885,   erschienenen 
Biicher,  etc.,  bearbeitet  von  E.  Baldamus,  mil  einem  Sachregister  (3  vols. 
Leipz.:   1877-1886),  and  C.Georg,  Schlagwort-Katalog,  1883  to  date  (Han- 
nover: 1889  +  )•  For  works  omitted  from  the  lexicons  of  Heinsius,  Ilinrichs, 
and  Kayser  see  G.  Thelert's  Supplement,  etc.  (Grossenhain  :  1893). 

5.  1750-1820.  J.  S.  ERSCH,  Handbuch  der  deutschen  Lit.  (4  vols.   Leipz. : 
1822-1840). 


XXIV,  A]  APPENDIX  829 


6.  Retrospective  and  Current,   ijgj  to  date.   J.  C.  HINRICHS,  Halbjahrs- 
Katalog,  etc.  (Leipz.  :  1798+). 

1842  to  date.  J.  C.  HINRICHS,  Wochentliches  Verzeichniss  der  erschienenen 
und  der  vorbereiteten  Neuigkeiten  des  deutschen  Buchhandels  (Leipz.  : 
1842+). 

1879  to  date.  J.  KURSCHNER,  Deutscher  Litteratur-Kalender  (Leipz.  : 
1879  +  ),  —  annual  lists  of  authors  and  their  works. 

jgo4  to  date.  Deutscher  Literaturkatalog  (Leipz.:  1904+.  G.  E.  Ste- 
chert  &  Co.). 

7.  Belles-  Lettres.    H.  HOFFMANN  [VON   FALLERSLEBEN],  Die  deutsche 
Philologie  im  Grundriss  (Breslau  :  1836),  —  largely  superseded  by  Bahder's 
work.  /  K.  H.  HERMANN,  Bibliotheca  Germanica,  Verzeichniss  der  vom 
Jahre  1830  bis  Ende  1875  "*  Deutschland  erschienenen  Schriften  liber 
altdeutsche  Sprache  und  Lit.,  etc.  (Halle  :  1877).  /.*K.  VON  BAHDER,  Die 
deutsche    Philologie   im   Grundriss   (Paderborn  :    1883),  —  extensive   and 
especially  valuable  for  the  older  philological  studies  ;  the  history  of  the 
literature  is  not  followed  beyond  the  Middle  High  German  period  ;  does 
not  list  works  on  individual  authors.  /  *K.  GOEDEKE,  Grundriss  zur  Gesch. 
der   deutschen   Dichtung,   aus   den   Quellen    (Hannover:    1859;    2d   ed. 
10  vols.    Dresden:   1884-1913,  vols.  I-III   by  Goedeke,   the   others  by 
specialists  under  the  editorship  of  E.  Goetze,  vol.  X  carrying  the  history 
to  1830;  3d  ed.   vol.  IV,  Pts.  2-4,  3  vols.    1910-1913),  —  an  indispensable 
and  the  most  extensive  bibliography,  including  notices  of  periods,  authors, 
their  works,  and  the  critical  and  historical  paraphernalia.  /  *K.  BREUL, 
A  Handy  Bibliographical  Guide  to  the  Study  of  the  German  Language 
and  Literature  for  the  Use  of  Students  and  Teachers  of  German  (Lond.: 
1895),  —  a  most  useful  selection  "of  the  most  important  periodicals  and 
books,"  to  be  supplemented  by  the  completer  bibliographies  of  Bahder, 
Goedeke,  Bartels,  Meyer,  and  Arnold.  /  *R.  M.  MEYER,  Grundriss  der 
neuern  deutschen   Litteraturgesch.  (Berlin:   1902;    2d  ed.    1907),  —  very 
helpful.    The  first  part  includes  a  select  bibliography  of  general  works  on 
German  literature  ;  the  second  and  more  important  part,  a  long  but  not 
always  well-chosen  list  of  works  upon  the  movements  and  authors  of  the 
igth  century.  /J.  S.  NOLLEN,  Chronology  and  Practical  Bibliography  of 
Modern  German  Literature  (Chicago  :   1903).  /  *A.  BARTELS,  Handbuch 
zur  Gesch.  der  deutschen   Literatur   (Leipz.:    1906;    2d  ed.    1909),  —  an 
extremely  practical  and  thorough  handbook  ;  the  second  edition  should 
be  used.  /  *R.  F.  ARNOLD,  Allgemeine   Biicherkunde  zur  neuern  deut- 
schen   Literaturgesch.     (Strassburg:     1910).     This   very  valuable   work 
contains  carefully  selected  and  annotated  bibliographies,   perspicuously 
arranged,    of   bibliographies,    literary    histories    (general,    of    types    and 
sub-types),  biography,  linguistics,  religious  history,  philosophy,  political 
history,  etc. 

See  also  Paul,  noted  above,  xn,  B  ;  Koberstein,  Wackernagel,  and  others 
noted  below,  under  B. 


830  APPENDIX  txxiv.  B 

For  current  bibliography  see  below,  under  c,  Periodicals,  noting  espe- 
cially the  Zeitschr.  fur  deutsche  PhiloL,  the  Anzeiger  to  the  Zeitschr.  filr 
deutsches  Altertum,  and,  best  of  all,  the  *fahresb.  fur  neuere  deutsche 
Litteraturgesch. 

B.  Histories. 

I.  General.  D.  G.  MORHOF,  Unterricht  von  der  deutschen  Sprache  und 
Foesie  (Kiel :  1682).  Morhof,  the  first  German  historian  to  mention  Shake- 
speare, is  called  the  father  of  German  literary  history.  Compare  his  Poly- 
histor  sive  de  Notitia  Auctorum  et  Rerum  Commentarii  (Ltibeck :  1688).  / 
E.  NEUMEISTER,  Specimen  Dissertationis  Historico-criticae  de  Poetis  Ger- 
manicis  huius  Saeculi  Praecipuis  (Leipz.:  1695, 17°6.)-  /  M.  HUBER,  Discours 
preliminaire  sur  1'hist.  de  la  litt.  allemande,  in  his  Choix  des  poesies 
allemandes  (Paris  :  1766).  /  E.  J.  KOCH,  Grundriss  einer  Gesch.  der  Sprache 
und  Lit.  der  Deutschen  bis  auf  Lessing  ( 1795-1 798).  /  F.  BOUTERWEK, 
vols.  IX-XII  of  the  work  (1801-1819)  noted  above,  xn,  B,  i./ A.  KOBER- 
STEJN,  Grundriss  der  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Nationallit.  (Leipz.:  1827; 
greatly  enlarged  in  successive  editions,  —  4th  ed.  3  vols.  1847-1866; 
5th  ed.  by  K.  Bartsch,  5  vols.  1872-1873;  etc.),  —  with. a  distinct  leaning 
toward  romanticism.  /  W.  MENZEL,  Die  deutsche  Lit.  (2  vols.  Stuttgart : 
1828), —  subjective,  '  romanticistic  '  to  a  certain  extent,  and  remembered 
chiefly  because  of  a  polemic  against  Goethe.  The  same  author's  Die 
deutsche  Dichtung,  etc.  (3  vols.  1858—1859),  is  general  in  scope  and  un- 
scientific. /  W.  TAYLOR,  of  Norwich,  Historic  Survey  of  German  Poetry 
(3  vols.  Lond.:  i83o)./*G.  G.  GERVINUS,  Gesch.  der  poetischen  Nationallit. 
der  Deutschen  (Leipz.:  1835-1842;  2d  ed.  1840-1844,  as  Gesch.  der 
deutschen  Dichtung;  5th  ed.,  by  K.  Bartsch,  5  vols.  Leipz.:  1871-1874), — 
one  of  the  more  important  larger  histories  and  the  first  to  reveal  the  history 
of  German  literature  as  a  definite  development.  /  K.  ROSENKRANZ,  Zur 
Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (Kb'nigsberg :  1836).  /  *A.  F.  C.  VILMAR,  Gesch. 
der  deutschen  Nationallit.  (1845;  26th  ed.  Marburg:  1905;  cf.  F.  Met- 
calfe's  Hist,  of  Germ.  Lit.,  based  on  Vilmar,  Lond.:  1858),  —  a  forceful 
work,  of  deep  national  feeling,  written  from  the  Protestant  point  of  view.  / 
*W.  WACKERNAGEL,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (2  vols.  1848-1855  ;  2d  ed., 
continued  by  E.  Martin,  2  vols.  Basel:  1879-1894),  —  with  bibliography: 
the  2d  ed.  is  a  very  useful  work.  /  H.  KURZ,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit. 
(1850-1859;  7th  ed.  3  vols.  Leipz.:  1876). /J.  K.  L.  CHOLEVIUS,  Gesch. 
der  deutschen  Poesie  nach  ihren  antiken  Elementen  (2  vols.  Leipz. : 
i854-j856)./\V.  LINDEMANN,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (Freiburg:  1865; 
8th  ed.  1905-1906),  —  divided  according  to  periods  and  types;  Roman 
Catholic  point  of  view. /J,  VON  EICHENDORFF,  Gesch.  der  poetischen  Lit. 
Deutschlands  (36  ed.  2  vols.  Paderborn:  1866).  /  J.  GOSTWICK  and 
R.  HARRISON,  Outlines  of  German  Lit.  (Lond.:  1873).  /  R-  KONIG,  Deutsche 
Literaturgesch.  (1878;  32d  ed.  2  vols.  1910), —  popular,  illustrated;  not 
to  be  trusted  implicitly. /BAYARD  TAYLOR,  Studies  in  German  Lit.  (N.Y. : 
1879). /*W.  SCHERER,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (Berlin:  1883;  loth  ed. 


XXIV,  B]  APPENDIX 

Berlin  :  1905  ;  English  trans.,  from  36  German  ed.,  by  Mrs.  F.  C.  Conybeare, 
2  vols.  N.  Y.:  1886).  This  famous  work,  said  by  some  to  be  the  most 
significant  contribution  since  Gervinus,  is  scientific  in  conception  and  is 
very  largely  the  product  of  independent  investigation.  "  Scherer,"  says 
Calvin  Thomas,  "  is  always  brilliant  and  suggestive,  but  often  incautious 
in  treating  theories  of  his  own  as  if  they  were  facts."  The  bibliographical 
appendix  deserves  special  mention. /J.  BACHTOLD,  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Lit.  in  der  Schweiz  (2  pts.  Frauenfeld :  1887-1892).  /  K.  LAMPRECHT, 
Deutsche  Gesch.  (1891-1909).  In  this  celebrated  history  of  Germany  the 
many  sections  devoted  to  literature  are  of  great  worth.  /  J.  K.  HOSMER, 
A  Short  Hist,  of  German  Lit.  (Lond. :  1892).  /  *F.  VOGT  and  M.  KOCH, 
Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  von  den  altesten  Zeiten  bis  zur  Gegenwart 
(1897;  zd  ed.  2  vols.  Leipz. :  1904), —  perhaps  the  best;  bibliography./ 
J.  W.  NAGL  and  J.  ZEIDLER,  Deutsch-osterreichische  Literaturgesch.  (2  vols. 
Wien :  1899-1914).  /  *A.  BARTELS,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (2  vols. 
Leipz.:  1901-1902;  5th  and  6th  ed.  1909), —  opposed  to  the  scientific 
school  represented  by  Scherer;  subjective  and  readable. /*K.  FRANCKE,  A 
Hist,  of  German  Lit.  as  determinad  by  Social  Forces  (N.  Y.:  1901,  being 
the  4th  ed.  of  his  Social  Forces  in  German  Lit.,  1896).  /*J.  G.  ROBERTSON, 
A  Hist,  of  German  Lit.  (Edinb.  and  Lond.:  1902);  for  a  brief  conspectus 
compare  his  Lit.  of  Germany  (Home  University  Library,  Lond.:  1913). / 
*A.  BOSSERT,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  allemande  (2d  ed.  1904).  /  *A.  BIESE,  Deutsche 
Literaturgesch.  (3  vols.  Munchen:  1907-1911), —  an  admirable  presenta- 
tion. /  E.  ENGEL,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (2  vols.  2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1907; 
i6th  ed.  Wien:  1913),  —  superficial.  /  A.  SALZER,  Illustrierte  Gesch.  der 
deutschen  Lit.  (3  vols.  Munchen:  1907  +  ),  —  profusely  illustrated ;  Roman 
Catholic  point  of  view.  /  *A.  BARTELS,  Handbuch  zur  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Lit.  (2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1909),  —  most  convenient  for  brief,  concise  notices  of 
authors  and  for  bibliography  of  their  works  and  works  upon  them.  /  A.  M. 
CHUQUET,  Litt.  allemande  (Paris  :  1909).  /  *C.  THOMAS,  A  Hist,  of  German 
Lit.  (N.Y.  and  Lond.:  1909;  Short  Hists.  of  the  Lits.  of  the  World  Series). 
/  W.  HAHN,  Gesch.  der  poetischen  Lit.  der  Deutschen  (i6th  ed.  Stuttgart : 
1910),  —  a  convenient  handbook.  /  G.  M.  PRIEST,  A  Brief  Hist,  of  Ger- 
man Lit.  (Lond.:  1910).  /  For  other  works  and  detailed  comment  see 
Arnold  (work  cited  above, 'A,  7),  p.  86  ff.;  for  works  on  the  literature  of 
particular  localities  see  Arnold,  p.  103  ff. 

2.  Beginnings  to  the  Close  of  the  Middle  High  German  Period  (fjjo). 
F.  VON  DER  HAGEN  and  J.  G.  BUSCHING,  Literarischer  Grundriss  zur 
Gesch.  der  deutschen  Poesie  von  der  altesten  Zeit  bis  in  das  16.  Jahrh. 
(Berlin:  1812),  —  the  pioneer  work  in  its  field.  /  K.  ROSENKRANZ,  Gesch. 
der  deutschen  Poesie  im  Mittelalter  (Halle:  1830).  /  W.  SCHERER,  Gesch. 
der  deutschen  Dichtung  im  1 1.  und  12.  Jahrh.  (in  Quellen  und  Forschungen, 
No.  12.  Strassburg:  1875;  in  Nos.  i  and  7  of  the  same  series,  see  the  same 
writer's  Geistliche  Poeten  der  deutschen  Kaiserzeit,  1874-1875 ;  and  cf. 
his  Gesch.  der.  deutschen  Lit).  /  F.  KHULI,,  Gesch.  der  altdeutschen 


832  APPENDIX  [XXIV,  B 

Dichtung  (Graz:  1886),  —  from  the  beginnings  through  the  Minnesang.  / 
R.  M.  MEYER,  Die  altgerm.  Poesie  nach  ihren  formelhaften  Elementen 
beschrieben  (Berlin:  i889)./*J-  KELLE,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  von 
der  altesten  Zeit  bis  zum  13.  Jahrh.  (2  vols.  Berlin:  1892-1896), — an 
admirable  work.  /  W.  GOLTHER,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  von  den  ersten 
Anfangenbis zum  Ausgang  des  Mittelalters  (Stuttgart:  1893,  in  Kiirschner's 
Deutsche  Nationallit.,  163,  I).  /  *R.  KOEGEL,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  bis 
zum  Ausgange  des  Mittelalters  (2  pts.  Strassburg:  1894-1897),  —  the 
product  of  painstaking,  accurate  research.  /  R.  KOEGEL  and  W.  BRUCKNER, 
in  Paul's  Grundriss  der  german.  Philol.  —  the  Old  High  German  and  Old 
Low  German  divisions  of  the  literature  (II,  i.  2d  ed.  1901).  /  F.  VOGT, 
in  the.  same  work  —  the  Middle  High  German  period.  /  K.  FRANCKE, 
Die  Kulturwerte  der  deutschen  Lit.  in  ihrer  gesch. '  Entwicklung,  vol.  I 
Die  Kulturwerte  der  deutschen  Lit.  des  Mittelalters  (Berlin:  1910 +  )./ 
*W.  GOLTHER,  Die  deutsche  Dichtung  im  Mittelalter,  800-1500  (Stuttgart: 
1912),  — the  best  monograph  on  the  period  as  a  whole  ;  supersedes  former 
treatises ;  with  bibliography.  /  H.  K.  A.  KRUGER,  Gesch.  der  niederdeutschen 
oder  plattdeutschen  Lit.  vom  Heliand  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (Schwerin  i. 
M.:  1913). 

3.  Early  New  High  German  Period  (1350-1700).    L.  UHLAND,  Gesch.  der 
deutschen  Dichtung  im  1 5.  und  16.  Jahrh.  (from  lectures  of  1831 ;  appeared 
in  1866  as  the  2d  pt.  of  Gesch.  der  altdeut.  Poesie,  which  is  vol.  II  of 
the  Schriften  zur  Gesch.  der  Dichtung  und  Sage).  /  E.  WELLER,  Annalen 
der  poet.  Nationallit.  im  16.  und  17.  Jahrh.  (Freiburg  i.  B. :  1862-1864).  / 
O.  F.  GRUPPE,  Leben  und  Werke  deutscher  Dichter,  etc.  (5  vols.    1864- 
1870),  —  i7th  century;  romanticism. / *K.  LEMCKE,  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Dichtung  neuer  Zeit  (vol.1  Opitz  to  Klopstock.     Leipz. :   1871;    2d  ed. 
1882).  /  H.  PALM,  Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  des   16.  und 
17.  Jahrh.  (Breslau:  1877).  /  L.  GEIGER,  Renaissance  und  Humanismus  in 
Italien  und  Deutschland  (Berlin:  1882;  2d  ed.    1899).  /  C.  H.  HERFORD, 
Studies  in  the  Lit.  Relations  of  England  and  Germany  in  the  i6th  Century 
(Cambridge:  1886).  /  K.  BURDACH,  Vom  Mittelalter  zur  Reformation  (1893). 
/A.  STERN,  Beitrage  zur  Literaturgesch.  des  17.  und  18.  Jahrh.  (Leipz.: 
!893).  /  K.  BORINSKI,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  seit  dem  Ausgang  des 
Mittelalters  (in  Kiirschner's  Deutsche  Nationallit.,  163,  II.    1894), — brief.  / 
G.  WATERHOUSE,  The  Lit.  Relations  of  England  and  Germany  in  the 
1 7th  Century  (Cambridge:  1914). 

See  also  works  on  the  Reformation  by  K.  HAGEN,  F.  BEZOLD,  A.  E. 
BERGER,  L.  VON  RANKE,  and  others. 

4.  The  i8th    Century.     ].  W.  VON   GOETHE,   Wahrheit  und    Dichtung 
1811+;   Bk.  VII).  /  F.  HORN,  Die  Poesie  und  Beredsamkeit  der  Deut- 
schen von  Luthers  Zeit  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (3  vols.    Berlin:  1822-1824), — 
'  romanticistic.'  /  H.  GELZER,  Die  deutsche  poetische  Lit.  seit  Klopstock 
und  Lessing  (Leipz.:  1841  ;  2d  ed.  as  Die  neuere  deutsche  Nationallit. 
nach  ihren  ethischen  und  religibsen  Gesichtspunkten,   2  vols.     Leipz.: 


XXIV,  B]  APPENDIX  833 

1847-1849), — opposed  to  Young  Germany.  /  J.  HILLEBRAND,  Die  deutsche 
Nationallit,  18.  bis  19.  Jahrh.  (3  vols.  Hamburg  und  Gotha:  1845-1846; 
3d  ed.  1875).  /  *K.  BIEDERMANN,  Deutschland  im  18.  Jahrh.  (6  vols. 
Leipz. :  1854-1870).  /  J.  W.  SCHAEFER,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  des 

18.  Jahrh.  (Leipz. :  1855  ;  2d  ed.   1885).  /  J.  W.  LOEBELL,  Die  Entwickelung 
der  deutschen  Poesie — Klopstock,  Wieland,  Lessing  (3  vols.  Braunschweig: 
1856-1865).  /  J.  C.  MORIKOFER,  Die  schweizerische  Lit.  des  18.  Jahrh. 
(Leipz.:   1861).  /  *H.  HETTNER,  Literaturgesch.  des  18.  Jahrh.,  III.  Th.: 
Die  deutsche  Lit.  im   18.  Jahrh.   (Braunschweig:    1864;    4th  ed.    1893; 
5th  rev.  ed.   3  vols.  in  4.   1909).  /J.  SCHMIDT,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit. 
von  Leibniz  bis  auf  unsere  Zeit,  1670-1866  (5  vols.    Berlin:  1888-1896).  / 
E.  GRISEBACH,  Das  Goethesche  Zeitalter  der  deutschen  Dichtung  (Leipz.: 
1891).  /  O.  HARNACK,  Der  deutsche  Klassizismus  im  Zeitalter  Goethes 
(Berlin:    1906).  /  H.  VON  FISCHER,  Die  schwabische  Lit.  im  18.  und '19. 
Jahrh.  (Tubingen:  ign)./O.  F.  WALZEL,  Vom  Geistesleben  des  18.  und 

19.  Jahrh.  (Leipz. :  1911). 

5.  The  igth  Century.  F.  HORN,  Umrisse  zur  Gesch.  und  Kritik  der 
schonen  Lit.  Deutschlands,  1790-1818  (Berlin:  1819-1821),  —  'romanti- 
cistic.'/*H.  HEINE,  Die  romantische  Schule  (Hamburg:  1836;  being  the 
2d  ed.  of  Zur  Gesch.  der  neueren  schonen  Lit.  in  Deutschland,  1833 ; 
English  trans,  by  S.  L.  Fleishman,  The  Romantic  School,  N.  Y.:  1882), — 
prejudiced  and  brilliant. /J.  VON  EICHENDORFF,  Uber  die  ethische  und 
religiose  Bedeutung  der  neuren  romantischen  Poesie  in  Deutschland 
(Leipz.:  1847  '•>  later  the  2d  pt.  of  his  Gesch.  der  poetischen  Lit.  Deutsch- 
lands, Paderborn:  1857).  /  R.  E.  PRUTZ,  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  deutsche 
Lit.  der  Gegenwart  (Leipz.:  1847).  /  K.  BARTHEL,  Die  deutsche  Nationallit. 
der  Neuzeit  (Braunschweig:  1850;  adenlargeded.  1851),  —  maybe  regarded 
as  a  continuation  of  Vilmar,  for  it  is  in  a  similar  spirit  of  religious  orthodoxy. 
/  *H.  HETTNER,  Die  romantische  Schule  in  ihrem  Zusammenhang  mit 
Goethe  und  Schiller  (Braunschweig:  1850),  —  one  of  the  first  significant, 
scientific  treatments  of  the  subject.  /  J.  SCHMIDT,  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Nationallit.  im  19.  Jahrh.  (Leipz.:  1853;  expanded  to  Gesch.  der  deutschen 
Lit.  seit  Lessings  Tod,  5th  ed.  3  vols.  Leipz. :  1866-1867  ;  also  included 
in  the  work  noted  above,  under  4).  /  *R.  VON  GOTTSCHALL,  Gesch.  der 
deutschen  Nationallit.  in  der  ersten  Halfte  des  19.  Jahrh.  (Breslau  :  1855; 
later  as  Die  deutsche  Nationallit.  des  19.  Jahrh.,  7th  ed.  4  vols.  Leipz.: 
1901-1902),  —  one-sided  in  its  interest  in  the  Young  Germany  movement.  / 
R.  E.  PRUTZ,  Die  deutsche  Lit.  der  Gegenwart,  1848-1858  (Leipz.:  1859; 
2d  ed.  1860). /*R.  HAYM,  Die  romantische  Schule  (Berlin:  1870;  3d  ed. 
by  O.  Walzel,  1914). /*G.  BRANDES,  The  Romantic  School  in  Germany, 
Young  Germany  (being  vols.  II,  VI  of  Main  Currents  in  igth  Century  Lit., 
cited  above,  xn,  B,  i).  /  E.  GRISEBACH,  Die  deutsche  Lit,  1770-1870 
(Wien:  1876;  2d  ed.  as  Die  deutsche  Lit.  seit  1770,  Stuttgart:  1877; 
4th  ed.  Berlin:  1887).  /  H.  VON  TREITSCHKE,  Gesch.  im  19.  Jahrh.,  1800- 
1848  (5  vols.  Leipz.:  1879-1894;  being  vols.  XXIV-XXVIII  of  his 


834  APPENDIX  [XXIV,  B 

Staatengesch.  der  neuesten  Zeit),  —  brilliant,  pan-German.  /  K.  BLEIBTREU, 
Revolution  der  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1886),  —  symptomatic.  /  *A.  STERN,  Deutsche 
Nationallit.  vom  Tode  Goethes  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (Marburg:  1886;  5th  ed. 
1905).  /  F.  WEHL,  Das  junge  Deutschland  (Hamburg:  1886).  /  H.  BAHR, 
Die  Uberwindung  des  Naturalismus  (Dresden:  1891).  /  J.  PROELSS,  Das 
junge  Deutschland  (Stuttgart:  1892). ./ R.  M.  SAITSCHICK,  Meister  der 
schweizerischen  Dichtung  des  19.  Jahrh.  (Frauenfeld :  1894).  /  *A.  BARTELS, 
Die  deutsche  Dichtung  der  Gegenwart  (in  Grenzboten,  1896;  8th  ed.  1910). 
/  E.  WOLFF,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  in  der  Gegenwart  (Leipz.:  1896), — 
by  types,  from  1870  on.  /  L.  BERG,  Der  Ubermensch  in  der  modernen  Lit. 
(Miinchen:  1897).  /  II.  H.  BOYESEN,  Essays  on  German  Lit.,  —  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Romantic  School,  etc.  (4th  rev.  ed.  N.Y.:  1898).  /  R.  HUCH, 
Blvitezeit  der  Romantik  (Leipz.:  1899;  3d  ed.  1908).  /  G.  S.  LUBLINSKI, 
Lit.  und  Gesellschaft  im  19.  Jahrh.  (4  vols.  in  2.  Berlin:  1899-1900). / 
MOLLER  VAN  DEN  BRUCK,  Die  moderne  Lit.  in  Gruppen  und  Einzeldar- 
stellungen  (Berlin:  i899  +  )./*A.  VON  HANSTEIN,  Das  jlingste  Deutsch- 
land (Berlin:  1900;  30!  ed.  1905).  /  M.  LORENZ,  Die  Lit.  am  Jahrh. 
(Stuttgart:  1900).  /  *R.  M.  MEYER,  Die  deutsche  Lit.  des  19.  Jahrh.  (Berlin: 
1900;  4th  ed.  1910),  —  "wertlos,"  says  Barrels ;  but  the  work  is  spirited 
and  admirable  in  many  respects.  /  K.  BUSSE,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Dichtung 
im  19.  Jahrh.  (Berlin:  1901),  —  popular./  M.  G.  CONRAD,  Von  Emile  Zola 
bis  G.  Hauptmann  (Leipz.:  1902).  /  R.  HUGH,  Ausbreitung  und  Verfall 
der  Romantik  (Leipz.:  1902;  2d  ed.  1908).  /  *R.  M.  MEYER,  Grundriss 
der  neuern  deutschen  Literaturgesch.  (Berlin:  1902).  /  L.  BRAUTIGAM, 
Ubersicht  iiber  die  neuere  Lit.  1880-1902  (2d  ed.  Kassel :  1903).  /  J.  F. 
COAR,  Studies  in  German  Lit.  in  the  igth  Century  (N.  Y.:  1903).  / 
*P.  HENZE,  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Lit.  von  Goethes  Tode  bis  zur  Gegen- 
wart (2d  ed.  Leipz.:  1903),  —  perspicuous  and  stimulating.  /  O.  HELLER, 
Studies  in  Modern  German  Lit.  (Boston :  1905).  /  H.  HOLZKE,  Zwanzig 
Jahre  deutscher  Lit.  1885-1905  (Braunschweig:  1905).  /  M.  JOACHIMI,  Die 
Weltanschauung  der  Romantik  (Jena  :  1905).  /  K.  JOEL,  Nietzsche  und  die 
Romantik  (Jena:  1905).  /  E.  KlRCHER,  Philosophic  der  Romantik  (Jena: 
1906).  /^L.  GEIGER,  Das  junge  Deutschland  (Berlin:  1907).  /  O.  F.  WALZEL, 
Deutsche  Romantik,  eine  Skizze  (Leipz.:  1908;  3d  ed.  1912;  Aus  Natur 
und  Geisteswelt  series),  —  very  brief  and  helpful./  F.  KUMMER,  Deutsche 
Literaturgesch.  des  19.  Jahrh.  (Dresden:  1909;  2d  ed.  1910).  /  M.  MURET, 
La  litt.  allemande  d'aujourd'hui  (igogJ./O.  E.  LESSING,  Die  neue  Form, 
ein  Beitragzum  Verstandnis  des  deutschen  Naturalismus  (Dresden:  1910). / 
K.  MARTENS,  Lit.  in  Deutschland  (Berlin:  1910).  /  *R.  M.  WERNAER, 
Romanticism  and  the  Romantic  School  in  Germany  (N. Y.:  1910),  —  with 
bibliography.  /  K.  M.  BRISCHAR,  Deutschosterreichische  Lit.  der  Gegen- 
wart (Leipz.:  1911).  /  P.  POLLARD,  Masks  and  Minstrels  of  New  Germany 
(Boston:  1911). /A.  SOERGF.L,  Dichtung  und  Dichter  der  Zeit,  eine 
Schilderung  der  deutschen  Lit.  der  letzten  Jahrzehnte  (Leipz.:  1911), — 
•xtensive.  /  O.  E.  LESSING,  Masters  in  Modern  German  Lit.  (Dresden. 


XXV]  APPENDIX  835 

1912).  /  *R.  RIEMANN,  Das  19.  Jahrh.  der  deutschen  Lit.  (zA  rev.  ed. 
Leipz.:  1912). /G.  WITKOWSKI,  Die  Entwicklung  der  deutschen  Lit.  seit 
1830  (Leipz.:  1912).  /  *F.  BRUMMER,  Lexikon  der  deutschen  Dichter  und 
Prosaisten  vom  Beginn  des  19.  Jahrh.  bis  zur  Gegenwart  (8  vols.  6th  rev.  ed. 
Leipz.:  1913),  —  very  convenient.  /  A.  W.  PORTERFIELD,  An  Outline  of 
German  Romanticism  (Boston:  1914).  /  L.  LEWISOHN,  The  Spirit  of 
Modern  German  Lit.  (N.  Y.:  1916). 

C.  Periodicals  and  Series  of  Monographs.  For  some  of  the  most  impor- 
tant references  see  above,  xn,  c,  i,  4.  /  *Zeitschr.  fur  deutsches  Altertum 
und  deutsche  Lit.  (Leipz.  und  Berlin  :  1841  +  ;  title,  1841-1876,  Zeitschr.  f. 
deut.  Altertum},  —  quarterly ;  articles  rather  than  reviews,  dealing  for  most 
part  with  the  older  lit.  to  1500.  /  Litterarnches  Centralblatt  filr  Deutschland 
(Leipz.:  1850+),  —  weekly;  bibliography  of  articles  in  periodicals./  Wei- 
mar isches  Jahrbtichfilr  deutsche  Sprache,  Lit.  und  Kunst  (6  vols.  Hannover : 
1854-1857),  —  lit.  after  1500.  /  *Germania,  Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  deutsche 
Altertumskunde  (Stuttgart:  1856-1892;  often  referred  to  as  Pfeiffer's  Ger- 
mania),  —  articles  and  reviews;  good  bibliography.  See  also  its  supple- 
mentary Germanistische  Studien  (2  vols.  Wien:  1872— 1875).  /  *Zeitschr. 
fur  deutsche  Philologie  (Halle,  Berlin,  etc.:  1868 +),  —  quarterly;  articles 
and  reviews.  /  Archiv  filr  Litteratttrgesch.  (Leipz.:  1870-1887),  —  quarterly; 
modern  German  lit.  / Alemannia,  Zeitschr.  filr  Sprache,  Lit.  und  Volkskunde 
des  Elsasses,  Oberrheins  und  Schwabens  (Bonn:  1873  +  ;  later,  changes  in 
title).  /  *Beitrage  zur  Gesch.  der  deutschen  Sprache  iind  Lit.  (Halle  a.  S.: 
1874  +  ),  —  thrice  yearly;  articles  and  reviews,  older  lit.  /  Jahrbuch  des 
Vereins  filr  niederdeutsche  Sprachforschung  (Bremen,  etc.:  1875  +)•  /*An- 
zeiger fur  deutsches  Altertum  und  deutsche  Lit.  (1876  +  ),  —  reviews  only; 
supplementary  to  the  first  Zeitschr.  noted  above.  /  *Deutsche  Literatur- 
zeitung  (Berlin:  1880  +),  —  reviews  of  German,  including  literary,  works. 
/* Goethe  Jahrbuch  (Frankfurt  a.  M. :  1880 +  ),  —  annual;  articles,  reviews, 
bibliography.  /  * Germanistische  Abhandlungen  (Breslau  :  1882  + ),  —  mono- 
graphs. /  *Vierteljahrschrift  fur  Litteraturgesch.  (6  vols.  Weimar:  1888- 
1893).  / Lipps  und  Werner's  Beitrdge  zur  Asthetik  (Hamburg:  1890 +)./ 
*Jahresberichte filr  neiiere  deutsche  Litteraturgesch.  (Stuttgart,  etc.:  1892  +, 
for  1890+),  —  reviews,  bibliography;  very  conveniently  arranged  by 
periods  and  types.  /  *Euphorion,  Zeitschr.  filr  Litteraturgesch.  (Bamberg : 
1894 +),— articles,  reviews,  bibliography.  /  *Litterarhist.  Forschungen 
(Weimar  und  Berlin:  1897+),  —  articles;  primarily  Germanic  in  scope./ 
Das  deutsche  Volkslied  (1899  -f ).  /  Rivista  di  letteratura  tedesca  (1907  + ). 

For  further  notice  of  periodicals  see  Arnold  (cited  above,  A,  7),  p.  23  ff. 
See  also  [the  publications  of  various  German  and  Austrian  universities, 
especially  those  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Munich. 

XXV.  Dutch  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.  For  national  bibliographies  see  R.  A.  PEDDIE,  National 
Bibliographies,  pp.  16-17;  N.  Y.  State  Library  Bulletin  38,  "Selected 


836  APPENDIX  [XXVI 

National  Bibliographies"  (1915),  pp.  42-44.  For  belles-lettres  see  L.  D. 
PETIT,  Bibliographic  der  Mnl.  Taal  en  Letterkunde  (Leiden :  1888) ;  also 
the  bibliographical  notes  in  the  histories  of  the  literature,  especially  in 
Paul's  Grundriss  (J.  te  Winkel) ;  also  see  above,  xn,  A. 

B.  Histories.  SIR  J.  BOWRING  and  H.  S.  VAN  DYKE,  Batavian  Anthology 
or  Specimens  of  the  Dutch  Poets,  with  remarks  on  the  poetical  lit.  of  the 
Netherlands  to  the  end  of  the  1 7th  century  (Lond. :  1824),  —  a  very  slender 
little  volume.  /  SIR  J.  BOWRING,  Sketch  of  the  Lang,  and  Lit.  of  Holland 
(Amst. :  1829).  /*W.  J.  A.  JONCKBLOET,  Geschiedenis  der  middennederl. 
Dichtkunst  (3  vols.    Amst:    1851-1854)  and  Gesch.  der  nederlandsche 
Letterkunde  (Groningen  :  1868  ;  4th  ed.   2  vols.   1887-1889,  by  C.  Honigh  ; 
German  trans,  of  the  ist  Dutch  ed.,  by  W.  Berg,  i.e.  L.  Schneider,  2  vols. 
in  i,  Leipz. :    1870-1872),  —  with  bibliography.  /  J.  VAN  VLOTEN,  Schets 
van  de  Gesch.  der  nederlandsche  Letteren  (Tiel:  1871). /J.  TEN  BRINK, 
Kleine  Gesch.  der  nederlandsche  Letteren  (Haarlem  :  1877;  2d  ed.   1882). 
/  J.  TE  WINKEL,  Gesch.  der  nederlandsche  Letterkunde  (Haarlem  :  1887).  / 
G.  KALFF,  Gesch.  der  nederlandsche  Letterkunde  in  de  16  Eeuw  (2  vols. 
Leiden :    1889-1890).  /  *J.  TE  WINKEL,  Niederlandische  Lit.   (in  Paul's 
Grundriss,  II,  i,   1893;   2d  ed.    1902),  —  standard,  authoritative;   carries 
the  history  to  the  1 7th  century.  /  L.  VAN  DEYSSEL,  Verzamelde  Opstellen 
(4  vols.   Amst.:  1894  (?)  +).  /  G.  KALFF,  Lit.  en  tooneel  te  Amsterdam  in 
de  20  Eeuw  (Haarlem:    1895).  /  W.  KLOOS,  Veertien  Jaar  Lit.-Gesch., 
1880-1893  (2  vols.    Amst:    1896).  /  *J.  TEN  BRINK,  Gesch.  der  neder- 
landsche Letterkunde  (Amst.:  1897)  and  Gesch.  der  noord-nederlandsche 
Letteren  in  de  19  Eeuw  (new  ed.    Rotterdam:    1902+),  —  a  series  of 
monographs  and  bibliographies.  /  E.  GOSSE,  Art.  Dutch  Lit.,  Encyc.  Brit, 
i  ith  ed. 

C.  Periodicals,  etc.    See  above,  xn,  c,  4. 

XXVI.  Icelandic  Poetry. 

See  above,  §  6,  xvi ;  §  1 2,  xni ;  below,  xxvin.  For  national  bibliographies 
see  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies,  pp.  18-19. 

XXVII.  Swedish  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  PEDDIE,  op.  cit.,  pp.  30-31;  N.  Y.  State  Library 
Bulletin  38  (1915),  pp.  45-46;  for  a  list  of  English  works  relating  to  the 
Scandinavian  countries  see  T.  Solberg's  Bibliography  of  Scandinavia  in 
Anderson's  translation  of  Horn's  work  noted  below.  /  For  an  admirable 
bibliography  of  the  Middle  Ages  see  R.  GEETE  in  No.  124  of  the  Samlingar 
utg.  af  svenska  Fornskriftsallskapet  (Stockholm:  1903). /See  also  P.  A. 
SONDEN  and  L.  HAMMARSKOLD,  as  noted  above,  §  6,  xvn ;  also  above, 

XII,  A. 

B.  Histories.   G.  LJUNGGREN,  Svenska  Vitterhetens  hafder  fran  Gustaf 
Dod  (1818-1819;  3  vols.    1833;  etc.)./X.  MARMIER,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  en 
Danemark  et  en  Suede  (Paris:  1839).  /  W.  and  MARY  HOWITT,  Lit.  and 


XXVIII]  APPENDIX  837 

Romance  of  Northern  Europe  (2  vols.  Lond. :  1852).  /  B.  E.  MALMSTROM, 
Grunddragen  af  svenska  Vitterhetens  Historia  (Orebro :  1866-1868).  / 
L.  DIETRICHSON,  Indledning  i  Studiet  af  sveriges  Lit.  i  vort  Aaren- 
hundrede  (Copenhagen  :  1870).  /  C.  R.  NYBLOM,  Estetiska  Studier  (Stock- 
holm :  1873-1884).  /  K.  V.  BREMER,  Kurs  i  svenska  Literaturens  Historic 
(Helsingfors  :  1874).  /  E.  W.  GOSSE,  Studies  in'the  Lit.  of  Northern  Europe 
(Lond.:  1879).  /  *F.  W.  HORN,  Gesch.  der  Lit.  des  skandinavischen 
Nordens,  etc.  (Leipz. :  1880;  English  trans,  by  R.  B.  Anderson,  Hist,  of 
the  Lit.  of  the  Scandinavian  North,  Chicago :  1884,  also  1895).  /  H.  SCHUCK, 
Svensk  Literaturhistoria  (1885,  etc.).  /  *P.  SCHWEITZER,  Gesch.  der  scandi- 
navischen  Lit.,  in  vol.  VIII  of  Gesch.  der  Weltlit.  in  Einzeldarstellungen 
(3  pts.  Leipz.:  1886-1889). /*H.  SCHUCK  and  K.  WARBURG,  Illustrerad 
svensk  Literaturhistoria  (2  vols.  in  3.  Stockholm:  1895-1897). /J.  A. 
LUNDELL,  Skandinavische  Volkspoesie  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  II,  i,  1901, 
etc.)./*H.  SCHUCK,  Schwedischdanische  Lit.  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  II,  i, 
1901,  etc.),  —  a  brief  review  extending  through  the  Middle  Ages;  with 
bibliography.  /  O.  LEVERTIN,  Svenska  Gestalter  (1904).  /  *R.  STEFFEN, 
Overskit  av  svenska  Lit.  (5  vols.  Stockholm :  1906-1907).  /  *E.  W.  GOSSE, 
Art.  Swedish  Lit.,  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed. 

C.  W.  STORK'S  admirable  Anthology  of  Swedish  Lyrics,  1750-1915,  trans- 
lated in  the  original  meters  (N.Y. :  1917,  Scandinavian  Classics,  IX), 
should  have  been  noted  above,  p.  340. 

C.  Periodicals.    See  above,  xil,  c,  4. 

XXVIII.  Danish-Norwegian  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.   See  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies,  pp.  6-7,  23-24  ; 
N.Y.  State  Library  Bulletin  38,  "  Selected  National  Bibliographies,"  pp.  44- 
45,  46-47.   Works  of  the  Middle  Ages  are  listed  in  MOEBIUS,  Catalogus 
Librorum  Islandicorum  et  Norvegicorum  Aetatis  Mediae  (Leipz.:  1856); 
bibliography  of  studies  of  the  same  period  is  to  be  found  in  the  same 
author's  Verzeichnis  der  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  altnordischen  Sprache  und 
Literatur  von  1859-1879  erschienenen  Schriften  (Leipz.:  1880);  for  later 
years  and  broader  fields,  in  the  Ark.f.  nord.  Fil.  (1883  +)  and  the  periodicals 
for  Germanic  philology  mentioned  above,  xn,  c,  4. 

B.  Histories.    Some  of  the  works  noted  abova,  xxvn,  B,  cover  part  or 
the  whole  of  this  field.    In  addition  the  following  may  be  mentioned : 
R.  NYERUP,  Den  danske  Digtekunst  Historie  (1800-1808).  /  N.  M.  PETER- 
SEN,  Danske  Literaturhistorie  (ad  ed.    5  vols.  Copenhagen:  1867-1872). / 
G.  BRANDES,  Kritiker  og  Portraiter  (1870)  and  Danske  Digtere  (1877).  / 
*H.  JAEGER,  Illustreret  norsk  Literaturhistorie  (2  vols.  in  3.   Christiania : 
1892-1896;  continued  by  C.  Naerup,  Siste  Tidsrum  1890-1894,  1905).  / 
*F.  JONSSON,  Den  oldnorske  og  oldislandske  Lit.  Historie  (3  vols.   Copen- 
hagen :  1894-1902),  —  exhaustive,  authoritative.  /  A.  P.  J.  SCHENER,  Kort- 
fattet  Inledning  til  romantikkus  Periode  i  Danmarks  Lit.  (Copenhagen: 
1894).  /  H.  H.  BOYESEN,   Essays  on   Scandinavian  Lit.  (Lond.:   1895).  / 


838  APPENDIX  [XXIX 

*P.  HANSEN,  Illustreret  dansk  Literaturhistorie  (3  vols.  in  2.  Copenhagen : 
1895-1902), — with  a  chronological  list  of  authors  and  works.  /  J.  PALUDAN, 
Danmarks  Lit.  i  Middelalderen  (Copenhagen :  1896).  /  MARIE  HERTZFELD, 
Die  skandinavische  Lit.  und  ihre  Tendenzen  (Berlin:  1898).  /  *E.  MOGK, 
Norwegisch-islandische  Lit.  (in  Paul's  Grundriss,  2d  ed.,  1901  etc.),. — 
earlier  periods  ;  authoritative,  accurate  ;  with  bibliography.  /  *J.  J.  JORGEN- 
SEN,  Gesch.  derdanischen  Lit.  (Kemptenund  Munchen:  1908.  Sammlung 
Kosel), — a  brief  introduction.  /  *E.  GOSSE,  articles  on  Norwegian  and 
Danish  literatures,  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed. 
C.  Periodicals.  See  above,  xn,  c,  4. 

XXIX.  Slavic  Poetry  in  General. 

B.  Histories  (those  in   Slavic  languages  are  not  noted ;  for  them  see 
Karasek ;  Hinneberg,  Die  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  IX  ;  Encyc. 
Brit.).  /  TALVI  (i.e.  Mrs.  T.  A.  L.  Robinson),  Hist.  View  of  the  Langs, 
and    Lits.   of   the    Slavic    Nations,   etc.    (N.Y. :    1850),  —  taker   without 
acknowledgment  from  other  works ;  antiquated.  /  P.  J.  SAFAR/ K,  Gesch. 
der  slawischen  Sprache  und  Lit.  (2d  ed.    Prag:  1869). /A.  N.  PYPIN  and 
V.  D.  SPASOVICZ,  Gesch.  der  slawischen  Lit.  (trans,  by  T.  Pech  from  the 
ad  Russian  ed.    2  vols.    Leipz. :  1880-1884).  /  L.  LEGER,  Nouvelles  Etudes 
slaves  (Paris  :  1880)  and  several  other  works  (Le  monde  slave  au  \<f  siecle; 
Russes  et  Slaves ;  Le  monde  slave,  etudes  politiques  et  litt.)  of  various 
dates."/  W.  R.  MORFILL,  Slavonic  Lit.  (Lond. :  1883), —  a  mere  sketch.  / 
G.  KREK,  Einleitung  in  die  slavische  Literaturgesch.  (Graz:  1874;  2d  rev. 
ed.   1887). /*A.  MICKIEWICZ,  Cours  de  litt.  slave  (lectures,  1840;  5  vols. 
Paris :  1860)  and  Vorlesungen  iiber  slawische  Lit.  und  Zustande  (lectures, 
1841;  new  ed.   4  vols.   Leipz.:  1849). /*J.  KARASEK,  Slavische  Literatur- 
gesch. (2  vols.    Leipz.:  1906;  Sammlung  Goschen), — a  brief,  convenient 
introduction. 

C.  Periodicals.   *Archivfiir  slavische  Philologie  (Berlin  :  1876  +  ). 

XXX.  Russian  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.   See  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies,  pp.  27-28.    See 
also   the   histories   mentioned   below,  especially  those   of  Wesselovsky, 
Bruckner,  Waliszewski,  and  Kropotkin ;  also  Wiener,  above,  p.  352. 

B.  Histories  (for  those  in  Russian  or  other  Slavic  tongues  see  Karasek, 
noted  above,  xxix;  Leo  Wiener,  noted  above,  p.  352;  Bruckner,  Walis- 
zewski, etc.,  noted  below).  /  C.  COURRIERE,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  contemporaine 
en  Russie  (Paris:  1875). /C.  E.  TURNER,  Studies  in  Russian  Lit.  (Lond.: 
1882).  /  *A.  VON  REINHOLDT,  Gesch.  der  russischen  Lit.,  etc.  (Leipz.: 
1886).  /  L.  SICHLER,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  russe  depuis  les  origines  jusqu'a  nos 
jours  (Paris :  1886).  /  *K.  WALISZEWSKI,  Hist,  of  Russian  Lit.  (Lond. :  1900; 
Short  Hists.  of  the  Lits.  of  the  World  Series).  / 1.  F.  HAPGOOD,  Survey  of 
Russian  Lit.  (Chautauqua  Press,  N.  Y. :  1902).  /  A.  WOLYNSKI,  Die  russische 
Lit  der  Gegenwart  (in  Moderne  Essays,  ed.  H.  Landsberg,  vol.  XX.  Berlin : 


XXXII]  APPENDIX  839 

1902).  /  P.  A.  KROPOTKIN,  Russian  Lit.  (N.Y. :  1905).  /  ROSA  NEWMARCH, 
Poetry  and  Progress  in  Russia  (Lond. :  1907).  /  *A.  BRUCKNER,  Gesch. 
der  russischen  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1905;  English  trans,  by  H.  Havelock,  ed.  by 
E.  H.  Minns,  Lond.:  1908),  —  standard  and  authoritative.  /  A.  BRUCKNER, 
Russlands  geistige  Entwicklung  im  Spiegel  seiner  schonen  Lit.  (Tubingen  : 
1908).  /  A.  WESSELOVSKY,  Die  russische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der 
Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  IX.  1908).  /  *W.  R.  MORFILL,  Art.  Russian  Lit, 
Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.  (1911).  /  L.  LEGER,  La  Russie  intellectuelle,  etudes 
et  portraits  (Paris:  1914).  /  M.  BARING,  An  Outline  of  Russian  Lit.  (N.Y. : 
1915;  Home  University  Library).  /  N ADI NE  JARINTZOV,  Russian  Poets 
and  Poems,  etc.  (Vol.  I,  N.Y.:  1917).' 

XXXI.  Polish  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.  K.  ESTREICHER,  Bibliografja  polska  (Krakau:  1870  +  ). 
'/  Others  are  given  by  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies,  pp.  25—26. 

B.  Histories.    SIR  JOHN  BOWRING,  Specimens  of  the  Polish  Poets,  etc. 
(Lond.:  1827).  /  H.  NITSCHMANN,  Der  polnische  Parnass  (4th  enlarged  ed. 
Leipz. :  1875)  an<^  Gesch.  der  polnischen  Lit.  (Leipz. :  n.d.).  /  P.  SOBOLESKI, 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  Poland  (Chicago  :  1881).  /*A.  BRUCKNER,  Gesch.  der 
polnischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1901)   and  Die  polnische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's 
Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt  IX.   1908).  /  W.  R.  MORFILL,  Art.  Polish 
Lit,  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.  (1911).  /  Several  other  works  are  mentioned 
above,  p.  354. 

See  also  works  in  Polish  by  A.  BRUCKNER,  P.  CHMIELOWSKI,  S.  TAR- 
NOWSKI,  W.  FELDMAN,  H.  BIEGELEISEN,  GRABOWSKI,  etc. 

XXXII.  Cheskian  (Bohemian)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.   See  JAKUBEC  and  NovAK  (cited  below),  p.  vii.   For 
a  German  collection  of  Cheskian  poetry  see  E.  ALBERT,  Poesie  aus  Bb'hmen 
(3  vols.  in  4.   Wien:  1893-1895)  and  Lyrisches  und  Verwandtes  aus  der 
bohmischen  Lit.  (1900).  Jelinek  (see  below)  cites  several  other  translations 
into  German  (p.  363). 

B.  Histories.  J.  DOBROVSKY,  Gesch.  der  bohmischen  Sprache  und  Lit. 
(Prag:  1818).  /  A.  H.  WRATISLAW,  The  Native  Lit.  of  Bohemia  in  the 
i4th  Century  (Lond.:  1878).  /  COUNT  LiiTzow,  Ancient  Bohemian  Lit. 
(in  New  Review,  Feb.  1897).  /  F.  P.  MARCHANT,  An  Outline  of  Bohemian 
Lit  (Lond.:  1898).  /  *COUNT  Lirrzow,  Hist  of  Bohemian  Lit.  (Lond.: 
1899  ;  Short  Hists.  of  the  Lits.  of  the  World  Series).  /  *JAN  MAcHAL,  Die 
bohmische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  IX.  1908). 
/  *J.  JAKUBEC,  Gesch.  der  6echischen  Lit;  A.  NovAK,  Die  6echische  Lit 
der  Gegenwart  (Leipz. :  1907 ;  2d  ed.   1909  ;  Die  Lit.  des  Ostens).  /  COUNT 
LUTZOW,  Art.  Bohemian  Lit,  Encyc.  Brit,  nth  ed.  (1910). /*H.  JELINEK, 
La  litt.  tcheque  contemporaine  (lectures  at  the  Sorbonne,  1910;  2d  ed. 
Paris:  1912),  —  with  bibliography./  L.  LEGER,  La  renaissance  tcheque  au 
ige  siecle  (Paris  :  1910). 


840  APPENDIX  [XXXIII 

See  also  the  works  on  South-Slavic  literatures  noted  below,  xxxin,  B. 

In  Cheskian  or  other  Slavic  languages  are  important  works  by  J.  Vobor- 
nik,  J.  Vldek,  J.  Karasek,  K.  Tieftrunk,  V.  Flajshans,  F.  V.  Jefabek, 
J.  Jirecek,  J.  Jungmann,  A.  V.  Sembera,  J.  V.  Novak,  etc.  (titles  in  Lutzow, 
1899,  and  Karasek,  vol.  I  of  the  work  noted  above,  xxix).  For  late  Ches- 
kian literature  see  the  extensive  Literatura  ceska  19  stoleti  (Prag :  1902  + ). 

C.  Periodicals.   See  Lutzow  (1899) ;  Jelinek  (1912),  p.  362. 

XXXIII.  Serbian  and  other  South-Slavic  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies,  pp.  3,  5,  29 ;/ 
HINNEBERG,  Die  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  IX  (1908),  p.  245  ;  /  the 
histories  mentioned  below. 

B.  Histories.     P.  J.  SAFAfcfK,   Gesch.  der  siidslawischen   Lit.   (ed.  by 
J.  Jirecek.   3  vols.    Prag:  1864-1865), —  with  bibliography.  /  A.  N.  PYPIN 
and  V.  D.  SPASOVICZ,  Gesch.  der  slawischen  Lit.  (German  trans,  by  T.  Pech 
from  the  2d  Russian  ed.   2  vols.   Leipz. :  1880-1884).  /  *M.  MURKO,  Gesch. 
der  alteren  siidslawischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1908;  Die  Lit.  des  Ostens),  —  with 
bibliography;  Die  siidslawischen  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg,  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, 
T.  I,  Abt.  IX.   1908).  /  Articles  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  i  ith  ed.  (1910-1911).  /  See 
also  above,  xxix. 

For  works  in  Slavic  languages  see  KARASEK  and  MURKO. 

XXXIV.  Hungarian  (Magyar)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  PEDDIE,  National  Bibliographies,  p.  18.  /  REICH 
and  RIEDL,  as  noted  below.  /  KONT,  noted  below, — pp.  411-413  contain  a 
valuable  list  of  French  monographs  dealing  with  Hungarian  lit.  /  A.  Dux,- 
Aus  Ungarn  (Leipz.:  1880). 

B.  Histories.    SIR  JOHN  BOWRING,  Poetry  of  the  Magyars,  etc.  (Lond.: 
1830),  based  largely  on  Schedel's  (Francis  Toldy's)  Handbuch  der  ungari- 
schen  Poesie  (2  vols.   PestundWien:  1 828). /Two  other  works  by  Schedel 
were  translated  into  German :  Gesch.  der  ungarischen  Dichtung,  etc.  (1863), 
and  Gesch.  der  ungarischen  Lit.  im  Mittelalter  (1865). /*J.  SCHWICKER, 
Gesch.  der  ungarischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:   1889).  /  G.  A.  ZicXNY,  Letteratura 
ungherese    (Milano :    1892;    Manuali   Hoepli),  —  a    brief   introduction./ 
W.  N.  LOEW,  Magyar  Poetry  (N.Y. :   1899). /E.  REICH,  Hungarian  Lit. 
(Lond.:   1898).  /  *I.  KONT,  Hist,  de  la  litt.  hongroise  (Paris:   1900), — 
adapted  from  the  standard  history,  in  the  Magyar  language,  of  C.  Horvath 
(Budapest:   1899)  and  from  works  by  A.  Kardos  and  A.  Endrb'di ;  with 
bibliography.  /  *I.  (J.)  KONT,  Gesch.  der  ungarischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1906; 
Die  Lit.  des  Ostens). /*F.  RIEDL,  Hist,  of  Hungarian  Lit.  (N.  Y. :  1906; 
Short  Hists.  of  the  Lits.  of  the  World)  and  Die  ungarische  Lit.  (in  Hinne- 
berg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  IX.    1908).  /  E.  D.  BUTLER,  Art. 
Hungarian  Lit,  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.  (1911). 

For  accounts  in  the  Magyar  language  see  the  authorities  quoted  at  the 
end  of  the  article  in  the  Encyc.  Brit. 


XXXVI]  APPENDIX  841 

C.  Periodicals.  Literarische  Berichte aus  Ungarn  (1877— 1880).  /  Ungarischt 
Revue  (1881-1895).  /  Revue  philologique  hongroise  (1878).  /For  reviews  in 
the  Magyar  language  see  REICH,  op.  cit.,  p.  258. 

XXXV.  Oriental  Poetry  in  General. 

A.  Bibliographies.    A  continuous  bibliography  of  oriental  studies,  etc., 
is  furnished  by  the  following:  Zenker's  Bibliotheca  Orientalis  (1846-1861) ; 

•  Wissenschaftlicher  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  morgenlandischen  Studien 
(1859-1881);  Friederici,  Bibliotheca  Orientalis  (1876-1883);  Literaturblatt 
fur  orientalische  Philologie  (1883-1886) ;  Orientalische  Bibliographic  (Berlin  : 
1887+).  /  T.  W.  BEALE'S  An  Oriental  Biographical  Dictionary  (new  ed. 
Lond. :  1894)  affords  a  means  of  ready  reference.  /  See  also,  for  current 
bibliography,  the  periodicals  noted  below,  c.  For  bibliographies  of  works 
printed  in  China,  Hong-Kong,  India,  Japan,  etc.,  see  Peddie,  National 
Bibliographies,  p.  5  ff. 

For  Burma,  Assam,  Laos,  Malay  Peninsula,  and  French  Indo-China,  see 
H.  Cordier,  Bibliotheca  Indosinica,  etc.  (4  vols.  in  3.  Paris:  1912-1915). 

B.  Histories.    See  above,  iv,  B.   BAUMGARTNER'S  work  is  especially  valu- 
able for  the  student  of  oriental  literatures.  /  W.  R.  ALGER'S  Poetry  of  the 
Orient  (Boston:  1865;  later  ed.  1883;  originally  Poetry  of  the  East,  1856) 
contains  a  few  translations  with  a  general,  appreciative  introduction ;  of 
no  historical  or  scientific  value. 

C.  Periodicals.     The   Asiatic  Journal   (Lond. :    1816-1845).  /  *Journal 
asiatique  (Paris:    1822  +  ),  —  with  bibliography.  /  *Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Soc.  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (Lond. :   1834  +  ;  Straits  Branch, 
Singapore:  1878  +).  /  *Zeitschr. derdeutschen morgenlandischen  Gesellschaft 
(Leipz. :  1847  +  ).  /* Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Soc.  (Boston,  etc.: 
1849+).  /  Orient  und  Occident   (Gottingen :    1862-1866).  /  International 
Congress  of  Orientalists,   Transactions  (Paris,  etc.:   1874 +)./  The  Asiatic 
Quarterly  Review  (Lond. :  1886  + ).  /  *Giornale  della  societa  asiatica  italiana 
(Firenze  :   1887  +  ).  /  *  Wiener  Zeitschr.  fur  die  Knnde  des  Morgenlandes 
( Wien  :   1887  + ),  —  with  bibliography.  /  Bessarione,  Pubblicazione  periodica 
di  studi  orientals  (Roma  :  1896  -{-)•  / Mittheilungen  des  Seminars  fur  orienta- 
lische  Sprachen   zu    Berlin    (1898-1904).  /  Orientalische   Literaturzeitung 
(Berlin:    1898-1908),  —  near  Orient.  /  Le  monde  oriental,  etc.  (Uppsala: 
1906  + ).  /  *Memnon,  Zeitschr.  fur  die  Kunst-  und  Kulturgesch.  des  alien 
Orients  (Leipz.,  etc.:  1907  +  ),  —  with  bibliography.  /  *Rivista  degli  studi 
orientali  (Roma:  1907+),  —  with  bibliography. 

See  also  the  oriental  publications  of  the  Musee  Guimet  and  of  various 
European  and  American  universities. 

XXXVI.  Turkish  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  above,  xxxv,  A. 

B.  Histories.    The  most  important  work  is  *E.  J.  W.  GIBB'S  Hist,  of 
Ottoman  Poetry  (6  vols.    Lond.:  1900-1909;  vols.  II-VI  edited  by  E.  G. 


842  APPENDIX  [XXXVII 

Browne).    Other  references  are  given  above,  pp.  354-355.    Attention  is 
also  called  to  *P.  HORN,  Gesch.  der  tiirkischen  Moderne  (Leipz. :   1902; 
Die  Lit.  des  Ostens,  vol.  IV),  and  to  a  history  in  the  Russian  language,  by 
Smirnow  (St.  Petersburg:   1889). 
C.  Periodicals.    See  above,  xxxv,  c. 

XXXVII.  Arabian  Poetry. 

See  above,  pp.  355-356;  also  above,  xxxv,  A,  c.  See  also  V.  CHAUVIN, 
Bibliographic  des  ouvrages  arabes  ou  relatifs  aux  Arabes  publics  dans 
1'Europe  chretienne  de  1810  a  1885  (9  vols.  in  3.  Liege:  1892-1905). 

XXXVIII.  Persian  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  Vol.  I,  pp.  481-496,  of  BROWNE'S  Lit.  Hist,  of 
Persia  and  the  articles  in  the  Grundriss,  both  of  which  are  noted  below. 
See  also  pp.  105-118  of  SALEMANN  and  ZHUKOVSKI'S  Persische  Gram- 
matik.    For  catalogues  see  the  Grundriss,  vol.  II,  p.  217;  or  Encyc.  Brit., 
Art.  Modern  Persian  Lit.   See  also  above,  xxxv,  A. 

B.  Histories.    G.  L.  FLUGEL  (in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  Encyk. 
1842).  /  N.  BLAND  (in  Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Soc.,  7:  345,  9:  in. 
1843-1846).  /  SIR  GORE  OUSELEY,  Biographical  Notices  of  Persian  Poets 
(Lond. :  1846).  /  C.  A.  C.  BARBIER  DE  MEYNARD,  Poesie  en  Perse  (Paris: 
1877).  /  M.  HAUG,  Essays  on  the  Sacred  Language,  Writings  and  Religion 
of  the  Parsis  (2d  ed.,  by  E.  W.  West.    Lond.:  1878). /J.  DARMESTETER, 
Les  origines  de  la  poesie  persane  (Paris:  1887).  /  *H.  ETHE,  Hofische 
und  romantische  Poesie  der  Perser  (Hamburg  :  1887).  /  I.  PIZZI,  Manuale 
di  lett.  persiana  (Milano :  1887). /*H.  ETHE,  Mystische,  didaktische  und 
lyrische  Poesie  und  das  spatere  Schrifttum  der  Perser  (Hamburg:   1888). 
/  ELIZABETH  A.  REED,  Persian  Lit.,  Ancient  and  Modern  (Chicago  :  1893), 
—  popular.  /  *I.  PIZZI,  Storia  della  poesia  persiana  (2  vols.  Torino :  1894).  / 
*W.  GEIGER  and  E.  KUHN,  Grundriss  der  iranischen  Philologie  (2  vols. 
Strassburg  :   1895-1904),  —  the  standard,  authoritative  work.    The  history 
of  the  literature  is  treated  in  the  second  volume  as  follows :  Awestalitteratur, 
by  K.  F.  Geldner;  Die  altpersischen  Inschriften,  by  F.  H.  Weissbach ; 
Pahlavi  Lit.,  by  E.  W.  West  (in  English) ;  Das  iranische  Nationalepos,  by 
T.  Noldeke ;    Neupersische  Lit.,  by  H.  Ethe.    Valuable  bibliography  is 
cited  in  all  articles.  /  *P.  HORN,  Gesch.  der  persischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1901; 
Die  Lit.  des  Ostens).  /  *E.  G.  BROWNE,  Lit  Hist,  of  Persia  (2  vols.   Lond.: 
1902-1906), — from  earliest  times  to  1250;  with  bibliography. /*K.  GELDNER, 
Altpersis'che  Lit.;  *P.  HORN,  Mittelpersische  und  neupersische  Lit.  (both 
in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  VII.    Berlin :   1906).  / 
»H.  ETHE,  Art.  Modern  Persian  Lit.;  K.  GELDNER,  Art.  Zend-Avesta, — 
both  in  Encyc.  Brit,  nthed.  (1911).  /J.  H.  MOULTON,  Early  Religious 
Poetry  of  Persia  (Cambridge:  1911;  Camb.  Manuals  of  Science  and  Lit.). 
/  E.  G.  BROWNE,  The  Press  and  Poetry  of  Modern  Persia  (Cambridge : 
1914). 

C.  Periodicals.    See  above,  xxxv,  c. 


XL]  APPENDIX  843 

XXXIX.  Indian  (Sanskrit  and  Hindoo)  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  above,  xxxv,  A ;  also  F/CAMPBELL,  Index  Cata- 
logue of  Bibliographical  Works  relating  to  India  (Lond. :  1897). 

B.  Histories.    M.  MULLER,  Hist,  of  Ancient  Sanskrit  Lit.  (Lond.:  1859; 
2d  ed.    1860),  —  Vedic  period  only.  /  GARCIN  DE  TASSY,  Les  auteurs  hin- 
doustanis  et  leurs  ouvrages  (2d  ed.    Paris :    1868)  and  Hist,  de  la  litt. 
hindouie  et  hindoustanie  (3  vols.    2d  ed.   Paris:  1870-1871).  /  A.  WEBER, 
Hist,  of  Indian  Lit.  (trans,  from  the  2d  German  ed.  by  Mann  and  Zachariae, 
Lond.:  1878;  ist  German  ed.    1852).  /  SIR  M.  MONIER-WILLIAMS,  Indian 
Wisdom  (Lond.:  1876).  /  L.  VON  SCHROEDER,  Indiens  Lit.  und  Kultur  in 
historischer  Entwicklung  (Leipz. :  1887).  /  G.  A.  GRIERSON,  The  Medieval 
Vernacular  Lit.  of  Hindustan  (Trans,  of  the  7th  Oriental  Congress.  Vienna: 
1888)  and  The  Modern  Vernacular  Lit.  of  Hindustan  (Calcutta:  1889).  / 
ELIZABETH  A.  REED,  Hindu  Lit,  etc.  (Chicago:  1891),  —  popular.  /  R.  C. 
DUTT,  Lit.  of  Bengal  (Lond.:  1895).  /  BI)HLER  and  KIELHORN  (editors), 
Grundriss  der  indo-arischen  Philologie  und  Altertumskunde  (3  vols.  in 
many  parts.    Strassburg:  1896-1912  +  ),  —  as  yet  very  little  on  the  litera- 
ture. /T.  W.  RHYS  DAVIDS,  Buddhism,  its  Hist,  and  Lit.  (Lond.:  1896).  / 
*R.  W.  FRAZER,  A  Lit.  Hist,  of  India  (Lond.:  1898).  / *A.  A.  MACDONELL, 
Hist,  of  Sanskrit  Lit.  (Lond.:  1900;  Short  Hists.  of  Lits.  of  the  World).  / 
*H.  OLDENBERG,  Die  Lit.  des  alten  Indiens  (Stuttgart :  1903).  /  V.  HENRY, 
Les  litts.  de  PInde  (Paris:  1904),  —  light  and  sketchy. /*R.  PISCHEL,  Die 
indische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  VII.   1906). 
/  *M.  WINTERNITZ,  Gesch.  der  indischen  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1908  ;  Die  Lit.  des 
Ostens).  /  *H.  J.  EGGELING,  Art.  Sanskrit  Lit;  *C.  J.  LYALL,  Art.  Hin- 
dostani  Lit.,  —  both  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  nth  ed.  (1910). 

C.  Periodicals.    See  above,  xxxv,  c ;  /  also  Asiatic  Soc.  of  Bengal,  Trans- 
actions (Calcutta:  1788-1839)  and  *Journal  (Calcutta  :  1832  +) ;/  Calcutta 
Review  (1844  + ) ;  /  *  The  Indian  Antiquary  (Bombay :  1872  +);/  *  American 
Journal  of  Philology  (Baltimore  :  1880  + ) ;  /  and  other  periodicals  of  general 
scope  mentioned  above,  v,  c. 

XL.  Sumerian  and  Babylonian  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.  *H.  W.  HOGG,  Survey  of  Recent  Assyriology  (Edinb. : 
1908  +  ;   vol.  Ill,   1914,  for   period  1910-1913).  /  *I.  A.  PRATT  and   R. 
GOTTHEIL,   Assyria  and  Babylonia,  A  List  of  References  in  the  N.  Y. 
Public  Library  (N. Y.:   1918), — most   helpful;   see   pp.  lo-n  for  other 
bibliographies. 

B.  Histories.    A.  H.  SAYCE,  The  Lit.  Works  of  Ancient  Babylonia  (in 
Zeitschr.  fur  Keilschriftforschung,  1 :  187-194.    1884)  and  Babylonian  Lit, 
Lects.  delivered  at  the   Royal   Inst  (Lond.:   n.d.).  /  C.  BEZOLD,  Kurz- 
gefasster  Uberblick  iiber  die  babylonisch-assyrische  Lit.  (Leipz. :  1886).  / 
M.  JASTROW,  Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria  (Boston:  1898).  /  *B. 
TELONI,  Letteratura  assira  (Milano:  1903;  Manuali  Hoepli), — a  brief  but 
valuable  introduction,  with  admirable  bibliographical  notes. /*C.  BEZOLD,, 


844  APPENDIX  [XLI 

Die  babylonisch-assyrische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart, 
T.  I,  Abt.  VII.  1906).  /  *O.  WEBER,  Die  Lit.  der  Babylonier  und  Assyrer 
(Leipz. :  1907).  /  R.  W.  ROGERS,  History  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
(N.Y.:  1915). 

C.  Periodicals.  The  Babylonian  and  Oriental  Record  (Lond.:  1886-1901). 
/  *Revue  d'assyriologie  et  d'archtologie  orientale  (Paris :  1886  + ).  /  *Zeitschr. 
fur  Assyriologie  und  verwandte  Gebiete  (Leipz.,  etc.:  1886 +  ),  —  with  bibli- 
ography. /  Delitzsch  and  Haupt's  Beitrdge  zur  Assyriologie  und  verglei- 
chenden  semitischen  Sprach-wissenschaft  (Leipz.:  1890-1913).  /  See  also  the 
periodicals  noted  above,  xxxv,  c ;  and  below,  XLII,  c. 

XLI.  Egyptian  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  above,  XXXV,  A. 

B.  Histories.  In  addition  to  the  works  cited  above,  p.  364,  see  A.  ERMAN, 
Agypten  und  agyptisches  Leben  (1887),  and  the  volumes  on  Egyptian 
literature  in  the  series  Books  on  Egypt  and  Chaldea  (Lond.,  Kegan  Paul, 
Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.). 

C.  Periodicals.     Zeitschr.  fur  aegyptische   Sprache   und  Altertumskunde 
(Leipz.:  1863'+),  —  with  bibliography.  /  *Recueil  de  travaux  relatifs  a  la 
philologie  et  a  r  archeologie  Sgyptienn'es  et  assyriennes  (Paris:   1870+), — 
bibliography.  /  Journal   of  the   Manchester  Egyptian   and  Oriental  Soc. 
(1911  +  ). /See  also  above,  xxxv,  c;  XL,  c. 

XLII.  Ancient  Hebrew  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  above,  xxxv,  A;   also  the   periodicals    noted 
below,  c. 

B.  Histories.   In  addition  to  the  worlc^  mentioned  above,  pp.  364-366, 
see  the  following.     R.  LOWTH,  De  Sacra  Poesi  Hebraeorum  (Oxford : 
1753;  ed.  by  I.  D.  Michaelis,  Gottingen:  1761;  by  E.  F.  C.  Rosemiiller, 
Leipz.:  1815;  etc.).  /  J.  G.  HERDER,  Vom  Geiste  der  ebraischen  Poesie 
(1782-1783).  /  F.  DELITZSCH,  Zur  Gesch.  der  jiidischen  Poesie  (Leipz.: 
1836).  /  E.  MEIER,  Gesch.  der  poetischen  National- Lit.  der  Hebraer  (Leipz. : 
1856).  /  H.  EWALD,  Die  Dichter  des  alten  Bundes  (3  vols.    Gottingen: 
1864-1867).  /  T.  NOLDEKE,   Die   alttestamentliche  Lit.  (Leipz.:   1868).  / 
D.  CASSEL,  Gesch.  der  jiidischen  Lit.  (2  vols.    Berlin:  1872-1873).  /  S. 
SHARPS,  Hist,  of  the  Hebrew  Nation  and  its  Lit.  (5th  ed.    Lond.:  1890). 
/  K.  BUDDE,  Das  Volkslied  Israels  im  Munde  der  Propheten  (in  Preuss. 
Jahrb.     Sept.  1893;   ibid.,  Dec.  1895;   cf-  New  World,  1894,  p.  56  ff.).  / 
*K.  BUDDE,  Gesch.  der  althebraischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1906;  Die  Lit.  des 
Ostens).  /  F.  K.  SANDERS  and  H.  T.  FOWLER,  Outlines  for  the  Study  of 
Biblical  Hist,  and  Lit.  (N.  Y.:  1906).  /*H.  T.  FOWLER,  A  Hist,  of  the  Lit. 
of  Ancient  Israel  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  135  B.C.  (N.  Y. :  1912). 

See  also  introductions  to  the  Old  Testament  by  Reuss  (1890),  Baudissin 
(1901),  Cornill  (1905),  and  —  the  best  in  English  —  Driver  (cited  above, 


XLIII]  APPENDIX  845 

p.  364 ;  new  ed.   1914) ;  *Art.  Bible,  by  Driver  and  others,  in  Encyc.  Brit, 
nth  ed.  (1910);  *Art.  Poetical  Lit.,  in  Encyc.  Biblica. 

C.  Periodicals.  *  Revue  des  etudes  juives  (Paris:  1880  +).  /  ^Journal  of 
Biblical  Lit.  (Middletown,  Conn.,  etc. :  1881  + ).  /  *Zeitschr.fiir  die  alttesta- 
mentliche  Wissenschaft  (1881  +  ).  /The  Biblical  World  (Chicago:  1882- 
1898).  /  ^American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Lits.  (Chicago: 
1884  + ), —  originally  Hebraica ;  with  bibliography.  /  *Revue  slmitique  d'lpi- 
graphie  et  d'hist.  ancienne  (Paris  :  1893  + ),  —  with  bibliography.  /  See  also 
above,  xxxv,  c ;  XL,  c ;  XLI,  c. 

XLIII.  Chinese  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliography.   *A.  WYLIE,  Notes  on  Chinese  Lit.  (Shanghai :  1867 ; 
new  ed.    1901),  —  including    a  bibliography   of   English   translations   of 
Chinese    classics.  /  J.  EDKINS,    Catalogue    of    Chinese   Works    in    the 
Bodleian  Library  (Oxford :  1876).  /  British  Museum,  R.  K.  Douglas,  Cata- 
logue  of   Chinese   Printed   Books,   etc.   (Lond.:   1877).  /  *H.  CORDIER, 
Bibliotheca  Sinica,  Dictionnaire  bibliographique  des  ouvrages  relatifs  a 
1'empire  chinois  (Paris:  1878;  Supplement,  1895;  2d  ed.    4  vols.    1904- 
1908).  /  *Orientalische  bibliographic   (Berlin:   1887  +  ),  —  supplementing 
Cordier's  great  work.  /  C.  MuSoz  Y  MANZANO,  CONDE  DE  LA  VINAZA, 
Escritos  de  los  Portugueses  y  castellanos  referentes  a  las  linguas  de  China 
y  el  Japon  (Lisboa :  1892).  /  H.  A.  GILES,  Catalogue  of  the  Wade  Collection 
...  in  the  Library  of  Cambridge  (Cambridge:  1898;  supplement,  1915) 
and  A   Chinese  Biographical   Dictionary   (Lond.:    1898).  /  Bibliotheque 
nationale,  M.  Courant,  Catalogue  des  livres  chinois,  coreens,  japonais,  etc. 
(Paris :  1900  + ).  /  See  also  above,  xxxv,  A. 

B.  Histories.  W.  SCHOTT,  Entwurf  einer  Beschreibung  der  chinesischen 
Lit.   (Berlin:   1854).  /  *J.  LEGGE,  The  Chinese  Classics  (7  vols.    Lond.: 
1861-1885),  —  translations,  introductions,  etc.  /  C.  IMBAULT-HUART,  La 
poesie  chinoise  du  I4eaui9e  siecle  (Paris:  i886).-/*H.  A.  GILES,  Hist,  of 
Chinese  Lit.  (Lond. :  1901 ;  Short  Hists.  of  Lits.  of  the  World).  /  *W.  GRUBE, 
Gesch.  der  chinesischen  Lit.  (Leipz.:  1902 ;  Die  Lit.  des  Ostens)  and  Die 
chinesische  Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  VII. 
1906).  /  O.  HAUSER,  Die  chinesische  Dichtung  (Berlin:  1908;  Die  Lit., 
ed.  G.  Brandes,  vol.  34),  —  a  brief  introduction  (67  pp.)./  H.  A.  GILES, 
Art.  Chinese  Lit,  Encyc.  Brit,  iith  ed.  (1910). 

C.  Periodicals.    In  addition  to  those  noted  above,  xxxv,  c :   The  Chinese 
Repository  (Canton:   1832-1851).  /Journal  of  the  North-China  Branch  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Soc.  (Shanghai:  1858 +  )./  Chinese  Recorder  (Shanghai: 
1868 +  ), — a  missionary  journal.  /  The  China  Review  (Hong-Kong:  1872+). 
I *Varittls  sinologiques  (Shanghai:    1892+),  —  a  series   of  monographs 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Jesuit  Fathers  at  Shanghai.  /  * Hanoi,  Indo-China, 
£cole  franchise  d"1  extreme-orient^   Bulletin   (Hanoi:    1901+),  Publications 
(Paris:  1901  +). 


846  APPENDIX  [XLIV 

XLIV.  Japanese  Poetry. 

A.  Bibliographies.    See  above,  xxxv,  A;  XLIII,  A;  also  H.  CORDIER, 
Bibliotheca  Japonica  (Paris:  1912). 

B.  Histories.   E.  SATOW,  Art.  Lit.  of  Japan,  American  Cyclop.  (1874).  / 
G.  BOUSQUET,  Le  Japon  litt.  (in  Rev.  d.  deux  mondes,  1878,  pp.  747-780). / 
B.  H.  CHAMBERLAIN,  The  Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese  (Lond. :  1880), 

—  texts,  etc. /T.  O.  KASAKI,  Gesch.  der  japanischen  Nationallit.  (Leipz. : 
1899).  /  *W.  G.  ASTON,  Hist,  of  Japanese  Lit.  (Lond. :  1899 ;  Short  Hists.  of 
Lits.  of  the  World),  —  see  the  review  in  Quart.  J?ev.,  vol.  192.  /  HITOMI,  Le 
Japon  (Paris:  1901).  /  O'.  HAUSER,  Die  japanische  Dichtung  (Berlin:  1904; 
Die  Lit.,  ed.  G.  Brandes,  vol.  5), — abrief  introduction  (68  pp.)./*K.  FLORENZ, 
Gesch.  der  japanischen  Lit.  (2  vols.   Leipz. :  1905-1906)  and  Die  japanische 
Lit.  (in  Hinneberg's  Kultur  der  Gegenwart,  T.  I,  Abt.  VII.    1906).  /  F.  V. 
DICKINS,  Primitive  and  Medieval  Japanese  Texts  (2  vols.   Oxford :  1906), 

—  introduction,  translations,  etc.  /  F.  BRINKLEY,  Art.  Japanese  Lit.,  Encyc. 
Brit.,  nth  ed.  (1910). /Y.  NOGUCHI,  The  Spirit  of  Japanese  Poetry  (Lond.: 
1914 ;  Wisdom  of  the  East  Series). 

C.  Periodicals.     Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Soc.  of  Japan   (Yokohama: 
1872  + ).  /  Transactions  and  Proceedings  of  the  Japan  Society  (Lond.:  1893  + ). 
/  Mitteilungen  der  deutschen  ostasiatischen  Gesellschaft  (Yokohama). 


INDEX 


NOTE.  The  reference  is  to  pages.  Bold-face  figures  indicate  annotated  references. 
Titles  of  poems,  with  a  few  exceptions,  and  the  Appendix  have  not  been  indexed. 
Poems  may  be  traced  by  authors'  names. 


Aarestrup,  E.,  350 

Abbo,  691,  699 

Abbott,  G.  F.,  188 

Abeling,  T.,  753,  755,  756,  757 

Abercrombie,  L.,  291,  453,  615 

Abrahamson,  Nyerup,  and  Rahbek, 

345 

Abu'1-ala,  356 
Acciaiuoli,  235 
Achelis,  T.,  328 
Achilleid,  theory  of  an,  628,  635, 

672,  673 
Achillini,  238 
Acker mann,  R.,  687 
Acrostic,  198,  692 
Action  of  the  epic,  433-434 
Adam  de  la  Halle,  211,  212 
Adam  le  Bossu,  211 
Adam  of  St.  Victor,  193,  202 
Adam,  F.,  453,  588 
Adam,  L.,  672 
Adams,  Jean,  284 
Adams,  S.  H.,  329 
Adams,  W.  D.,  16,  32,  415 
Adamson,  J.,  735 
Addison,  J.,  115,  116,  117,  280,  281, 

285,  286,  288,  322,  341,  417,  426, 

429,  453-454,  464,  484,  529,  563, 

564,  565,  567,  570,  579,  603,  634, 

746 

Adler,  G.  J.,  209 
Adonis  song,  15 
Adriano,  S.,  685 
Aedilvulf,  696 
Aedituus,  414 
Aelian,  669 
Aelius  Donatus,  515 
Aeolic  or  Lesbian  lyric,  184,  190, 

377,  417,  4i8 


Aeschylus,  186,  377 
Aesop,  638,  701 
Aesthetic  emotions,  36 
Aetiological    narrative,    438,    592, 

597,  607,  627,  664 
Afghan  poetry,  355 
Agius,  387 
Agnelli,  G.,  243,  717 
Agostinho  da  Cruz,  Frei,  263 
Ahlwardt,  W.,  355 
Aikin,  J.,  117,  125,  285,  569 
Aikin,  Lucy,  285,  569 
Ainger,  A.,  127,  285 
Aitken,  G.  A.,  285 
Ajuda,  Cancioneiro  da,  262,  265 
Aken,  Hein  van,  765 
Akenside,  M.,  115, 117,  273,286,  419 
Alaleona,  D.,  237 
Alamanni,  A.,  235 
Alamanni,  L.,  216,  391,  396,  419, 

724 

Alba,  16,  210,  315 
Albert,  H.,  318,  319 
Albert,  P.,  no,  145 
Albini,  G.,  722 

Albrecht  von  Johannsdorf,  314 
Alcaeus,  184,  418 
Alcmaeon,  508 
Alcman,  184,  417 
Alcover,  J.,  261 
Alcuin,  199,  200,  387,  388,  691,  696, 

4697 

Alden,  R.  M.,  12,  16,  32,  42,  129, 
272,  298,  420,  423,  431  et  passim, 

454 

Aldini,  A.,  239 
Aldis,  H.  G.,  266 
Aleardi,  245 
Alexander  the  Aetolian,  378 


847 


848 


INDEX 


Alexander,  F.,  248 
Alexander,  H.  B.,  42 
Alexander,  Sir  W.,  561 
Alexander,  W.  J.,  299 
Alexandrian    canon    of    poets,    86, 

Sii,  5i3 
Alexandrian    epic,    473,    680-681 ; 

lyric,  5,  27,  186,  189,  190,  376, 

378-381 

Alfieri,  240,  242-243 
Alfius  Flavus,  384 
Alfonso  II  of  Aragon,  250 
Alfonso  X  of  Castile,  253,  255 
Alfonso  de  Baena,  J.,  251,  254 
Alger,  W.  R.,  362 
Al  Ghazzali,  356 
Allaci,  L.,  226 
Allegorical  criticism,  426,  465,  484, 

510,  511,  518,  520-521,  528,  538, 

543,  544,  545,  549,  556,  561,  563, 

566,  567,  685 
Allegorical  narrative,  690-691,  693, 

696,  716,  720,  741,  771 
Allen,  C.  F.  R.,  367 
Allen,  K.,  685 

Allen,  P.  S.,  149-150,  311,  314,  333 
Allen,  T.  W.,  674,  675,  679 
Allen,  T.'W.,  and  Sikes,  E.  E.,  187 
Allen,  W.  F.,  150 
Allingham,  294 
Almqvist,  K.  J.  L.,  772 
Alscher,  R.,  272,  421 
Altner,  E.,  707 
Altona,  J.,  707 
Alvarus,  200,  387 
Amadis  of  Gaul,  487,  733 
Amador  de  los  Rios,  J.,  250,  255, 

260,  702 
Amain,  G.,  248 

Amar  du  Rivier,  J.  A.,  220,  458 
Ambros,  W.  A.,  42 
Ambrose  of  Milan,  518,  521 
Ameis  and  Hentze,  678 
American   (U.  S.)    poetry,  see  Apr 

pendix;  also  290,  298 
Ampere,  J.  J.,  109,  199 
Anachronism  in  the  epic,  642 
Anacreon,  185,  189,  418,  510 
Anacreontic  ode,  18,  103,  105,  116, 

150,  237,  238,  239,  241,  276,  277, 

321,  323,  329,  419 


Anatolius,  192 
•  Ancient  and  Modern  Quarrel,  102, 

464,    465,    492,    502,    539,    540, 

543-544,  545,  547,  548,  550,  551, 

561,  562,  563,  564,  669 
Anderson,  280 
Anderson,  J.  P.,  298 
Anderson,  R.  B.,  339,  769 
Anderton,  I.  M.,  620 
Andreini,  746 
Andrelinus,  649 
Andres,  G.,  534~535 
Aneau,  101 
Angellier,  A.,  285 
Angeloni,  I.  M.,  230 
Angermann,  A.,  315 
Angilbert,  388,  697 
Angioleri,  Cecco,  231 
Anglade,  J.,  205,  208,  209 
Angus,  W.  C.,  285 
Animal  folk   tales,   623,   624,  627, 

663,  701 

Animals,  Laments  for  pet,  402-403 
Anonymous  traditional  poetry,  428- 

429,  441,  443,  605-608,  621,  623, 

629,  640,  642,  671 
Anquetil  du  Perron,  359 
Ansellus,  691,  699 
Anslo,  R.,  766 
Anthology,    Greek,    64,    186,    188, 

413-414 

Anthology,  Roman,  413 
.Anthropological    study    of    poetry, 

see  Lower  races,  poetry  of;  also 

620,  649,  660 

Antimachus  of  Colophon,  378,  457 
doiSot,  594 

Apollinaris  Sidonius,  89 
Apollonius,  453 
Apollonius  '  of    Rhodes,    464,    516, 

534,  569,  593,  601,  680-681,  683, 

685 

Appel,  C.,  205 
Appleton,  W.  H.,  188 
Arabian    poetry,    150,    166,     206, 

355-356,  486,  644 
Arany,  J.,  354 
Arator,  690,  695 
Aratus,  379 
Arbaud,  D.,  225 
Arber,  266 


INDEX 


849 


Arbois    de    Jubainville,    306,    677, 

748,  749 
Arbuthnot,  356 
Arcadia  Ulysiponense,  264 
Arcadian  Academy,  94,  239-243,  264 

(Portuguese),  397 
Arcadian     poetry,     see     Arcadian 

Academy;  also  380,  444,  530 
Archer,  W.,  128,  291,  299 
Archilochus,  184,  188,  376 
Ardito,  97 
Ardwisson,  340 
Arent,  W.,  332 
Arentzen,  K.,  352 
Aretino,  724 
Arici,  244 
Arion,  184,  186 
Ariosto,  L.,  204,  237,  396,  426,  463, 

479,  487,  490,  500,  505,  507,  522, 

524,  525,  526,  529,  530,  531,  533, 
534,  536,  544,  550,  557,  S6i,  568, 
569,  578,  583,  588,  S99,  651,  712, 
720,  721,  723-725   (editions  and 
translations,  724),  726,  729,  745 

Aristarchus,  453,  511,  514,  667 
Aristophanes,  186,  521 
Aristophanes    of    Byzantium,    511, 

514 

Aristotle,  42-43,  86,  90,  91, 100, 137, 
425,  427  et  passim,  453,  454, 
458,  460,  463,  465,  466-467,  475, 
477,  482,  486,  490,  491,  492,  494, 
501,  509,  513,  516,  522,  523-524, 

525,  526,  527,  528,  529,  530,  531, 
533,  537,  538,  539,  54i,  542,  546, 
SSi,  552,  556,  557,  559,  56i,  563, 
564,  565,  566,  570,  578,  584,  587, 
589,  634,  725 

Armenian  poetry,  355,  783 

Armes,  W.  D.,  440,  442,  455,  746 

Armstrong,  J.,  611 

Armstrong,  W.  H.,  661 

Arnauld,  A.,  492 

Arndt,  A.,  685 

Arndt,  E.  M.,  331,  333 

Arnim,  L.  J.  (A.)  von,  331,  333 

Arnim  and  Brentano,  336 

Arnobius,  517,  692  ' 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  295,  433,  435, 

488,  603,  748 
Arnold,  E.  V.,  363 


Arnold,  M.,  34,  122,  127,  138,  286, 
290  ff.,  307,  329,  334,  405,  406, 
4i8,  455-456,  493,  572,  574,  679, 
704,  742 

Arnold,  R.  F.,  and  Wagner,  K.,  330 

Arnolletus,  649 

Arnould,  L.,  541 

Aronstein,  B.,  299 

Arragonia,  V.  Toraldo  da,  92 

Arrebo,  A.,  346,  351,  771,  772 

Arrowsmith,  R.,  362 

Arruntius  Stella,  384 

Arsilli,  204 

Art  ballad,  442-443 

Art-instinct,  theories  of,  142 

Art  lyric,  15,  142,  144,  151,  153, 
158,  160,  168,  592-593 

Arte  de  trobar,  251 

Arthurian  romance,  473,  487,  491, 
555,  56o,  635,  7io-7",  741-744, 
•  748,  751,  763,  765 

Arullani,  V.  A.,  241 

Ascham,  R.,  111-112,  555 

Asselineau,  C.,  25,  218,  420 

Aston,  W.  G.,  368 

Athenagoras  the  Athenian,  519 

Atherstone,  E.,  439 

Atkinson,  J.,  776 

Atterbom,  P.  D.  A.,  343,  345,  771 

Aubades,  392 

Aube,  207 

Aubertin,  C.,  615 

Aubry,  P.,  209,  213 

Aubry,  P.,  and  Jeanroy,.  A.,  212 

Audin,  E.,  721 

Audrad,  388 

Auger,  220 

Auguis,  206 

Aulus  Gellius,  87,  515,  523 

Aurelius  Nemesianus,  384-385 

Ausfeld,  F.,  150,  329 

Ausonius,  87,   198,   384,   399,   415, 

5i5 

Aust,  J.,  150,  270 
Austin,  A.,  290,  295,  299,  575 
Autels,  G.  des,  101 
Authorship,  epic,  428-429 
Aveling,  C.,  209,  213 
Avenarius,  F.,  330,  332 
Avitus,  690,  694 
Ayres,  H.  M.,  266,  736,  740 


850 


INDEX 


Aytoun,  296 

Azarias,  Brother,  127,  574,  717 

Azzolina,  L.,  230 

Baath,  A.  U.,  344 

Babbitt,  I.,  106,  456,  541,  554 

Babois,  400 

Babylonian  poetry,  363,  782-783 

Bacchylides,  185,  188,  189,  418 

Baccini,  G.,  243 

Bacelli,  245 

Bachmann,  W.,  511 

Bacon,  Francis,  43,  540,  560,  561, 

569 

Bacon,  L.,  353,  704,  731-732,  775 
Baculard  d'Arnaud,  399 
Badke,  O.,  226 
Bachtold,  J.,  326,  334 
Bahr,  J.  C.  F.,  680. 
Baehrens,  E.,  190,  381 
Baena's  Cancionero,  254 
Baerlein,  H.,  356 
Barnstein,  202 
Baethgen,  D.  F.,  365 
Baumker,  W.,  336 
Bagehot,  W.,   125,    126,   299,  574, 

746 

Bagger,  C.  C.,  350 
Baggesen,  A.,  352,  772 
Baggesen,  J.,  348-349,  35°,  352 
Bagnole,  P.,  729 
Bahder,  K.  von,  309 
Baif,  J.  de,  217,  218,  398 
Bailey,  J.,  746 
Bailey,  John,  456 
Bailey,  P.  J.,  294,  295 
Baillet,  A.,  544 
Baillie,  Joanna,  284 
Baillie,  J.  B.,  476 
Bailly,  E.,  764 
Baist,  G.,  732,  733 
Balaguer,  V.,  255,  732 
Balart,  F.,  260,  410 
Balbus,  415 
Balde,  E.,  329 
Baldelli,  G.  B.,  95 
Baldi,  A.,  335 

Baldwin,  C.  S.,  268,  738,  741 
Baldwin,  J.  M.,  43 
Ballad,  25,  112,  118,  125,  225,  255, 

277.  285,  296,  327,  336,  340,  344, 


345-346,  353,  367,  406,  423,  428, 
439,  440-443  (manner,  verse,  sub- 
ject-matter, kinds,  definition), 
449,  455,  460,  462,  470,  472,  473, 
474,  476,  478,  480,  482,  483,  486, 
489,  496,  498,  500,  503,  505,  564, 
5"82,  589,  594,  595,  598,  604, 
605-609  (origin,  distribution,  de- 
velopment, relation  to  other 
types),  615,  620,  622,  626,  628- 
629,  632,  633,  639,  642,  643,  646- 
647,  653,  656,  657-658,  731,  732, 
742,  749,  750,  754,  766,  772,  773- 

774,  775 
Ballad  and  epic,  interrelation,  589, 

598,  604,  609,  628,  631-632,  633, 

634,  636,  638,  643,  663,  731,  733, 

738,  739,  763,  767,  774 
Ballade,  16,  154,  210,  214,  269,  270 
Ballate,  16,  226,  229 
Ballettes,  16,  207 
Balzac,  J.  G.  de,  103,  542 
Bandello,  M.,  238 
Banning,  A.,  738 
Banville,  T.  de,  16,  129,  222 
Baptista  Mantuanus,  610,  649 
Barante,  P.  B.  de,  109 
Barbey,  D'Aurevilly,  J.  A.,  no 
Barbour,  J.,  744 
Bardenhewer,  O.,  692 
Bardoux,  A.,  223 
Baret,  E.,  205,  255,  732,  733 
Baretti,  M.  G.,  94,  242,  243,  530 
Bargeo,  Pietro,  395 
Barham,  295 
Barine,  A.,  223 
Baring-Gould,  S.,  127 
Barlow,  Jane,  290 
Barlow,  Joel,  748 
Barnard,  Lady  Anne,  284 
Barnes,  B.,  272 
Barnes,  J.,  116 
Barnes,  W.,  294,  295,  452 
Baron,  A.  H.  N.,  601 
Barres,  M.,  224 
Barreto,  M.,  265 
Barrett,  W.  A.,  126,  215,  273 
Barta,  F.,  87 

Bartels,  Adolf,  309  et  passim,  330 
Barth,  A.,  780 
Earth,  C.  von,  203,  576 


INDEX 


851 


Barthold,  321 
Bartholomae,  C.,  360 
Bartholomew,  A.  T.,  and  Clark,  J. 

W.,  56? 

Bartoli,  A.,  97,  226,  227,  534,  702 
Barton,  W.  E.,  150 
Bartrina,  J.  M.,  260 
Bartsch,  K.,  201,  206,  208,  209,  211, 

213,  312,  315,  610,  706,  707,  756, 

759,  761,  762 
Bartsch  and  Horning,  213 
Barzellotti,  G.,  246 
Basia,  203-204 
Basile,  G.  B.,  92 
Basini,  B.,  720 
Basselin,  O.,  214 
Bastard,  416 
Batista,  G.,  93 
Batteux,  C.,  44,  433  et  passim,  456, 

5°3,  552-553,  578 

Battifol,  519 

Baudelaire,  222,  245,  400 

Baudoin,  J.,  559 

Bauer,  E.  A.  L.,  333 

Bauer,  R.,  704 

Baumgart,  H.,  134,  150,  433  et  pas- 
sim, 457,  458 

Baumgarten,  A.,  133,  580,  581,  585 

Baumgarten,  B.,  705 

Baumgartner,  A.,  192,355.356,360, 
364,  368,  682,  702,  780,  783 

Baumstark,  A.,  188 

Bauquier,  J.,  703 

Bayle,  P.,  492,  539 

Bayne,  P.,  44,  126 

Bayne,  T.,  44 

Bayne,  W.,  286 

Bazzoni,  G.,  615 

Beast  epic,  623-624,  701,  711,  750, 

763,  783 

Beattie,  J.,  287,  405,  611 
Beatty,  A.,  607,  616,  647 
Beaumont,  J.,  276,  277,  4P4,  405 
Beaunier,  A.,  224 
Beaurepaire-Froment,  225 
Beccari,  A.,  610 
Becelli,  G.  C.,  94,  532 
Bech,  F.,  761 
Bechstein,  R.,  761 
Beck,  J.  B.,  209 
Becker,  E.,  699 


Becker,  N.,  331 

Becker,  P.  A.,  205,  212,  698 

Becker,  R.,  315 

Beddoes,  T.  L.,  294,  296 

Bede,  89,  193 

Bedier,  J.,  212,  616,  624,  698,  704, 

707,  711  , 

Bedier,  J.,  and  Roques,  M.,  170 
Beeching,  H.  C.,  25,  44,  129,  273, 

283,  421 

Beers,  H.  A.,  46,  124,  150,  286,  299 
Begg,  W.  P.,  127,  676,  685 
Behagel,  O.,  761 
Beheim,  M.,  317,  319 
Bekker,  I.,  676,  678,  682,  704,  707 
Belcari,  Feo,  236 
Belger,  C.,  161 
Beljame,  A.,  286 
Bell,  A.  F.  G.,  735 
Bell,  M.,  299 
Bellay,  see  Du  Bellay 
Belleau,  Remi,  217 
Bellermann,  C.  F.,  265 
Belli,  244 

Bellincioni,   B.,  396 
Belling,  H.,  381,  685 
Bellman,  K.  M.,  342,  344 
Bello,  A.,  730 
Belloni,  A.,  92,  236,  238,  239,  527, 

528,  712,  727 
Bellunese,  G.  C.,  528 
Belsham,  W.,  457,  570 
Beltrami,  A.,  188 
Belzner,  E.,  676 

Bembo,  203,  237,  391,  396,  415 
Benard,  C.,  58 
Benecke,  312 

Benecke,  E.  F.  M.,  457~458,  685 
Benedetti,  244 
Benedict,  S.,  759 
Beneducci,  F.,  403 
Beni,  P.,  523,  524,  528,  529,  541, 

543,  669 

Benivieni,  236,  396 
Benkowitz,  C.  F.,  764 
Benlowes,  E.,  439 
Benoist,  187 
Benoit,  F.,  286 
Bensley,  E.,  286 
Benson,  A.  C.,  127,  290,  299 
Bentfield,  C.  A.,  685 


852 


INDEX 


Bentley,  R.,  492,  563,  564,  566-567, 
667,  669 

Beowulf,  429,  481,  482,  571,  585, 
593,  595,  657,  660,  736-739  (edi- 
tions and  translations,  738),  754 

Beranger,  125,  222,  223,  400 

Berard,  V.,  672,  676 

Berardi,  C.,  90,  93 

Berchet,  G.,  96,  244,  246 

Berdoe,  E.,  299 

Berenger  de  la  Tour,  398 

Bergaigne,  362 

Berger,  A.  E.,  151 

Berger,  P.,  286 

Bergerat,  £.,  223 

Bergk,  T.,  187,  376,  672,  675 

Bergmann,  J.,  336 

Bergson,  H.,  224 

Bern,  M.,  330 

Bernagge,  S.,  188 

Bernard  of  Morlaix,  193 

Bernard,  220 

Bernard,  J.  H.,  and  Atkinson,  R., 
307 

Bernardes,  Diego,  263,  410 

Bernardin  de  Saint-Pierre,  107 

Bernays,  M.,  326 

Bernhardy,  G.,  44,  85,  376,  458, 
588,  672,  675 

Berni,  F.,  729 

Bernis,  F.  J.  P.,  220,  399 

Bernoni,  G.,  248 

Bertana,  E.,  243,  246 

Bertharius,  388 

Berthelin,  E.,  218 

Bertin,  220,  400 

Bertola,  A.,  241,  243,  395,  397 

Bert6Ia,  G.,  395 

Bertoni,  G.,  209,  227,  229,  230,  231, 
722 

Bertoni,  G.,  and  Vicini,  E.  P.,  234 

Bertran  de  Born,  208 

Bertrand,  E.,  685 

Bertrand,  L.,  611 

Bertrin,  G.,  672 

Besant,  213,  217 

Besser,  J.  von,  322 

Bethe,  E.,  679 

Bethge,  H.,  330,  367 

Bethge,  R.,  310 

Bettinelli,  S.,  94,  242,  532 


Betz  and  Baldensperger,  211,  334, 

354,  7io,  711,  719,  741,  748,  761 
Bever,  A.  van,  and  Leautaud,  P., 

107,  222 

Beyer,  C.,  333,  589 
Beyer,  V.,  443 
Bezold,  C.,  363,  782 
Biadene,  L.,  230,  420 
Bianco  da  Siena,  233 
Biava,  244 

Bibbiena,  Cardinal  di,  235 
Biblical  paraphrase,  195,  197 
Biblioteca  italiana,  96 
Bickersteth,  E.  H.,  433,  574 
Bickersteth,  G.  L.,  247 
Biedermann,  K.,  327 
Biederpiann,  W.  von,  141,  151,  373, 

616 

Bielfeld,  J.  F.  von,  131,  578 
Bielschowsky,  A.,  329 
Bierbaum,  O.  J.,  332 
Biese,  A.,  44-45,  ^35,  183,  188,  309, 

330,  676,  685,  738 
Biese,  F.,  589 
Biffoli,  B.  de',  236 
Biggs,  Maude  A.,  775 
Bijns,  Anna,  337 
Bilderdijk,  W.,  338,  766 
Billings,  A.  H.,  741 
Billson,  C.  J.,  352,  687,  774 
Bindi,  E.,  and  Fanfani,  P.,  230 
Binet,  A.,  711 
Binet,  H.,  209 
Bintz,  J.,  130 
Binyon,  L.,  290,  742 
Bion,  186,  379,  380,  391,  483,  610, 

649 

Biondi,  244 

Birch-Hirschfeld,  A.,  204,  207,  709 
Bir6,  E.,  no,  223 
Birken,  S.  von,  130,  321,  577 
Birrell,  A.,  299,  574 
Bistrom,  W.,  616,  775 
Bitaub6,  P.  J.,  552 
Bithell,  J.,  312 
Bittner,  M.,  355 
Bjornson,  B.,  351,  773 
Black,  J.,  573 
Black,  W.,  286 
Blackburn,  740 
Blackie,  J.  S.,  151,  286,  296,  676 


INDEX 


853 


Blackmore,  Sir  R.,  439,  563,  566, 

742,  766 
Blackwell,  T.,  533,  553,  565,  582, 

584,  594,  600,  616-617,  634,  667, 

668,  670,  672,  678 
Blade,  J.  F.,  225 
Blair,  H.,  45,  118,  286,  423,  458, 

533,  570,  611 

Blair,  R.,  282,  397,  399,  4°5 
Blake,  W.,  77,  284,  286,  287,  288, 

289,  295,  297,  300 
Blakeney,  E.  H.,  678 
Blanchemain,  P.,  536 
Blankenburg,  F.  von,  76,  458,  499 

et  passim 

Blass,  F.,  617,  672 
Blaze  de  Bury,  H.,  109 
Bleek,  A.,  359 
Bleibtreu,  K.,  332,  335 
Blind,  Mathilde,  290,  295 
Blochmann,  H.,  361 
Blodget,  H.,  361 
Blommaert,  337 
Blondel  de  Nesle,  211,  212 
Bloomfield,  M.,  361,  362 
Bloomfield,  R.,  295 
Blount,  T.  P.,  562 
Blume,  L.,  754 
Boas,  F.,  371,  373,  593 
Boccaccio,  391,  468,  521,  526,  719- 

721 

Boccalini,  T.,  92,  528 
Bode,  K.,  443 

Bodenstedt,  F.,  331,  332,  334,  358 
Bodmer,  J.  J.,  129,  130-131,  322, 

323,  325,  326,  331,  347,  408,  4°9, 

432,  433,  46o,  578,  579,  580 
Bockel,  O.,  45,  617 
Boeckh,  A.,  45,  151,  376,  588,  617 
Bocking,  E.,  496 
Boddeker,  K.,  268 
Bodtcher,  L.  A.,  350 
Bohl  de  Faber,  734 
Bohm,  F.,  754 
Bb'hme,  F.  M.,  320,  336 
Bohtlingk,  590 
Bb'mer,  A.,  202 
Boer,  R.  C.,  738,  756 
Boerkel,  A.,  315 
Boethius,  386,  388 
Botticher,  G.,  762 


Bottiger,  K.  V.,  344 

Bogaers,  A.,  338,  766 

Bogdanovich,  I.  F.,  353 

Bohemian  poetry,  see  Cheskian 

Bohm,  W.,  321 

Bohn,  W.  E.,  563 

Bohse,  P.,  676 

Boiardo,  M.,  236,  426,  463,  490, 
500,  507,  522,  525,  651,  712, 
721-723  (editions  and  transla- 
tions, 722),  726,  729 
Boileau-Despreaux,  N.,  102-104, 131, 
138,  219,  259,  323,  347,  399,  416, 
426,  434  et  passim,  458-459,  463, 
492,  496,  535,  537,  539,  54°,  54*. 
S42,  543,  S5i,  553,  558,  562,  579, 
587,  603,  712,  763,  772 

Boisrobert,  F.  Le  M.  de,  492 

Boissier,  G.,  199,  617-618,  685,  689 

Boivin,  J.,  545,  548 

Bolle,  W.,  273,  274 

Bolton,  E.,  556,  560,  561 

Bolton,  T.  L.,  124 

Bolza,  G.  B.,  723 

Bolza,  J.  B.  (  =  G.  B.),724 

Bond,  R.  W.,  724 

Bongioanni,  A.,  230 

Bonichi,  Bindo,  233 

Bonitz,  H.,  672 

Bonnard,  Chevalier  de,  400 

Bonvecino  of  Riva,  228 

Borgese,  G.  A.,  95,  247 

Borghesi,  P.,  273,  421 

Borinski,   K.,   129,  317,  321,   575, 
577,  699,  717 

Born,  S.,  333 

Borrow,  G.  H.,  308 

Borthwick,  J.  D.,  286 

Bortolotti,  V.,  242 

Borzelli,  A.,  237,  239 

Bosanquet,  B.,  86,  130,  132,  496 

Boscan,  J.,  254,  256,  257,  258,  410 

Bossert,  A.,  752 

Bossuet,  J.  B.,  544,  622 

Boswell,  C.  S.,  748 

Bottomley,  G.,  291,  295 

Bouchard,  M.  A.,  105 

Bouchard,  P.  de,  224 

Bou filers,  220 

Bougot,  A.,  672,  685 

Bouhours,  D.,  492,  544 


854 


INDEX 


Boulting,  W.,  727 

Bourget,  P.,  108,  no,  299 

Bourgoin,  A.,  102,  459,  542 

Bournouf,  E.,  361 

Bouterwek,  261 

Bouvy,  E.,  243 

Bovet,  E.,  151 

Bowles,  W.  L.,  124,  283,  284,  286, 

296,  405 
Bowring,   J.,   337,    352,   353,   354, 

733,  775 

Boyle,  Charles,  492,  563,  564 
Boynton,  H.  W.,  299 
Boynton,  P.  H.,  290 
Bracciolini,  F.,  728,  729 
Bracciolini,  P.,  719-720 
Bradley,  A.  C.,  38,  128,  299 
Bradley,  C.  B.,  430,  453,  459~46o, 

594,  596,  684 
Braga,  T.,  254,  261,  264,  265,  734, 

735,  783 

Brahm  and  Bb'lsche,  335 
Braitmaier,  F.,  130,  460,  578,  579, 

588 

Brakelmann,  J.,  211,  212 
Brandao,  D.,  263 
Brandelius,  J.  C.,  32 
Brandenburg,  Kurftirstin  von,  319 
Brandes,  G.,  221,  223,  289-290,  299, 

333,  345,  350,  354 
Brandi,  G.  B.,  528 
Brandl,  A.,  266,  270,  286,  299,  736, 

738 

Brandstetter,  R.,  783 
Brandt,  P.,  188 
Braun,  A.  D.  von,  344 
Braun,  D.,  354 
Braune,  W.,  317,  753 
Braunschvig,  M.,  550 
Bray,  J.  W.,  128,  266 
Breal,  M.,  598,  672 
Breasted,  J.  H.,  356,  364 
Brederoo,  G.  A.,  338 
Brehaut,  E.,  518 
Breitinger,  J.  J.,  130,  323,  408,  460, 

578,  579 
Brenner,  O.,  752 
Brentano,  C.,  331,  333 
Brerewood,  F.,  547 
Breton,  N.,  272,  611 
Breul,  K.,  309,  759 


Bridges,  R.,  290,  294  ff.,  418,  420, 

747 

Briggs,  E.  G.,  365 
Brimley,  G.,  127,  299 
Brinton,  A.  C.,  221 
Brite,  D.  de,  263 
Brito-Aranha,  734 
Brittany,  poetry  of,  see  Appendix; 

also  306-309 
Brockelmann,  C.,  356 
Brockes,  B.  H.,  322,  323 
Brockhaus,  F.   A.,   135,   249,  322, 

460,  604 

Brodeur,  A.  G.,  769 
Brofferio,  244 
Brogle,  H.,  611,  614,  618 
Bronson,  W.  C.,  21,  127,  286 
Brooke,  Charlotte,  307 
Brooke,  Rupert,  291,  297 
Brooke,  S.  A.,  126,  128,  286,  299, 

738,  746 

Broome,  W.,  566 
Brorson,  H.  A.,  347 
Brotanek,  R.,  528 
Brough,  295 
Brown,  A.  C.  L.,  710 
Brown,  J.,   117 
Brown,  Simon,  283 
Browne,  C.,  286 

Browne,  E.  G.,  356,  357,  776,  777 
Browne,  H.,  668,  672 
Browne,  W.,  276,  278,  6n,  647 
Browning,  Elizabeth  B.,  290  ff. 
Browning,    R.,   34,   45-46,    125  ff., 

138,  286,  290  ff.,  418 
Brownlie,  J.,  194 
Bruce,  J.  D.,  744 
Bruchmann,  K.,  46,  134,  141,  152, 

431  et  passim,  460,  587,  618 
Bruckner,  A.,  353,  354,  774 
Brueckner,  G.,  704 
Bruinier,  J.  W.,  618 
Brule,  Grace,  211 
Brunck,  R.  F.  P.,  187 
Brunetiere,  F.,  46,  47,  98,  99,  102, 

108,  no,  123,  141,  145,  152,  220, 

221,  459,  536,  618  et  passim 
Bruni,  L.,  204,  521 
Brunn,  H.  von,  676 
Brunnhofer,  H.,  361 
Bruno,  G.,  526-527,  529 


INDEX 


855 


Brunot,  F.,  102 

Bryant,  Jacob,  286 

Bryant,  W.  C.,  678 

Brydges,  E.,  in 

Buchanan,  G.,  415,  418 

Buchanan,  R.  (T.  Maitland),  126, 

290,  295,  299 
Buchenau,  G.,  320 
Bucherer,  F.,  187 
Buchheim,  K.  A.,  310 
Buchholz,  E.,  187,  676 
Buchner,  Aug.,  577 
Buchner,  W.,  310 
Bucke,  C.,  286 
Buckingham,   Duke    of,   see  Mul- 

grave,  Earl  of 
Bucolic  poetry,  see  Pastoral 
Budd,  C.,  367 
Budde,  K.,  364,  411,  412 
Budge,  E.  A.  Wallis,  364 
Biicheler  and  Riese,  190 
Biicher,  373 
Biicher,  K.,  152 
Biihler,  G.,  780 

Biihler  and  Kielhorn,  361,  778 
Burger,  G.  A.,  325,  327,  443 
Burger,  R.,  382 
Biirkner,  R.,  633 
Biitnner,  H.,  624 
Buff,  746 

Buffier,  Pere  C.,  492,  548 
Bugge,  S.,  346,  752,  768,  769 
Bugnyon,  P.,  398 
Bujeaud,  J.,  225 
Bullen,  A.  H.,  174,  273,  278 
Bulliiiger,  H.,  576 
Bunge,  R.,  230,  420 
Bunsen,  Baron  von,  336 
Buonamici,  F.,  527 
Buonarroti,  Michelangelo,  237 
Burchiello,  233,  236 
Burckhardt,  J.,  713 
Burdach,  K.,  316,  317 
Burden,  ballad,  440 
Burges,  G.,  188 
Burlesque    epic,    see    Mock-heroic 

epic 

Burlesque  romance,  439 
Burmann,  413 

Burne-Jones,  Ed.,  and  Lady,  299 
Burnouf,  E.,  676 


Burns,  R.,  120,  125  ff.,  144,  284, 
285,  286,  287,  288,  405,  447,  452, 
611 

Burton,  R.,  267,  574,  735 

Bury,  J.  B.,  21,  679 

Busetto,  N.,  247 

Busse,  C.,  330 

Busse,  K.,  135 

Bustico,  G.,  243 

Butcher,  S.,  36,  38,  432  et  passim, 
454,  460-461,  513 

Butcher  and  Lang,  679 

Butler,  A.  J.,  713,  714,  715 

Butler,  E.  D.,  354 

Butler,  H.  E.,  191,  381,  687 

Butler,  S.,  676 

Butti,  A.,  243 

Buvalelli,  Rambertino,  227 

Byltny,  774 

Byrom,  J.,  115,  611 

Byron,  Lord,  260,  290  ff.,  334,  405 

Bysshe,  E.,  116 

Bywater,  I.,  559 

Byzantine  poetry,  191,  682 

Cabestanh,  Guilhem  de,  210 

Caedmon,  473,  693,  740,  746,  747 

Caesar,  C.  I.,  376 

Cahier  and  Martin,  624 

Cailly,  J.  de,  416 

Caine,  T.  H.,  47,  290,  299 

Caliari,  P.,  248 

Callieres,  F.  de,  492 

Callimachus,    186,    188,    189,    379, 

380,  414,  453,  667 
Callinus,  184,  376 
Calpurnius  Siculus,  384-385,  610 
Calverley,  295 
Calvert,  G.  H.,  299 
Calvi,  E.,  233 
Calvo,  Bonifacio,  227 
Calvus,  382 
Camboulin,  F.  R.,  249 
Cambridge  Hist,  of  Eng.  Lit.,  152, 

265  et  passim 
Camerarius,  J.,  576,  669 
Cameron,  A.,  308 
Camilli,  C.,  728 

Caminha,  Pero  de  Andrade,  263,  410 
Camoens,  L.  de,  263,  410,  458,  496, 

554.  734-735 


856 


INDEX 


Camp,  M.  du,  223 

Campanella,  239 

Campanini,  N.,  236 

Campbell  of  Islay,  308 

Campbell,  J.  D.,  299 

Campbell,  L.,  461,  676 

Campbell,  T.,  294,  296,  573 

Campbell,  W.,  266,  290 

Campenon,  712 

Campion,  T.,  113,  276,  279,  560 

Campoamor,  260 

Canadian    poetry,    see    Appendix; 

also  290 

Cancellieri,  F.,  718 
Candoneiro    Geral,    262-263,    410, 

735 

Cancioneros,  251-255,  410,  733 
Canello,  U.  A.,  206,  208,  246 
Canevari,  E.,  239 
Canfield,  A.  G.,  205 
Canitz,  R.  von,  322,  419 
Canning,  295 
Cannizzaro,  245 
Cansos,  392 

Cantares  de  gesta,  250,  730 
Canti  carnascialeschi,  235,  236 
Canti  nazionali,  16 
Cantigas  de  amor  e  de  amigo,  252, 

262 
Cantigas  de  escarnho  e  de  maldizer, 

252-253 
Cantilenas,  731 
CantUene,  226,  229 
Cantilenes,  594-595.  615,  625,  635 
Cantu,  C.,  246 
Canzone,  157,  210,  228  ff.,   237  ff., 

256,  395,  4i8 
Capalbo,  F.,  727 
Capdoill,  Ponz  de,  208 
Capetti,  V.,  718 
Capitolo,  395,  396 
Capriano,  Bresciano,  G.  P.,  522 
Caravelli,  V.,  239 
Cardona,  E.,  249 
Carducci,  G.,  97,  152,  204,  206,  226, 

230.  232,  235,  239,  240,  243,  244, 

245*  247,  395,  397,  534,  724 
Carew,  276 
Carini,  I.,  241 
Carlen,  J.  G.,  344 
Carlo  della  Lengueglia,  395 


Carlyle,  T.,  121,  286,  299,  329,  461, 

757 
Carmina  Burana,  195,  201-202,  208, 

227,  269,  315,  394;  cj.  Convivial 

lyric 

Carnoy,  H.,  225 
Caro,  237 
Caro,  E.  M.,  no 
Carol,  the,  154,  269,  270 
Carolingian  renaissance,  199 
Carpenter,    F.  I.,    153,    265,    421, 

744 

Carpenter,  W.  B.,  718 
Carr,  742 
Carrara,  E.,  618 
Carrer,  L.,  236,  244,  245 
Carriere,  M.,  47-48,  134,  139,  145, 

153,  376,  412,  418,  427  et  passim, 

462,  496,  503,  583,  587,  619,  759 
Carrington,  H.,  205 
"Carroll,  Lewis"  (Dodgson,  C.  L.), 

296 

Carroll,  M.,  454 
Carruth,  W.  H.,  629 
Cartaud  de  la  Vilate,  492 
Carter,  F.,  759 
Carvajales,  252 
Gary,  E.  L.,  299 
Cary,  H.  F.,  217 
Casa,  Giov.  della,  237 
Casaburi,  P.,  395 
Casartelli,  L.  C.,  359 
Casaubon,  I.,  669 
Case,  R.  H.,  128,  153,  273 
Casini,  T.,  230 
Cassander,  G.,  194 
Cassi,  244 

Casson,  T.  E.,  124,  286 
Cassoni,  G.,  419 
Castelain,  M.,  561 
Castelar,  E.,  299 
Castelvetro,  L.,  426,  490,  522,  523, 

524,  525-526,  541,  542,  568 
Castets,  F.,  230,  707,  723 
Casti,  G.  B.,  241,  395 
Castiglione,  391 
Castilho,  A.  F.  de,  264 
Castilian      poetry,      see      Spanish 

poetry 

Catalan  poetry,  see  Spanish  poetry 
Catalina,  M.,  258 


INDEX 


857 


Catharsis,  epic,  437,  463,  501,  506, 
552,  567,  586;  lyric,  38-39,  56, 
83,  84,  506 

Catrou,  F.,  549,  567 

Cats,  J.,  338 

Catullus,  190,  igi,  203,  227,  245, 
276,  381,  382,  394,  4i4,  4iS,  418 

Catulus,  382,  414 

Cauer,  F.,  685 

Cauer,  P.,  672,  676 

Cavalcanti,  G.,  228,  230,  231 

Cavallotti,  245 

Caw,  280,  284 

Caxton,  W.,  687,  689,  744 

Cayley,  C.  B.,  678 

Cayrol,  220 

Cecco  Angioleri,  231 

Cejador  y  Franca,  D.  J.,  248 

Celtes,  C.,  129,  203,  415,  417,  418 

Celtic  poetry,  306-309,  402,   748- 

749, 

Cento,  518,  693,  694 
Cercamon,  208 
Cerquand,  624 
Cerrato,  187 
Cervantes,  255,  734 
Cesareo,  G.  A.,  226,  227,  229,  245, 

724 
Cesarotti,  M.,   240,   532-533,   662, 

672 

Cestre,  C.,  300 
Ceva,  T.,  241 
Chabaneau,  C.,  208 
Chabanon,  552 
Chadwick,  H.  M.,  595,  597,   598, 

599,  600,  619-620,  676,  704,  754 
Chalcondylas,  D.,  678 
Chalmers,  A.,  266,  280  et  passim 
Chamard,  H.,  101,  218,  535 
Chamberlain,  A.  F.,  374 
Chamberlain,  B.  H.,  368,  415 
Chamberlayne,  W.,  439 
Chambers,  280 
Chambers,   E.   K.,    128,   270,   273, 

451,  462,  610,  611,  614 
Chambers,  E.  K.,  and  Sidgwick,  F., 

128,  153,  268 

Chamisso,  A.  von,  331,  333 
Champault,  P.,  676 
Champfleury  and  Wekerlin,  223 
Champion,  P.,  214 


Chanson,   16,   106,   153,   178,   179, 

207  ff.,  439 
Chansons  de'geste,  481,  500,  594- 

595,  596,  615,  616,  618,  625,  635, 

703-708 

Chant  interieur,  n 
Chant-royal,  16,  214 
Chapelain,  J.,  486,  538,  539,  540, 

541-542,  562,  601,  622,  712 
Chapman,  G.,  274,  455,  557,  558, 

560,  678 

Chappell,  W.,  273 
Characters  of  the  epic,  434-435, 441, 

457,  458,  460-461,  470,  471,  473, 

482,  485,  489-490,  496,  497,  5oo, 

501,  502,  503,  507,  539,  572,  574, 

586,  599,  601,  602,  631,  691,  755 
Charlanne,  L.,  219 
Charlemagne,  schools  of,  696,  697 
Charles  d'Orleans,  214 
Charles,  Mrs.,  194 
Charlton,  H.  B.,  525 
Charms,  311,  371-373,  376 
Chartier,  Alain,   214 
Chastellux,  F.  J.  de,  106 
Chateaubriand,  F.  R.  A.,  Vicomte 

de,  107,  223,  747 
Chatterton,  T.,  283,  286,  287,  288, 

289 
Chaucer,   G.,   269,   270,   274,   283, 

402,  468,  555,  556,  557,  560,  561, 

S73,  720,  744 
Chaulieu,  399 
Chaussard,  29 
Chaytor,  H.  J.,  205,  207,  209,  229, 

250,  270,  315,  729 
Chelakowsky,  354 
Chelidonisma,  15,  189 
Chenedolle,  221,  400 
Chenier,  A.  de,  29,   106,  220-221, 

400,  5S4 

Chenier,  M.  J.,  220,  400,  416 
Cherbuliez,  V.,  727 
Cheskian       (Bohemian)       poetry, 

353-354,  775 

Chesterton,  G.  K.,  291,  300 
Chevalier,  U.,  194,  706 
Cheyne,  T.  K.,  and  Black,  J.  S.,  365 
Chezy,  A.  L.,  780 
Chabrera,  G.,  238,  239,  242,  396, 

419,  728 


858 


Chiarini,  G.,  97,  231,  245,  247,  397 
Chiaro,  Molinaro  del,  248 
Chichmaref,  214 

Child,  F.  J.,  462,  597,  608  et  pas- 
sim, 620,  630,  632,  701 
Child,  H.  H.,  273,  286,  421 
Chinese  poetry,  367-368 
Chipolla,  227 
Chislett,  W.  J.,  184,  191 
Chivalry,  568,  726,  728,  751,  761- 

763 

Chodzko,  A.,  360 
Cholmeley,  R.  J.,  451,  462,  614 
Choral  song,   142,    144,   160,   172, 

177,    184,    189,    418,    449,    653, 

654 

Chorizontes,  667,  669 

Chorus,  ballad,  440,  607,  628 

Chretien  de  Troyes,  211,  313 

Christ,  W.  von,  85,  154,  375,  381, 
446,  672,  678 

Christ,  W.,  and  Paranikas,  M.,  194 

Christen,  Ada,  332 

Christian  apology  and  dogma,  ref- 
erences, 689 

Christian  Greek  and  Latin  poetry, 
191-204,  681-682,  688-702 

Christian  religion  and  the  epic, 
426,  433,  458,  463,  473,  476,  493, 
5°i,  525,  537,  539,  542-543,  544, 
546,  549,  552,  553,  554,  559,  562, 
566,  573,  582,  622,  693,  700,  737, 
740-741,  746,  763-764,  773,  775 

Christine  de  Pisan,  214 

Chronicle,  versified,  691,  696,  698- 
699 

Church,  R.  W.,  714,  744 

Churton,  E.,  258 

Ch'ii  Yuan,  368 

Ciampolini,  727 

Cian,  V.,  230,  243 

Cicero,  87,  515,  669 

Cid,  Poema  del,  487,  571,  593,  602, 
653,  729-733  (editions  and  trans- 
lations, 731-732) 

Cieco  (i.e.  Francesco  Bello),  651 

Cigala,  Lanfranco,  227 

Cino  da  Pistoia,  228,  230,  395 

Cinquini,  A.,  236 

Cintio,  G.,  426  et  pastim,  462-463, 
490,  525,  526,  542,  568 


Cionacci,  F.,  236 

Cisorio,  L.,  385 

Citharode,   186 

Ciullo  (or  Cielo)  d'Alcamo  (or  dal 

Camo  or  Carno),  229,  231 
Civilizing  power   of   poetry,    521- 

522,  S33 
Clare,  295 

Clark,  A.  C.,  203,  446,  614 
Clark,  J.,  431,  463,  620,  735,  736, 

747,  757 

Clark,  J.  R.,  736 

Clark,  T.,  363 

Clarke,  B.,  732 

Clarke,  F.,  287 

Clarke,  G.  H.,  291 

Clarus,  L.,  250 

Classical  literature,  its  influence  on 
later  lits.,  184,  189,  190,  195-197, 
216,  218,  234,  237,  238-239,  252, 
255,  257,  271,  276,  294,  2Q£,  315, 
316,  317,  320,  325,  338,  341,  376- 
377,  383,  385,  387,  388,  390-391, 
392-393,  394,  395,  396,  400,  406, 
407-408,  416,  417,  418-419,  425, 
475,  649,  692-693,  696,  700,  701, 
709-710,  711,  716,  719-721,  722, 

.  723-724,  725-726,  746,  747;  see 
also  Classicism,  Horace,  Ovid, 
Tibullus,  Propertius,  Virgil, 
Homer,  Pindar,  Anacreon,  etc. 

Classicism,  66-96, 100-107,  IQ8,  119, 
120,  130-131,  215  ff.,  238,  242- 
243,  244,  245,  246-247,  259-260, 
262-263,  264,  276,  281  ff.,  294, 318, 
323,  338,  341-342,  398,  40°,  425- 
427,  465,  522-533,  535-545,  556- 
570,  57i,  572,  576-58i,  590,  763, 
766,  771;  see  also  Classical  lit- 
erature, its  influence,  etc. 

Claudian,  190,  198,  688 

Claudius,  M.,  325,  327 

Claveau,  A.,  223 

Clawson,  W.  H.,  609,  620,  632 

Cleda't,  L.,  209 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  519 

Clement,  J.  M.-B.,  106,  553 

Clement,  L.,  218 

Clementi,  S.,  367 

Clerke,  A.,  676 

Clichteveus,  194 


INDEX 


859 


Clough,  A.  H.,  34,  125,  290  ff. 

Cobb,  W.  H.,  364,  366 

Cocchia,  E.,  247 

Codrus,  384 

Cohen,  H.  L.,  154 

Coimbran  dispute,  264    . 

Colardeau,  399 

Cole,  S.  V.,  194 

Colebrook,  H.  T.,  361-362 

Coleridge,  E.  H.,  300 

Coleridge,  E.  P.,  681 

Coleridge,  Hartley,  294,  296,  433, 

463 
Coleridgp,  S.  T.,  29,  118,  120,  125, 

235,  284,   290  ff.,    420,  443,  463, 

.566,  572 
Collection   de   conies   et   chansons 

populaires,  154 
Colletet,  G.,  452 
Collins,  J.  C.,  184,  286,  300 
Collins,  Mortimer,  295 
Collins,  W.,  282,  285,  286,  287,  289, 

419,  420,  611 
Collinus,  R.,  576 
Collison-Morley,  L.,  93,  95,  243, 

532,  534,  729 

Colocchi-Brancuti,  254,  265 
Colomb  de  Batines,  713 
Colonna,  Vittoria,   237,  238,  396 
Columbus,  S.,  341 
Coluthus,  682 
Colvin,  S.,  300 
Combarieu,  J.,  42,  no 
Comfort,  W.  W.,  575 
Commodianus,  517,  692 
Communal,  or  folk,  vs.  individual 

authorship,    160,    161,   372,    507, 

53i,  533,  57i,  592,  597,  605-608, 

615,  623,  629,  632,  633,  639,  654, 

658 

Comos,  186 
Comparetti,  D.,  352,  468,  534,  604, 

609,  620-621,  640,  685,  690,  709, 

7i8,  774     . 
Complaints,  402,  403,  404;  see  also 

Elegy 
Composite  or  agglutinative  method 

of    composition,    theory    of,    see 

Lieder-Theorie 

Comte,  C.,  and  Laumonier,  P.,  218 
Concari,  T.,  93,  240 


Conciliatore,  96 

Congreve,  W.,  22,  116,  419 

Conington,  J.,  286,  610,  687 

Conon  de  Bethune,  211 

Conradi,  H.,  332,  335 

Conrardy,  £.,  685 

Constable,  272,  403 

Constans,  L.,  209,  211,  707,  709 

Constantin  de  Magny,  C.  F.,  551 

Conti,  A.,  532 

Conti,  Giusto  de',  236 

Convention  and  invention,  145 

Convivial  lyric,  4,  15,  35,  151,  169, 
176,  187,  201,  214,  225,  347,  357, 
359,  375,  376,  422;  see  also  Car- 
inina  Burana 

Conybeare,  Mrs.,  309 

Conybeare,  J.  J.,  738 

Cook,  A.  S.,  98,  125,  171,  411,  458, 

459,  463-464,  497,  503,  692,  74° 
Cook,  Eliza,   295 
Cook,  F.  C.,  774 
Cook  and  Tinker,  740 
Cooke,  J.,  266,  290 
Cooper,  W.  A.,  329 
Coornhert,  D.  V.,  337 
Coplas,  158,  252,  255 
Coppee,  F.,  46,  222,  400 
Cordus,  Euricius,  415 
Corneille,  P.,  581 
Cornish  poetry,  see  Appendix;  also 

306-307 

Cornish,  S.  W.,  728 
Cornwall,  Barry  (B.  W.  Procter), 

296 

Corradino,  239 
Corson,  H.,  300,  747 
Cory,   H.   E.,   273,   278,   286,   392, 

575,   621,  744,   745 
Cosmo,  529 

Costa,  E.,  204,  235,  393 
Costa,  G.,  244 
Costa,  L.,  729 
Costa,  M.,  261 
Costanza,  Angelo  di,  237 
Costello,  L.  S.,  217 
Cota,  R.,  252 

Couat,  A.,  154,  180,  464,  614,  681 
Coulton,  G.  G.,  728 
Counson,  A.,  718 
Coureil,  G.  de,  95 


86o 


INDEX 


Court  of  Love,  207,  210,  728 
Court  epic,  489,  595,  600,  684,  696, 

703-712,  751,  761-763,  777,  78i- 

782 
Court  lyrics,  185,  199,  206  ff.,  228, 

250  ff.,   262,   271,   276,   277,   279, 

313  ff.,  360,  387,  392,   402,   407, 

410,  710 

Court  pastoral,  444,  449 
Courthope,  W.  j.,  21,  48-49,  127, 

265,  273,  275,  286,  300,  421,  451, 

464,  485,  565,  608,  629,  747 
Courtoisie,  206,  209,  210,  228,  250 
Coussemaker,  E.  de,  211 
Coverdale,  306 
Cowl,  R.  P.,  in 
Cowley,  A.,  113,  277,  279,  405,  417, 

433,  439,  559,  562,  574 
Cowleyan  ode,   21,  114,  117,   118, 

419 
Cowper,  W.,  283,  285,  286,  287,  288, 

4SS,  611,  678 
Cox,  E.  G.,  657 
Cox,  F.  A.,  273 
Cox,  Sir  G.  W.,  and  Jones,  E.  H., 

'     757,  759 

Cox,  H.  C.,  689 

Crabb,  W.  D.,  707 

Crabbe,  283,  285,  286,  287,  288, 
289,  296,  297,  452,  6n 

Craig,  J.  A.,  363,  782 

Craigie,  W.  A.,  339,  767 

Craik,  G.  L.,  273,  744 

Cramer,  J.  A.,  324,  408 

Cranch,  C.  P.,  687 

Crane,  205,  225 

Crane,  O.,  687 

Cranmer-Byng,  L.,  367 

Cranstoun,  381 

Crashaw,  276 

Crawford,  j.  M.,  774 

Crawford,  Mrs.  N.  M.,  689 

Creative  imagination,  psychology 
of,  50,  Si,  54,  56,  57,  58,  59,  64, 
66,  123-124,  126,  135,  144-145, 
181,  601,  717-718;  see  also  Psy- 
chological method  in  criticism 

Creech,  T.,  452 

Creizenach,'T.,  685 

Crepet,  E.,  205,  219,  707 

Crescenzo,  V.  de,  685 


Crescimbeni,  G.  M.,  93,  239,  241, 

4i9,  530 

Crescini,  V.,  206,  704,  723,  724,  727 
Cretin,  Guillaume,  214 
Creutz,  G.  F.,  342 
Creuz,  F.  von,  323,  408 
Creuzer,  513 

Cristobal  de  Castillejo,  257,  258 
Croce,  B.,  97,  122,  238,  244,  247, 

255,  258,  464,  527,  55o,  572 
Croiset,  A.,    7,  49,    no,   188,   446, 

614,  672 
Cronegk,  399 

Crow,  M.  F.,  25,  275,  421 
Crowest,  F.  J.,  154,  270 
Crowley,  R.,  417 
Crudeli,  395 
Crueger,  J.,  757 
Cruice,  Mgr.,  109 
Crusades,  songs  of,  418 
Cruse,  A.,  128,  275 
Crusius,  O.,  154,  375,  376,  614 
Cruttwell,  C.  T.,  381,  683,  689 
Cueto,  L.  A.  de,  259 
Cugnoni,  247 
Cuissard,  C.,  199 
Cultural  backgrounds,  classification, 

369-370 

Cunliffe,  J.  W.,  273,  291,  300 
Cunningham,  A.,  155,  280,  284 
Cunz,  335 
Cust,  R.  N.,  780 
Cuvellier-Fleury,  A.  A.,  109 
Cybalski,  A.,  354 
Cycles  of  legends,  428 
Cyclic  epics,  Greek,  516,  650,  651, 

664,  679 

Cynewulf,  267,  692,  693,  740 
Cyprian,  517,  692 

Dach,  S.,  318,  319,  321,  408 

Dacier,  A.,  103,  492,  543 

Dacier,  Madame,  103,  426  et  pas- 
sim, 464-465,  545,  546,  547,  548, 
549,  552,  553,  567,  579 

Dahlgren,  K.  F.,  343 

Dahlmann,  J.,  780 

Dahlstjerna,  E.,  341,  771 

Dahn,  F.,  199 

D'Alembert,  105 

Dalin,  O.  von,  341-342,  344,  77* 


INDEX 


861 


Damasus,  197,  385 

Damiani,  G.  F.,  239 

Dance  and  poetry,  142,  160,  164, 
177,  180,  185,  189,  205,  372- 
374,  607,  609,  615,  623,  633,  646, 
654,  658 

D'Ancona,  A.,  226,  231,  248,  534 

D'Ancona  and  Bacci,  226,  723 

Dandin,  590 

Daniel,  Arnaut,  208 

Daniel,  H.  A.,  194 

Daniel,  S.,  274,  276,  278,  403,  439 

Danielle,  B.,  426,  523,  524 

Daniels,  W.  M.,  493 

Danish-Norwegian  poetry,  345-352, 

772-773 

D'Annunzio,  G.,  245,  247 
Dante  of  Majano,  228,  230 
Dante,  29,  207,  209,  228-232,  241, 
242,  255,  395,  424,  429,  433,  438, 
455,  461,  464,  470,  473,  476,  481, 
485,  486,  488,  495,  497,  498,  499, 
500,  520,  521,  522,  527,  528,  530, 
53i,  532,  534,  573,  574,  588,  596, 
599,  626-627,  636,  644,  691,  699, 
702,  712,  713-719  (editions  and 
translations,  716-717),  720,  725, 

729,  747 

Danzel,  T.  W.,  326,  327 
Danzel,  Guhrauer,  and  Boxberger, 

328 

Daqlqi,  776 
Dargan,  E.  P.,  551 
Darmesteter,  J.,  300,  355,  356,  359, 

777 

Darraesteter  and  Hatzfeld,  99 
Darwin,  C.,  332,  334 
Dasent,  Sir  G.  W.,  769 
Dass,  P.,  347 
D'Aubignac,  Abbe,  492,  524,  532, 

533,  540,  546,  548-549,  553,  554, 

584,  594,  6*5,  617,  667,  669,  670, 
Daurat,  217 
Davenant,   Sir  W.,  433,  439,  466, 

478,  559,  56i,  562,  569 
David  the  Psalmist,  366 
Davidson,  J.,  290,  295 
Davidson,  T.,  88 
Davies,  James,  32,  381,  413 
Davies,  John,  416 
Davies,  Sir  J.,  276 


Davies,  W.  H.,  291 

Davis,  H.  W.  C.,  702 

Davis,  Sir  J.  F.,  367 

D'Avril,  A.,  353,  704 

Dawson,  W.  H.,  300 

Dawson,  W.  J.,  294 

De  Amicis,  97 

D6bat,  161,  163,  207,  209,  210,  229, 

268,  269,  451,  611,  612,  630 
Decadents,     108,     222,     224,     292, 

332 

Decius,  319 
Decombe,  L.,  225 
Decorum,  523,  539,  543,  545,  546, 

547,  556,  558,  562 
Dederich,  H.,  738 
De  Gubernatis,  97 
Dehmel,  R.,  332,  335 
Dejeanne,  J.  M.  L.,  208 
Delaporte,  S.  J.,  103 
Delaporte,  V.,  543 
Delattre,  F.,  278 
Delavigne,  J.  F.  C.,  222,  400 
Delehaye,  H.,  689 
De  Lescure,  223 
Delille  and  Michaud,  687 
Del  Lungo,  I.,  204 
De  Marchi,  L.,  273,  421 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  87,  512-513 
Democracy,    effect   of,   on    poetry, 

185,  221,  295 
Demogeot,  J.,  209,  707 
Denham,  277,  405 
Denina,  C.,  95 
Denis,  King  of  Portugal,  253,  255, 

262,  264,  265 
Denise,    L.,    see    under    Vial    and 

Denise 

Denk,  V.  M.  O.,  249 
Dennis,  J.,  25,  49,  286 
Dennis,  John,  484,  563,  566 
Dennis,  J.  T.,  364 
Denores,  J.,  92,  526 
Depping,  734 
Dequerle,  400 
De  Quincey,  T.,  49-50,   121,  286, 

300,  573 

Derby,  Lord,  678 
Derned,  R.  de,  709 
De  Rossi,  395 
Derzhavin,  G.  R.,  353 


862 


INDEX 


De  Sanctis,  F.,  97  ff.,  234,  244,  246, 

247,  534 

De  Sanctis,  N.,  237 
Desbordes-Valmore,  400 
Descartes,  R.,  540,  547,  548,  550 
Deschamps,  E.,  98,  214 
Deschanel,  E.,  219,  223 
Desmarets,  J.,  Sieur  de  Saint-Sorlin, 

492,  493,  538,  542-543,  S59-S60, 

711 

Desportes,  A.,  687 
Desportes,  P.,  218,  398 
Desroches,  400 
Dessoir,  M.,  155 
Detfurth,  von,  320 
Deus,  J.  de,  264 
Development,  stages  of,  see  Types, 

literary:  their  growth 
Deventer,  188 
De  Vere,  Aubrey  T.,  294,  296,  300, 

574 

Devey,  J.,  300 

De  Vries,  T.,  748 

Dewey,  J.,  593 

De  Witt,  N.  W.,  686 

Dhalla,  M.  N.,  359 

Diaconus,  Paulus,  199 

Dialect,  poetic,  373 

Dick,  J.  C.,  286 

Dickens,  F.  V.,  368 

Dickinson,  W.  H.,  743 

Diction,  changes  in  poetic,  50,  100, 
103,  120?  125,  146,  216-217,  221, 
228,  235,  238,  239,  257-258,  263, 
277,  278,  281,  282,  283,  284,  285, 
318,  322  ff.,  337,  347,  358,  368, 

379,  443 

Didactic  poetry,  34,  61,  81,  199, 
214,.  240,  272,  375,  376,  386,  387, 
390,  39i,  396,  402,  4i6,  417,  426, 
429,  439,  472,  475,  485,  491,  495, 
516,  604,  643,  663,  690,  691,  692, 
694,  711,  765,  766,  771,  778 

Diderot,  D.,  106,  551,  552 

Diehl,  704 

Diel,  J.  B.,  333 

Dieter,  F.,  736 

Dietmar  von  Aist,  313 

Dietrich  von  Bern,  760 

Dietrich  von  dem  Werder,  577 

Dietz,  311 


Diez,  F.,  209,  265 

Dilthey,  C.,  376,  682 

Dilthey,  W.,  50 

Dinaux,  A.,  212 

Dindorf  and  Franke,  678 

Dindorf  and  Maas,  513,  678 

Dink,  King,  see  Denis 

Dino  Frescobaldi,  228,  230 

Diogenes  Laertius,  508 

Dionysius     of     Halicarnassus,     87, 

509,  512,  513,  514 
Dionysius  Thrax,  43,  87 
Dippold,  G.  T.,  621,  752,  757,  759 
Dirge,  185,  375,  403,  404,  etc.   See 

Threnody 
Dithyramb,  185  ff. 
Dixon,  R.  W.,  294 
Dixon,  W.  M.,  266,  280,  290,  300. 

423-424,  430,  466,  621,  736;  744, 

748 

Dobell,  294,  296 
Dobson,  A.,  16,  126,  129,  287,  291, 

295,  296,  300,  443 
Dobson,  S.,  210,  728 
Dodd,  H.  P.,  32,  415 
Doddridge,  283 
Dodge,  R.  E.  N.,  724 
Dods,  M.,  718 
Dodsley,  R.,  280 
Dolce,  L.,  91,  523 
Dolce  stil  nuovo,  228-231,  233,  234, 

395 

Domairon,  106 
Domitius  Marsus,  384,  683 
Donadoni,  E.,  246 
Donaldson,  J.,  689 
Donati,  L.,  724 
Donatus,  Aelius,  515 
Donatus,  Tiberius  Cl.,  515,  687 
Doncieux,  G.,  225,  544 
Donne,  J.,  276,  277,  278,  279,  405 
Donner,  O.,  352 
D'Ooge,  B.  L.,  686 
Dorat,  220,  399 

Dorian  lyric,  184  ff.,  377,  417-418 
Dorigny,  G.,  398 
Dorison,  223 
Dorset,  277 
Dottin,  G.,  308,  309 
Dottori,  729 
Doublet,  J.,  398 


INDEX 


863 


Douglas,  Sir  G.,  287 

Doumic,  R.,  no,  in,  163,  466 

Doutrepont,  G.,  214,  707 

D'Ovidio,  F.,  97,  227,  240,  246, 
247,  534,  718-719 

Dowden,  E.,  126,  273,  278,  287, 
291,  296/300,  421,  574 

Downer,  C.  A.,  224 

Dowson,  E.,  291 

Dozon,  A.,  775 

Dozy,  R.,  732 

Drachmann,  H.,  350 

Dracontius,  386,  694 

Dramatic  lyric,  33 

Drayton,  M.,  276,  277,  278,  279, 
405,  419,  439,  558,  561,  6n,  742 

Drees,  H.,  705 

Drerup,  E.,  672-673,  676 

Dressel,  518 

Dreves,  J.  M.,  194 

Drinkwater,  J.,  50,  291,  295 

Driver,  S.  R.,  364,  411 

Driver,  Plummer,  and  Briggs,  365 

Droege,  K.,  757 

Drummond  of  Hawthornden,  276, 
287,  403,  560 

Dryden,  J.,  113, -277,  278,  279,  287, 
405,  417,  419,  426,  431  et  pas- 
sim, 454,  466-467,  492,  543,  550, 
555,  558,  559,  562,  563,  564,  565, 
572,  603,  687,  742 

Duault,  400 

Du  Bartas,  G.  de  S.,  346,  536-537, 
690,  711,  746,  766 

Du  Bellay,  J.,  100-101,  215  ff.,  415, 
418,  535-536 

Dubos,  J.  B.,  504,  545,  546,  550,  552 

Ducamin,  J.,  254 

Duchesne,  J.,  430,  433,  467,  538, 
544,  603,  622,  712 

Duckett,  E.  S.,  685 

Duclos,  354 

Diiben,  von,  352 

Diibner,  188 

Dummler,  F.,  375,  698 

Diimmler  and  Traube,  199,  385 

Diintzer,  H.,  329,  679 

Duff,  J.  W.,  156,  381 

Dufr6noy,  400 

Du  Meril,  M.  E.,  156,  203,  385,  389, 
699 


Dumersan  and  Segur,  225 

Dumesnil,  712 

Dunbar,  H.,  678 

Dunbar,  W.,  270 

Duncker,  M.,  778 

Dunger,  H.,  709 

Dunn,  J.,  308,  748 

Dupont,  P.,  546 

Du  Prel,  C.,  50,  134 

Dupuy,  E.,  223,  636 

Duran,  734 

D'Urfe,  H.,  346,  610 

Durham,  W.  H.,  114 

Dusch,  399 

Dutch  poetry,  337-338,  765-766 

Dwight,  T.,  748 

Dyboski,  R.,  300 

Dyce,  A.,  280,  563 

Dyer,  J.,  282,  283,  6n 

Dyer,  L.,  676 

Earle,  J.,  738 

Eastlake,  Sir  C.  L.,  287 

Ebeling,  678 

Eberhard,  J.  A.,  132,  580 

Ebert,  A.,  156,  311,  688  et  passim 

Ebert,  J.  A.,  324 

Ebner,  524 

Ecbasis  Captivi,  see  Beast  epic 

Eckermann,  132 

Eclogue,  100,  161,  200,  237,  384, 
385,  39i,  396,  4°4,  446,  452,  5°o, 
614,  649,  657,  697,  700;  see  also 
Pastoral  elegy,  Pastoral  poetry 

Eddas,  the,  642,  754,  767-770  (edi- 
tions and  translations,  768-769) 

Edmundson,  748 

Egger,  £.,  50-51,  85,  99,  104,  157, 
467,  509,  622 

Egger,  M.,  513 

Egyptian  poetry,  364,  783 

Ehrenstrbm,  M.  d',  240 

Eichelkraut,  F.,  209 

Eichendorff,  J.  von,  331,  333 

Eichhoff,  F.  G.,  685,  780 

Eichhorn,  C.,  344 

Eicke,  T.,  705 

Ei'StfXXta,  446,  447,  612 

Eilhart  von  Oberge,  313,  751 

Eimer,  M.,  300 

Einarsson,  H.,  767 


864 


INDEX 


Einhard,  698 

Einstein,  L.,  273,  421,  721 

Ekkehard,  201,  691,  700,  750 

Elderkin,  G.  W.,  681 

Eleanor  of  Poitiers,  211 

Elegy,  4,  25-30,  100,  101,  105,  109, 
112,  116,  125,  154,  161,  163,  165, 
172,  177,  182,  184,  186,  190,  195, 

196,  199,  200,  203,  204,  2l6,  220, 
243,  267,  271,  276,  279,  281-282, 

295,  34i,  343,  348,  357,  366,  372, 
374-4",  414,  416,  418,  446,  449- 
450,  475,  495,  5M,  575,  613,  660, 
663,  697 ;  see  also  Pastoral  elegy, 
Dirge,  Threnody,  Complaints, 
Lament},  Planctus,  Plainte, 
Klagelied,  Penitential  lyric,  Ero- 
tic lyric,  etc. 

Eliot,  G.,  33,  287 

Ellinger,  G.,  203,  320 

Elliot,  Ebenezer,  295 

Elliot,  F.,  622 

Elliot,  Jane,  284 

Ellis,  E.  J.,  287" 

Ellis,  G.,  268 

Ellis,  R.,  191,  203,  296,  381 

Elton,  O.,  128,  279,  287,  574 

Elze,  K.,  135,  300,  436,  604 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  127,  356 

Emotions,  aesthetic,  36-39 

Empedocles,  516,  563 

Encyclopedic,  70, 106,  220,  492,  551, 
552 

Enfances  de  Rodrigue,  733 

Engel,  C.,  374 

Engel,  J.  J.,  51,  132,  580 

Engelbrechtsdatter,  D.,  347 

English  poetry,  265-306,  401-406, 
416-417,  419-420,  736-748 

Ennius,  382,  414,  514,  683,  684, 
685 

Ennodius,  386 

Eobanus  Hessus,  576,  669 

Ephraem  Syrus,  192 

Epic,  classification  of,  436-437, 
439  ff.,  459,  463,  474,  482-483, 
496,  500,  505,  525,  602-603,  658- 
659,  662,  664 

Epic,  definitions  of,  423-431,  456, 
458,  465,  466,  475,  479,  484,  Soi, 
504,  507,  5i8,  523,  525,  535,  536, 


538, 546,556, 557, 562, 563, 576, 662 

Epic,   function    of,   427-428,   437- 

438,  457,  463,  465,  472,  476,  494, 

534,  552,  567,  58o,  586,  659,  716 

Epic,  natural  versus  artificial,  425, 

427,  428-429,  430,  431,  453,  457, 

459-460,  474-475,  476,  478,  488, 

497,  505,  57i,  593-596,  602,  619, 
622,  625,  646,  662,  664,  666-667, 
721,  778-782 

Epic,  origin  of,  591-599,  619,  621, 
631-632,  636,  640,  643,  649,  652, 
655,  656,  658,  660,  662,  665 

Epic,  painting,  and  sculpture,  in- 
terrelation of,  474-475 

Epic,  philosophical,  see  Didactic 
poetry,  0/50  475 

Epic,  philosophical  criticism  of, 
427-428,  432,  462,  475-476,  495, 
506-507,  508-511,  516,  517,  521, 
580-581,  582-584,  586-587,  662- 
663 

Epic,  stages  of  development,  428, 
594-595,  599,  630,  631-632,  640, 
642,  645,  646,  647-648,  649,  650, 
658-659,  664,  675 

Epic,  the  term  a  critical  convention, 

464 
Epic,  theory  and  history  of,  423- 

783    (for    details   see    Table    of 

Contents) 

Epic  of  the  bourgeoisie,  476 
Epic    as    expression    of    national 

spirit,    427-428,     431-432,     437, 

460,  462,  464,  472,  475,  489,  497, 

498,  506,  507,  531,  571,  586,  663, 
716,  746 

Epic  and  other  types  of  literature, 
interrelation  of,  603-605;  epic 
and  drama,  424,  425,  427,  433- 
436,  437,  439,  454,  456,  460-461, 
463,  466-467,  468,  470,  471,  474, 
477,  478,  479,  482,  483,  485,  486, 
487,  495,  496,  5°i,  502,  505,  5°9, 
522,  524,  525,  .551,  552,  559,  560, 
561,  566,  570,  583,  589,  650; 
epic  and  elegy,  26,  376,  418,  475; 
epic  and  history,  425,  427,  429, 
431-432,  434,  437-438,  456,  460, 
466,  467,  477,  479,  482,  483,  489, 
496,  5°i,  507,  523,  524,  525,  542, 


INDEX 


.  865 


560,  561,  570,  576,  586,  598-599, 
619,  634,  642,  644,  648,  655,  656, 
663,  73i,  739,  74i,  746,  755-756, 
767,  776;  epic  and  idyl,  447- 
448,  457,  603-604,  611-612,  615; 
epic  and  lyric,  436,  437,  439,  457, 
472,  474,  476,  489,  493,  496,  5°2, 
596,  619,  638,  658,  663,  665,  706- 
707;  epic  and  novel,  439,  473, 
486,  487,  498,  539,  540,  54i,  542, 
544,  570,  574,  583,  603-604;  epic 
and  ode,  418;  epic  and  romance, 
425,  426,  434,  435,  436,  439,  456, 
460,  463,  465,  481,  482,  485,  486, 
501,  603-604,  639,  658,  663,  709- 
711,  761 

Epic  episodes,  435,  500,  599 

Epic  poets,  references:  Alexandrian, 
511,  614;  Babylonian-Sumerian, 
782-783;  Bohemian  (Cheskian), 
775;  Bulgarian,  604;  Byzantine, 
682 ;  Celtic,  604,  748-749 ;  Croa- 
tian, 604;  Danish-Norwegian, 
772-773;  Dark  and  Middle 
Ages,  520-521,  688-702,  740-741 ; 
Dutch,  576,  589,  765-766;  Eng- 
lish, 555-575,  610-611,  614,  736- 
748;  Finnish,  621,  773~7745 
French,  535-555,  611,  614,  703- 
712;  German,  575-589,  611,  614, 
749-765 ;  Greek,  4,  508-513,  610, 
614,  668-682 ;  Greek-Christian, 
519;  Icelandic,  767-770;  Indian 
(Sanskrit),  590,  778-782;  Italian, 
520-535,  610,  712-729;  Latin- 
Christian,  516-518,  688-702 ; 
Lithuanian,  595;  Lower  races, 
783;  Magyar  (Hungarian),  775; 
Norse,  767-770;  Persian,  776- 
778;  Polish,  774-775 ;  Portuguese, 
734-736,  783;  Roman,  513-516, 
610,  614,  682-688;  Russian,  595, 
604,  655,  774-775;  Scandinavian, 
595;  Serbian,  595,  604,  657,  775; 
Slavic,  646,  774-775;  Spanish, 
595,  729-734;  Swedish,  77°-772; 
Tartar,  604 

Epictetus,  509,  513 

Epicurus,  509 

Epigram,  30-32,  100,  101,  112,  116, 
163,  171,  173,  179,  190,  197,  i99i 


200,    201,  204,   2l6,   263,   271,  32O, 

329,  357,  372,  379,  381,  382,  384, 
385,  386,  387,  390,  404,  412-417, 
472,  475 

Epinicion,  187 

Episseries,  looff.,  215 

Epitaph,  198,  199,  377,  382,  386, 
387,  403-404,  414 

Epithalamia,  153,  187,  195,  198, 
34i,  347,  353,  372,  385,  403,  44.8 

Epithets,  epic,  see  Formulae,  epic 

Epopee  vs.  epic  poem,  622 

Epyllia,  683,  765 . 

Equicola,  M.,  91 

Erasmus,  D.,  576 

Eratosthenes,  379 

Ercilla  y  Zuniga,  A.  de,  734 

Ercole,  P.,  230 

Erhardt,  L.,  673 

Erigena,  388 

Erk,  L.,  and  Bohme,  F.  M.,  311, 
336 

Erlach,  K.  von,  336 

Erman,  A.,  364 

Ermanarich  saga,  760 

Ermatinger,  E.,  188 

Ermini,  727 

Ermoldus  Nigellus,  387,  388,  691, 
698 

Ernst,  G.,  406 

Ernst,  O.,  and  A.  W.,  332 

Erotic  lyric,  see  Elegy,  Dolce  stil 
nuovo,  Troubadours,  Petrarch, 
Minnesang,  Persian  poetry,  In- 
dian poetry,  Egyptian  poetry, 
Lower  races,  Epigram 

Ersch  and  Gruber,  345 

Erskine,  J.,  12,  52,  157,  266,  267, 
270  et  passim 

Escalante  y  Prieto,  A.  de  (Juan 
Garcia),  260 

Eschenberg,  J.  J.,  132 

Eskuche,  G.,  614 

Espinel,  V.,  410 

Espinosa,  A.  M.,  732 

Espringerie,  16 

Espronceda,   260 

Estampidas,  392 

Esteve,  E.*,  300 

Esther,  Book  of,  447,  613 

Estienne,  H.,  218 


866 


INDEX 


Ethe,  H.,  356,  357,  360,  361,  777 
Ettmiiller,  L.,  314,  737 
Eugenius  II,  198,  386 
Euhemerism,  438,  597,  648 
Euling,  K.,  417 
Eulogy,  see  Panegyric 
Euphorion  of  Chalcis,  379 
•Euphuism,  257,  258,  408 
Euripides,  186 
Eustathius,  453,  678 
Evans,  Sir  A.  J.,  676 
Evans,  E.,  117,  308,  748 
Evans,  S.,  742,  744 
Everett,  C.  C.,  127 
Everett,  W.,  724 
Evers,  F.,  332 
Ewald,  365 

Ewald,  J.,  346,  348,  3SI-3S2 
Ewald  (Friedlander),  O.,  334 
Ewing,  J.  C.,  286 
'  Expressiveness,'  122,  425,  463,  464, 

545,  550,  572 
Ezekiel,  411 

Fable,  439,  460,  466,  472,  477,  482, 
500,  578,  623-624,  637,  638,  663, 
701 

Fabri,  P.,  99 

Fabriano,  G.  A.  G.  da,  92 

Fabricius,  G.,  418,  515,  576 

Fabricius,  J.  A.,  669 

Fabris,  G.,  236 

Fagiuoli,  G.  B.,  243 

Faguet,  E\,  99,  103,  108,  no,  219, 

554 

Fairbanks,  A.,  513 
Fairclough,  H.  R.,  622,  685 
Fairfax,  277 
Fairy-tale  and  epic,  460,  472,  488- 

489,  500,  597,  624,  627,  635,  652, 

662,  663,  680,  783 
Falcao,  C.,  263 
Falke,  G.,  332 
Fallersleben,  A.  H.  Hoffmann  von, 

33i,  335,  337 
Fantozzi,  A.,  236 
Faraday,  L.  W.,  749,  769 
Faral,  E.,  209,  393,  707,  709 
Farinelli,  A.,  718 
Farley,  F.  E.,  287 
Farnell,  G.  S.,  157,  183 


Farnell,  I.,  208 

Farnell,  L.  R.,  676 

Fashion,    psychology    of,    257-258, 

277 
Fate  in  the  epic,.  432-433,  437,  470, 

472,  476,  477,  495,  497,  5o5,  506, 

507,  586,  642 
Fathers  of  the   Church,   88,   516- 

519 

Fauriel,  C.,  188,  209,  610,  635,  707 
Fawkes,  F.,  569,  681,  682 
Fay,  E.  A.,  713 

Fazio  degli  Uberti,  233,  234,  720 
Fecamp,  A.,  648,  759,  760 
Federn,  K.,  718 
Fehr,  505 
Fehse,  H.,  273,  421 
Feigel,  T.,  329 
Feillet,  A.,  542 
Feist,  A.,  231 
Feitama,  S.,  766 
Feith,  R.,  338,  766 
Fellman,  J.,  352 
Feminization  of  poetry,  379,  391, 

393,  4°4,  407,  449,  680 
Fenelon,  F.  de   S.  de   La  Mothe, 

436,  458,  492,  547,  549,  569,  570, 

622,  712 
Fennell,  21 
Ferguson,  R.,  284 
Ferguson,  Sir  Samuel,  294 
Fernandez  de  Constantia,  J.,  251 
Fernandez  de  Morati'n,  L.,  260 
Fernandez  y  Gonzalez,  F.,  136,  255 
Fernando  de  Herrera,  257;  410 
Ferrai,  L.,  237 
Ferrari,  D.,  247 
Ferrari,  G.,  722 

Ferrari,  S.,  237,  239,  245,  247,  248 
Ferrario,  G.,  613,  723 
Ferraro,  G.,  248 

Ferrazi,  G.  J.,  233,  713,  723,  727 
Ferreira,  A.,  263,  410 
Ferrer,  F.,  253 
Ferrini,  O.,  238 
Festa,  G.  B.,  226 
Feutry,  399 
Fiammazzo,  A.,  713 
Fichte,  J.  G.,  133,  330 
Fick,  A.,  673 
Fiedler,  H.  G.,  310 


INDEX 


867 


Fielding,  H.,  567,  742 

Filelfo,  F.,  720 

Filicaia,  239,  396  , 

Finck,  355 

Findeis,  R.,  309 

Finnish  poetry,  352,  773-774 

Finnsburg  fragment,  736,  739,  750 

Finsler,  G.,  467-468,  520,  555,  575, 

581,  588,  668,  712  et  passim 
Finzi,  G.,  233,  246 
Fiorentino,  F.,  237 
Fiorentino,  Giovanni,  233 
Fioretti,  B.,  92,  529 
Firdawsi,  360,  361,  499,  776-777 
Firenzuola,  A.,  395 
Fischer,  Alb.,  320 
Fischer,  A.,  and  Tiimpel,  W.,  336 
Fischer,  Aug.  W.,  334 
Fischer,  Heinrich,  756 
Fischer,  Hermann,  321,  753,  757 
Fischer,  J.  G.,  332 
Fischer,   R.,   436   et   passim,   468- 

469,  588,  757 
Fisher,  L.  A.,  622 
Fishermen,   eclogues  and   idyls  of, 

612,  613,  649 
Fiske,  A.  K.,  622 
Fiske,  W.,  233 

Fitzgerald-Edward,  295,  297,  358 
Fitzmaurice-Kelly,  J.,  248,  249,  729, 

73i,  734 

Flach,  H.,  157,  183,  375,  4" 
Flatnini,  F.,  90,  95,   97,  218,  226, 

229,  230,  234,  235,  236,  237,  243, 

258,  714,  718,  724,  725,  727,  729 
Flaminio,  M.  A.,  418 
Flavius  Cresc.  Corippus,  695 
Flavus,  Alfius,  384 
Flecker,  J.  E.,  291 
Fleming,  P.,  318,  319,  321,  408 
Fletcher,    Giles   and   Phineas,    276, 

278 

Fletcher,  J.,  404,  610 
Fletcher,  J.  B.,  99,  218,  273,  275 
Fletcher,  R.  H.,  743 
Fleury,  J.,  225 
Flint,  R.,  532,  661,  662 
Flodoard,  691,  701 
Floeck,  O.,  157 
Florenz,  K.,  368 
Florus  of  Lyons,  200,  388 


Fliigel,  E.,  274,  560,  609 

Forstemann,  A.,  685 

Fbrster,  G,,  336 

Foerster,  W.,  213 

Foffano,  F.,  92,  712,  721,  723 

Fogazzaro,  245 

Folengo,  T.,  724 

Folgore  da  San  Gimignano,  228 

Folk  ballad,  441-442,  485,  505, 
605  ff. 

Folk  composition,  see  Lieder- 
Theorie,  Communal  authorship, 
Folk  epic 

Folk  epic,  423,  425,  428,  429,  433, 
438,  459,  46o,  472,  480,  483,  486, 
488-489,  531,  540,  548-549,  553, 
582,  593-596,  600-602,  604,  616, 
618,  619,  625,  630,  631-632,  633- 
634,  636,  640,  642,  646,  650,  652, 
657,  658-659,  665,  680,  681,  716, 
767,  774-775,  778,  783 

Folk  lyric,  and  popular  poetry,  4, 
15,  16,  40,  45,  47,  58-59,  in, 
135,  142,  150,  151,  154,  158,  160, 
165,  167,  168,  169,  171,  178,  181, 
184,  186,  187,  188,  189,  193,  203, 
206,  213,  219,  221,  224-225,  226- 
227,  229,  231,  232,  234,  235,  236, 
247-248,  252,  260,  263,  265,  269, 
270,  273,  274,  310,  311,  316,  318, 
319-320,  325,  328,  331,  332,  333, 
336,  337,  339,  340,  341,  342,  343, 
344,  345,  346,  352,  355,  356,  360, 
363,  364,  366,  368,  369-374,  38S, 
388,  390,  392,  395,  398,  402,  407, 
417,  421,  462,  483,  485,  582,  596, 
605,  607,  609-610,  612,  618,  619, 
625,  633-634,  647,  658,  663,  679. 
See  further  under  Folk  epic 

Folk  tales,  597-590,  664 

Folklore,  598,  608,  624,  644,  783 

Follen,  331 

Folquet  de  Lunel,  209 

Folquet  de  Marseille,  210 

Folquet  de  Romans,  208 

Fonseca,  262 

Fontaine,  C.,  398 

Fontanella,  G.,  395 

Fontanelle,  B.  de,  103,  219,452,492, 

543-544,  546 
Fontanes,  L.  de,  221,  400 


868 


INDEX 


Forbes,  Sir  W.,  287 

Ford,  J.  D.  M.,  and  Mary  A.,  723 

Forke,  A.,  367 

Formal  criticism,  of  the  lyric,  4-5, 

in  and  §  3,  passim;  of  the  epic, 

425-427,  516,  522-529,  532,  533, 

535-545,  546,  547,  55o,  551,  554, 

SSS-S7ofj  576-58i,  590,  671 
Formal    differentiation    of    poetic 

kinds,  516 

Forman,  H.  B.,  300,  497 
Formont,  M.,  265 
Formulae,  epic,  431,  442,  488-489, 

400,  505,  579,  605,  652,  738,  758 
Fornaciari,  R.,  234,  247 
Forsman,  A.  V.,  774 
Forster,  J.,  287,  300 
Forsythe,  R.  S.,  443 
Fort,  P.,  224 

Forteguerri  (Carteromaco),  241 
Forteguerri,  N.,  729 
Fortmiiller,  K.,  479,  577 
Fortunatus,    Venantius,    193,    198, 

386,  387,  388,  691,  695,  696 
Foscolo,  Ugo,  233,  243,  244,   246, 

395,  397,   534,   7i8 
Foulche-Delbosc,  R.,  254,  255 
Foulet,  L.,  204,  593,  597,  623-624, 

638,  701,  711,  763,  783 
Foulke,  W.  D.,  234 
Fourmont,  fi.,  492,  548 
Fournel,  V.,  469 
Foxwell,  A.  K.,  274,  421 
Frankel,  L.,  274 
France,  A.,  no,  223 
Franciscan  poetry,  228-229,  231 
Francius  (Fransz),  P.,  492 
Francke,  K.,  625,  759 
Francken,  C.  M.,  687 
Franke,  780        . 
Frankl,  L.  A.,  775 
Franz6n,  F.  M.,  343,  771 
Franzos,  K.  E.,  335 
Frati,  L.,  236 
Fraticelli,  232 
"Frauenlob,"     see    Heinrich     von 

Meissen 
Frazer,  Sir  J.  G.,  371,  373,  438,  593, 

598,  649 

"  Free  verse,"  296 
Freidank,  314 


Freiligrath,  F.,  331,  334 

French   poetry,   16,   204-225,  392- 

393,  397-401,  416,  419,  703-712 
Frere,  Hookham,  295 
Frescobaldi,  Dino,  228,  230 
Frescobaldi,  Matteo,  233 
Frese,  J.,  341 
Freybe,  A.,  437,  469 
Freymond,  E.,  708 
Frezzi,  F.,  720 
Frick  and  Polack,  469,   625,   752, 

762,  764 
Friedlander,  673 
Friedlaender,  M.,  322 
Friedmann,  K.,  469 
Friedmann,  S.,  229 
Friedreich,  J.  B.,  171 
Friedrich  von  Hausen,  314 
Friesen,  Freiherr  von,  333 
Frigeri,  L.,  712,  729 
Friis,  J.  A.,  352 
Frimann,  348,  772 
Fritsche,  E.  G.  O.,  335 
Fritze,  363 
Fritzsche,  C.,  699 
Froberg,  T.,  158 
Froding,  G.,  344 
Froissart,  466 
Frothingham,  O.  B.,  300 
Frottole,  16 
Froude,  J.  A.,  573 
Frugoni,  241,  243,  395 
Frye,  738 
Fulgentius,  518,  520,  521,  685,  691, 

696 

Fuller,  E.,  300 
Fuller,  H.  de  W.,  52 
Fulvius  Ursinus,  523 
Furnivall,  F.  J.,  300 
Fusco,  A.,  525 

Gacon,  F.,  492,  548 

Gadsby,  J.,  306 

Gaelic  revival,  294 

Gaisford,  187 

Gajsek,  S.  von,  747 

Gale,  Norman,  295 

Galeotto,  F.,  395 

Galiano,  A.  M.  A.,  258 

Galician  poetry,  see  Spanish  poetry 

Galli,  V.,  93 


INDEX 


869 


Callus,  379,  382 

Galton,  A.,  300 

Gandar,  E.,  217 

Garcia,  F.  B.,  260 

Garcia,  J.,  260 

Garcia,  V.,  261 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  256,  257,  258, 

410 

Gardner,  E.  G.,  230,  714,  718,  725 
Gardner,  M.  M.,  775 
Gardner,  P.,  188,  677 
Garnett,  J.  M.,  740 
Garnett,  L.  M.  J.,  188,  610 
Garnett,  R.,  234,  279,  301,  413,  574, 

712,  718,  724,  727,  747 
Garrett,  A.,  262,  264 
Gartelmann,  H.,  434,  435,  470     • 
Garth,  562 
Gascoigne,  G.,  112,  272,  273,  275, 

403 

Gaskoin,  C.  J.  B.,  697 
Gaspary,  A.,  229,  712 
Gaste,  A.,  213 
Caster,  B.,  330 
Gaster,  M.,  709 
Gates,  L.  E.,  128,  301 
Gdthds,  3S7-3S8,  360,  361 
Gato,  J.  A.,  252 
Gattinger,  E.,  270 
Gaudin,  P.,  no 
Gaussen,  A.  C.  C.,  287 
Gautier  de  Chatillon,  775 
Gautier  d'Espinaus,  211 
Gautier,  L.,  158,  594-595,  597,  600, 

625,  646,  703,  705,  708,  728 
Gautier,  T.,  46,  no,  221,  222,  223, 

287,  301,  400 

Gay,  J.,  282,  285,  287,  405,  6n 
Gay,  L.  M.,  101 
Gay  Saber,  253 
Gayley,  C.  M.,  7,  16,  24,'  28,  53, 

115,  122,  123,  129,  141,  187,  424, 

429,  430  et  passim,  447,  448,  449, 

470,  491,  625-626,  699,  753,  769 
Gayley,  C.  M.,  and  Scott,  F.  N., 

4i,  53-54,  90,  139-141,  470,  50? 

et  passim 
Gebhart,  E.,  713 
Geddes,  J.,  703,  705,  706 
Geddes,  Sir  W.  D.,  628,  643,  673 
Gehring,  678 


Geibel,  E.,  11,  331,  332,  334,  409 

Geiger,  A.,  365 

Geiger,  E.,  8,  54,  -134 

Geiger,  L.,  317,  702 

Geiger  and  Kuhn,  356,  776 

Geijer,  E.  G.,  343,  345 

Geijer  and  Afzelius,  340 

Geike,  S.  A.,  685 

Geldner,  K.  F.,  356,  360,  778 

Gellert,  C.  F.,  133,  324,  327,  580 

Gellius,  A.,  87,  515,  523 

Gelzer,  H.,  764 

Genealogical  poem,  654 

Genelin,  P.,  761 

Genest,  C.  C.,  452 

Genestet,  P.  A.  de,  338 

Genin,  F.,  705 

Genius,  essays  on  nature  of,  601 

Gennep,  A.  van,  673 

Gentil-Bernard,  399 

Genung,  C.  H.,  577 

Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  742,  744 

Georges,  H.,  515,  685 

Georgic,  485,  643,  649 

Geraud,  E.,  400 

Gerber,  624 

Gercke,  A.,  685 

Gerhardt,  P.,  319 

Gering,  H.,  739 

German  poetry,  309-336,  406-409, 

417,  749-765 

Gerould,  G.  H.,  626,  689,  701,  740 
Gerstenberg,  H.  W.  von,  581 
Gervinus,  G.  G.,  317,  626 
Gessner,  S.,  399,  618 
Gests,  428,  439,  470,  474,  599,  620, 

629,  631 

Ghazal,  i?9,  333,  357,  359 
Giacomino  da  Verona,  228 
Giacomo  da  Lentino  (or  Lentini), 

230 

Gianni,  Lapo,  228 
Giannini,  G.,  248 
Giannone,  244 
Giarratani,  C.,  188 
Gibb,  E.  J.  W.,  355 
Gibb,  J.,  739,  759 
Gibbon,  E.,  497,  512,  569,  685 
Gibson,  W.  W.,  291,  295 
Gide,  A.,  224 
Gidel,  C.  A.,  209 


8;o 


INDEX 


Giesebrecht,  G.,  702 

Gifford,  1 20 

Gifford,  W.,  303 

Gilbert,  N.  J.  L.,  399 

Gilbert,  W.  S.,  295 

Gilchrist,  A.,  287 

Gildersleeve,  B.  L.,  21,  25,  452 

Gildon,  C.,  116,  562,  566 

Giles,  H.  A.,  367 

Giles,  J.  A.,  744 

Gilfillan,  G.,  287 

Gilgamesh  epic,  638,  718,  782-783 

Gili,  Andre,  523 

Gillet,  J.  E.,  575,  765 

Gillett,  C.  R.,  519,  688 

Giner,  F.,  54,  470 

Gingerich,  S.  F.,  301 

Ginguene,  P.  L.,  238,  400 

Giovagnoli,  R.,  246 

Giovanna,  I.  della,  247 

Giovanni,  D.,  712 

Giovio,  204 

Girard,  J.,  188,  626 

Giuggiola,  235 

Giuliani,  G.  B.,  232 

Giuriani,  R.,  223 

Giusti,  244 

Givler,  R.  C.,  124 

Gjerset,  K.,  287 

Gladstone,  W.   E.,  432  et  passim, 

470,  47V673,  677 
Gladwin,  F.,  361 
Gleditsch,  H.,  54 
Gleim,  J.  W.  L.,  323,  324,  327,  331, 

408,  409,  417 
Glode,  740 
Glover,  R.,  439,  567 
Glover,  T.  R.,  470-471 
Gnoli,  D.,  237,  245 
Gnomic  poetry,  377,  380,  475 
Godeau,  A.,  104,  433,  541 
Godescalc,  200 

Gockingk,  L.  F.  G.  von,  325,  327 
Goedeke,    K.,    309-310,    319,    321. 

327,  329,  588,  753  et  passim 
Goedeke   and   Tittmann,   J.,   317, 

321,  336 

Goeje,  M.  J.,  356 
Gorbing,  F.,  626 
Gorres,  J.,  331,  777 
Goes,  J.  A.  van  der,  766 


Gothe,  G.,  344 

Goethe,  J.  W.  von,  131-133,  138, 

301,  325,  326,  327,  328,  330,  331, 

349,  358,  409,  414,  417,  427,  439, 

432,  471,  474,  475,  479,  4»3,  49&, 

498,  580,  581,  582-583,  585,  599, 

625,  675,  747,  765 
Goldsmith,  O.,  117,  282,  283,  285, 

286,  287,  417,  611 
Goliardic     poems,     see     Carmina 

Burana 

Gollancz,  I.,  740 
Gollnisch,  380,  381 
Golther  (for  Schroder,  E.),  705 
Golther,  W.,  312,  762 
Gongora,  257-258,  259,  263 
Gontier  de  Soignies,  211 
Gonzales,  D.,  260 
Gonzalo  de  Berceo,  251,  255 
Gonzalve  de  Magalhaes,  783 
Googe,  271 
Gori,  P.,  246 

Gorra,  E.,  209,  227,  651,  703,  709 
Gorsse,  400 
Gosche,  R.,  612,  614 
Gossart,  J.  B.,  105 
Gosse,  E.  W.,  5,  16,  20,  21,  34,  55, 

126,  129,  279,  287,  290,  291,  294, 

295,  296,  3°i,  3i6,  337,  339,  340, 

345,  352,  445,  447,  472>  626,  766, 

769 

Gostwick,  J.,  757 
Gothic  revival,  283,  287,  343,  345, 

771 

Cotter,  F.  W.,  408,  409 
Gottfried  von  Strassburg,  313,  751, 

761,  762 
Gottschalk,  200 
Gottschall,  R.,  55,   138,  331,  44°, 

472 
Gottsched,    J.    C.,    130-131,    323- 

324,  326,  408,  460,  577-578,  579, 

58o,  763. 
Gould,  G.,  55-56 
Goulston,  T.,  559,  561 
Gourmont,  R.  de,  224 
Cover,  C.  E.,  363 
Gower,  270 

Gozzi,  G.,  242,  243,  532 
Graefe,  68 1 
Graetz,  365 


INDEX 


871 


Graevell,  P.,  705 

Graf,  A.,   97,   238,   240,   243,  245, 

246,  397,  534.  709,  712 
Gragg,  F.  A.,  413 
Gramont,  F.  de,  16,  167 
"Grand  style,"  the,  455,  456,  719 
Grandgent,   C.  H.,   229,   230,   518, 

520,  626-627,  699,  713-714,  718 
Grandi,  728 
Grantgow,  H.,  327 
Grasberger,  H.,  145,  158 
Grassmann,  H.,  362 
Graves,  A.  P.,  308 
Graves,  R.,  32 

Gravina,  G.,  94,  239,  472,  531,  532 
Gray,  C.  D.,  363 
Gray,  T.,  34,  56,  116,  246,  282,  283, 

285,  286,  287,  288,  289,  397,  400, 

419,  568,  611 
Graziani,  728 

Graziolo  de'  Bambagiuoli,  233 
Gr'azzini,  C.,  528 
Grecourt,  220 
Greek  poetry,  4-5,  15,  26,  30,  183- 

189,  37S-38I,  412-415,  418,  668- 

682 
Green,  J.  R.,  431   el  passim,  472, 

497,  684 
Green,  M.,  611 
Greene,  G.  A.,  244 
Greg,  W.   W.,   158,    274,  443-445, 

472,  609,  6n,  627 
Gregory  the  Great,  193,  691,  699 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  192 
Gregory,  Lady  I.  A.,  749 
Greif,  W.,  709 
Grein,  C.  W.  M.,  737,  739 
Grein,  C.  W.  M.,  and  Wulker,  R. 

P.,  267 
Cresset,   220 
Grierson,  J.  C.,  279 
Griesmann,  760 
Griffin,  Gerald,  296 
Griffith,  F.  L.,  783 
Griffith,  R.  T.  H.,  362,  782 
Grilli,   L.,   203 
Grimald,  271,  272 
Grimm,  H.,  329 
Grimm,  J.,  316,  623,  624,  637,  752, 

769,  774 
Grimm,  W.,  333,  706,  752,  760 


Grimm  and  Schmeller,  203 

Grisebach,  E.,  328,  332,  334 

Griswold,  298 

Grisy,  A.  de,  223 

Grb'ber,  G.,  158-159,  202,  212,  588, 

627,  688,  702,  729  et  passim 
Gronovius,  A.,  669 
Groos,  K.,  36,  373 
Groos,  K.,  and  Netto,  I.,  56 
Grosart,  A.  B.,  472,  610,  626,  744 
Groser,  H.  G.,  296 
Grosse,  E.,  159,  370,  593,  627 
Grosse,  J.,  332,  335 
Grossi,  244 
Grossmann,  H.,  561 
Grossmann,  K.,  310 
Grote,  G.,  473,  594,  627-628,  643, 

672,  673,  679,  758 
Grotius,  H.,  203,  746 
Grucker,  £.,  129 
Gruber,  J.  G.,  328 
"  Griin,  A."  (Auersperg,  A.  A.  von), 

33i,  4°9 

Gruener,  G.,   758 
Gruffydd  ab  yr  Yuad  Coch,  402 
Grundtvig,  S.,  345,  349,  350,  352, 

773 

Grundtvig  and  Sigurdsson,  340 
Gruppe,  O.  F.,  160,  381 
Gryphius,  A.,   318,  319,  321,   408, 

417,  419 
Guarini,  G.  B.,  237,  319,  449,  450, 

610 

Guasti,  C.,  501 
Gubernatis,  A.  de,  160,  354,  355, 

628 
Gudrun,  625,  648,   751,   754,   758, 

759-760 

Giinther,  C.  A.  W.,  752,  762 
Giinther,  J.  C.,  323,  408 
Guerber,  H.  A.,  491 
Guerrini,  245 

Giirtler  and  Hoffmann,  685 
Guerzoni,  G.,  240 
Guessard,  F.,  98 

Guest,  Lady  Charlotte,  744,  749 
Guest,  E.,  56 
Guggenheim,  J.,  274,  421 
Gui  de  Couci,  211 
Guiccioli,  Countess,  301 
Guidi  di  Pavia,  239 


8/2 


INDEX 


Guidi,  U.,  727 

Guidiccioni,  Giov.,  237,  396 

Guido  delle  Colonne,  228 

Guilhade,  D.  J.  G.  de,  265 

Guillaume  IX,  Comte  de  Poitiers, 
208,  210 

Guillem  de  Bergadan,  253 

Guillem  de  Cervera,  253 

Guillon,  C.,  225 

Guinizelli,   Guido,  228,   230,  231 

Guirault  de  Bornelh,  208 

Guittone  d'  Arezzo,  228,  230 

Guittone,  Fra,  230 

Gummere,  F.  B.,  34,  56-57,  128, 
145,  160,  161,  267,  311,  431  et 
passim,  473,  592,  593,  597,  599 
et  passim,  619,  628-629,  632,  633, 
738,  739 

Gunkel,  H.,  364,  599,  629-630,  782 

Gurney,  E.,  57 

Gurteen,  S.  H.,  473,   747 

Gutierre  de  Cetina,  257,  258 

Guy,  H.,  215,  218 

Gwalchmai,  402 

Gyllenborg,  G.  F.,  771 

Gyraldus,  L.  G.,  203 

Haag,  H.,  135 

Haakh,  E.,  315 

Habington,  276 

Hadlaub,  johann,  314 

Haeberlin,  C.,  614 

Haeckel,  E.,  332 

Haessner,  M.,  202,  270 

Hauschkel,  B.,  739 

Hafiz;  357,  358,  360,  412 

Hagedorn,   F.    von,   322-323,   324, 

326,  329,  417 
Hagen,  F.  H.  von  der,  312,  319, 

709,  758         » 
Hagen,  P.,   762 
Hahn,  W.,  753,  755 
Haigh,  D.  H.,  739 
Hajw,  357 

Haldane  and  Kemp,  496 
Hales,  J.  W.,  and  Furnivall,  F.  J., 

287 

Hall,  H.  M.,  613,  614 
Hall,  H.  R.,  677 
Hall,  J.,  112,  557 
Hall,  J.  L.,  740 


Hallam,  A.  H.,  301 

Hallam,  H.,  433,  436,  473,  630,  727 

Haller,  A.  von,  322-323,  326,  408, 

409 

Halm,  514 

Hamann,  J.  G.,  581-582,  584,  617 
Hamel,  A.,  764 
Hamel,  R.,  327,  469 
Hamelius,  P.,  113,  563 
Hamilton,  C.,  434,  439,  473 
Hamilton,  Walter,  301 
Hammarskold,  L.,  340,  771 
Hammerich,  351 
Hammer-Purgstall,    J.    von,    331, 

354,  355,  360 

Hammond,  James,  400,  405 
Hancock,  A.  E.,  301 
Haney,  J.  L.,  301 
Hanford,  J.  H.,  161,  279,  391,  630 
Hanke,  353 
Hannay,  D.,  256,  257 
Hanscom,  E.  D.,  267,  739 
Hanselli,  P.,  340,  344 
Hansen,  A.,  565 
Hansen,  Th.,  321 
Hanssen,  F.,  729 
Hapgood,  I.  F.,  353,  596,  600,  630, 

774,  775 

Hardenberg,  F.  von,  see  "Novalis" 
Hardie,  W.  R.,  473 
Hardiman,  J.,  307,  308 
Harding,  V.  E.,  262 
Hardouin,  Pere  J.,  492,  545,  549 
Hardy,  T.,  291 
Hardy,  W.  R.,  86 
Haren,  W.  van,  338,  766 
Harington,  Sir  J.,  416,  426,  556,  557 
Harlez,  C.  de,  360 
Harnack,  A.,  688,  689 
Harnack,  O.,  135,  431,  474,  588 
Harris,  J.  C.,  623 
Harris,  W.  T.,  718 
Harrison,  F.,  301 
Harrison,  J.  E.,  677 
Harrison,  J.  S.,  274,  279 
Harsdorffer,  G.,  318,  319,  321 
Hart,  H.,  765 

Hart,  Julius  and  Heinrich,  332,  335 
Hart,  W.  M.,  442,  474,  594,  598, 

599,  608,  609,  620,  631-632,  633, 

640,  705 


INDEX 


873 


Hartland,  S.,  371,  373 

Hartleben,  O.  E.,  332 

Hartmann  von  Aue,  313,  315,  468, 

751,  761,  762 
Hartmann,  A.,  336 
Hartmann,   E.   von,   57,    138,   450, 

474-475,  58? 
Hartmann,  M.,  356 
Hartung,  J.  A.,  161,  378,  475,  588 
Harvey,  G.,  112 
Hasell,  E.  J.,  727 
Haskin,  C.  E.,  687 
Hassek,  O.  de,  229 
Hastie,  W.,  58 
Hastings,  365 
Haube,  O.,  683,  687 
Hauch,  J.  C.,  350 
Haug,  J.  C.  F.,  417 
Haug,  M.,  360 
Haupt,  E.,  315 
Haupt,  J.,  760 
Haupt,  M.,  161,  381,  384 
Haupt,  M.,  and  Vahlen,  J.,  381 
Hausen,  F.  von,  207 
Hauvette  (Hauvette-Besnault) ,  A., 

188,  189 

Hauvette,  H.,  712,  714 
Havens,  R.  D.,  562 
Hawker,  R.  S.,  742 
Hawkesworth,  J.,  570 
Hayes,  Alfred,  295 
Hayley,  W.,  287,  734 
Haym,  R.,  328,  333,  633 
Hazard,  P.,  246 
Hazlitt,    W.,    120,    125,    274,    287, 

3°i,  573 

Hazlitt,  W.  C.,  274 
Hearn,  L.,  368 
Hebbel,  F.,  57,  144,  332,  334,  415, 

417 

Heber,  R.,  296,  742 
Hebrew  poetry,  ancient,   58,  364- 

366,    411-412 
Hecht,  H.,  608 
Hedborn,  343 
Hedge,  F.  H.,  754 
Heelu,  Jan  van,  765 
Heermann,   J.,  319 
Hegel,  G.  W.  F.,  5,  6,  57-58,  61- 

62,  122,  133,  134,  138,  139,  145, 

161-162,  350,  427  et  passim,  449, 


475-476,  503,  505,  586-587,  593, 

600  et  passim,  632 
Heiberg,  A.  C.  L.,  351 
Heiberg,  J.  L.,  350,  352 
Heide,  A.  von  der,  279 
Heidenstam,  V.  von,  344 
Heider,  O.,  270 

Heiligen  Georg,  Lied  vom,  750 
Heilmann,  H.,  367 
Heine,  H.,  287,  301,  331,  333,  334, 

409 

Heinemann,  K.,  328 
Heinrich,  Der  arme,  625 
Heinrich    von    Meissen    ("Frauen- 

Ipb"),  314,  3i5 

Heinrich  von  Morungen,  314,  315 
Heinrich    von   Veldeke,    313,    314, 

751,  761,  762 
Heinrich,  J.  B.,  333 
Heinrich,  O.,  760 
Heinse,  W.,  409 
Heinsius,  D.,  558,  561,  576,  681 
Heinze,  P.,  and  Goette,  R.,  135 
Heinze,  R.,  476,  588,  681 
Heinzel,  R.,  311,  739 
Heiric,  691,  697 
Heitland,  W.  E.,  687 
Helbig,  W.,  642,  677 
Heldenbuch,  751,  752,  760 
Helfferich,  A.,  255 
Heliand,  625,  750 
Hellanicus,  669 
Hellems,  F.  B.  R.,  413 
Helm,  H.,  274 
Helm,  R.,  518,  685 
Helmers,  J.  F.,  766 
Helmholtz,  A.  A.,  301 
Renault,  J.,  399 
Henckell,  K.,  332,  335 
Henderson,   T.   F.,    274,    279,   287, 

476,  593  >  599,  604  et  passim,  629, 

632-633,  647 
Henley,  W.  E.,  31,  127,  128,  266, 

287,  291,  296,  301 
Hennequin,  108,  141 
Henning,  R.,  756 
Henninger,  E.,  708 
Henrici,  £.,315 
Henry  VIII,  273 
Henry,  J.,  385-386 
Henry,  V.,  362,  780,  781 


874 


INDEX 


Henry  son,  268 

Hensel,  H.,  209 

Hentze,  C.  (Dindorf  and  Hentze), 

.     678 

Hepple,  N.,  58,  145-146,  266,  476 

Heraclitus,  508 

Herbert,  G.,  276,  278,  279 

Herculano,  264 

Herdegen,  J.,  321 

Herder,  J.  G.  von,  32,  58-59,  132, 
325-326,  328,  330,  348,  365,  417, 
431  et  passim,  476-477,  549,  580, 
581,  582,  584,  585,  587,  602,  603, 
617,  633-635,  670 

Heredia,  J.  M.  de,  46,  222 

Herford,  C.  H.,  162,  301,  306,  321, 

635 

Hericault,  C.  de,  214,  600,  635,  708 
Herluison  and  Kerviler,  541 
Hermann,  G.,  594,  635,  665,  673 
Hermann!,  N.,  340 
Hermesianax,  379 
Hernando  de  Acuna,  257,  410 
Hernando  del  Castillo,  251,  253 
Heroic   ideal,    432,    434-43  5,    457, 

460-461,  462,  482,  484,  488,  490,. 

Soi,  507,  531,  562,  575,  580,  654, 

661,  691,  754 
Heron,  A.,  213 
Herrick,    R.,    276,    278,    279,    289, 

4i7 

Hertel,  780 
Hertz,  H.,  350 
Hertz,  W.,  762 
Hertzberg,  W.,  274,  421 
Hervey,  J.,  397,  399,  4°5 
Herwegh,  G.,  331,  409 
Hesiod,  500,  508,  510,  516,  679,  746 
Hesse,  330 
Hessler,  L.  B.,  413 
Hessus,  Eobanus,  576,  669 
Hettinger,  F.,  718 
Hettner,  H.  J.  T.,  322,  327,  333 
Heuser,  O.,  301 
Heusler,  A.,  598,  599,  608,  609,  636, 

640,  646,  739,  752 
Hewlett,  H.  G.,  126 
Heydenreich,  K.  H.,  132 
Heyne,  C.  G.,  549,  584,  594,  667, 

670,  678,  686 
Heyne,  M.,  311 


Heyse,  P.,  332,  334 

Heywood,  J.,  416 

Hibernicus  Exul,  691,  696 

Hierotheus,  192 

Higginson,  T.  W.,  150 

Hilarius  of  Aries,  690,  694 

Hilary  of  Poitiers,  518,  521 

Hild,  J.  A.,  686 

Hildebrand,  Lay  of,  660,  736,  739, 
750 

Hilferding,  A.  F.,  774 

Hill,  G.  B.,  287 

Hillard,  G.  S.,  477 

Hillebrand,  J.,  477,  588 

Hiller,  381 

Hillscher,  413 

Himes,  J.  A.,  574 

Hinneberg,  P.,  162,  477,  588  et 
passim 

Hinojosa,  E.  de,  730 

Hinrichs,  H.  F.  W.,  329 

Hipponax,   184 

Him,  Y.,  36,  478,  593,  636 

Hirt,  H.,  162 

Hirtzel,  F.  A.,  686 

Hirtzel,  L.,  326 

Hirzel,  S.,  328 

Historical  research,  methods  of, 
139-141 

Historical  study  of  epic,  problems 
of,  591-614;  §§  n,  12,  passim 

Historical  study  of  lyric,  problems  of, 
137-149;  §§  5,  6,  passim,  as  184, 
190,  193,  197-198,  200,  206,  207, 
208,  214,  215-217,  220,  221-222, 
228,  233,  251-252,  256-258,  259- 
260,  262,  263,  267,  269,  271-272, 
276-277,  280-284,  291  ff.,  314, 
3i8,  357,  358-359,  364,  366,  369- 
374,  375-376,  377-380,  382-385, 
386-394,  396-397,  399-412,  414, 
416-418,  421-422,  521,  571,  616, 
619,  620,  621,  623,  625,  628,  629, 
630,  631,  633,  634,  640,  650,  675, 
680-681,  682,  683-685,  690-701, 
702-704,  706-707,  7I4-7I6,  721- 
722,  726,  730-731,  737-738,  740- 
743,  745,  746,  754-756,  761,  767- 
766,  781-782,  782-783 

Historical-scientific  method  and 
movement  in  criticism:  lyric, 


INDEX 


875 


107-111,  118,  123,  133-136,  137- 
422  (for  details  see  Table  of 
Contents),  162,  165,  166,  168, 
i 80,  181 ;  epic,  428-430,  468- 
469,  53i,  533,  540,  545,  546,  548, 
549,  550,  554,  557,  565,  568,  570- 
572,  580,  581-582,  584-585,  587, 
591-783  (for  details  see  Table  of 
Contents),  633-634,  645,  650, 
667,  671 

Hjarne,  R.,  345 

Hobbes,  T.,  113,  466,  478,  561-562 

Hobein,  H.,  513 

Hobhouse,  J.  C.,  244 

Hobhouse,  L.  T.,  Wheeler,  and 
Ginsberg,  370,  373,  374 

Hochberg,  W.  H.  von,  578 

Hocker,  O.,  752 

Hodgkin,  T.,  688 

Hodgson,   126 

Hoeft,  C.  T.,  705 

Holderlin,  J.  C.  F.,  331,  408,  409 

Holty,  L.  H.  C.,  325,  408,  409 

Hopfner,  E.,  317,  320 

Hoesslin,  J.  K.  von,  135 

Hoffmann,  A.,  739 

Hoffmann,  F.,  762 

Hoffmann,  O.,  274 

Hofmannswaldau,  C.  Hofmann 
von,  319,  408 

Hogarth,  D.  G.,  677 

Hogg,  280,  284,  294,  296 

Hogg,  T.  J.,  301 

Holberg,  L.,  347,  351,  772 

Hollander,  S.  A.,  345 

Holland,  306 
•  Hollway-Calthrop,  H.  C.,  233 

Holm,  614 

Hoist,  330 

Holt,  L.  H.,  740 

Holtzmann,  A.,  756,  780,  781 

Holz,  A.,  134,  135,  332,  334,  335 

Homer  (texts,  translations,  com- 
mentaries, scholia,  concordances) , 
678-679 

Homeric  age,  the,  675-678 

Homeric  hymns,  184,  418 

Homeric  poems,  4,29,325,425,438, 
454,  455-456,  457,  458,  461,  462, 
463,  464,  465,  467-468,  469,  470, 
473,  479,  481,  487,  491,  492,  494, 


495,  497,  498,  499,  5oo,  504,  505, 
508,  509,  510,  511,  512,  514,  515, 
516,  517,  518,  519,  521-522,  523, 
524,  526,  527,  528,  529, -530,  53i, 
532,  533,  534,  536,  537,  538,  539, 

542,  543,  544,  545,  546,  547,  548, 
549,  550,  55i,  552,  553,  556,  560, 
561,  562,  565,  566,  567,  568,  569, 
57i,  573,  574,  575,  576,  578,  579, 
580,  581,  582,  583,  584,  587,  593, 
594,  595,  596,  598,  601,  602,  603, 
617,  619,  622,  627-628,  632,  634, 
637,  638,  641,  649,  650,  651,  654, 
656,  660,  663,  665,  668-679,  680, 
681,  682,  683,  684,  685,  686,  693, 
703,  704,  707,  716,  719,  720,  724, 
726,  737,  746,  754,  764,  766,  774 

Homeric  Question,  531-532,  540, 
546,  548-549,  553,  56o,  581-582, 
584-585,  594-595,  599,  616-617, 
621,  623,  627-628,  635,  638,  641- 
642,  649,  650-651,  655,  656,  658- 
659,  660,  661-662,  664-665,  666- 
667,  668,  669-675,  737,  756,  758 

Hommel,  E.,  782 

Homostrophic  ode,  420 

Honegger,  J.  J.,  134,  135,  334 

Hood,  Thomas,  294,  295 

Hood,  Tom,  16 

Hooft,  P.  C.,  337,  338 

Hoogvliet,  A.,  766 

Hook,  295 

Hooper,  W.,  131 

Hopkins,  E.  W.,  361,  779,  780 

Horace,  87,  100,  113,  130,  137,  190, 
191,  193,  196,  216,  218,  237,  241, 
242,  245,  257,  276,  277,  323,  324, 
384,  417,  418,  425,  426,  427,  435 
et  passim,  463,  465,  475,  494,  514, 
521,  522-523,  528,  537,  538,  54i, 

543,  556,  558,  561,  562,  566,  572, 
575,  576,  685,  694 

Horatian    ode,    18,   417,   419;    see 

also  Horace 
Horn,  F.  W.,  339,  340  et  passim, 

767,  769 
Horn,  P.,  355,  356,  358,  360,  777, 

778 

Hornburg,  737,  739 
Home,  294 
Horoy,  689 


8;6 


INDEX 


Horvath,  C.,  354- 

Hoskins,  J.  P.,  141,  162,  636 

Hostrup,  J.  C.,  350 

Houghton,  296 

Housman,  A.  E.,  291,  295 

Housman,  L.,  291,  295 

Houwaert,  J.  B.,  765 

Hovelacque,  A.,  360 

Hovey,  R.,  742 

Howells,  W.  D.,  244,  301 

Howitt,  W.  and  M.,  339,  340,  345 

Hoyer,  K.,  328 

Hrosvitha,  691,  701 

Huart,  C.,  355,  361 

Hubatsch,  O.,  202 

Hubbard,  M.  G.,  260 

Huber,  399 

Hucbald  of  St.  Amand,  697 

Huch,  R.,  333 

Huchon,  R.,  287 

Hudson,  W.  H.,  59,  301,  478 

Hiibscher,  J.,  721 

Hiibschmann,  H.,  360 

Hueffer,  F.,  210 

Huffer,  H.,  334 

Huet,  P.  R.,  492,  539,  541,  543 

Hughes,  A.  M.  D.,  301 

Hughes,  J.,  116 

Hughes,  T.,  742 

Hugo,  V.,  109,  163,  221,  223,  247, 

400,  596,  600,  636,  654,  659,  712 
Hull,  Eleanor,  307,  749 
Humboldt,  W.  von,  431  et  passim, 

474,  475,  479,  485,  582-584,  585, 

600,  725,  765 
Hume,  D.,  568,  670 
Humorous  lyric,  231,  240,  290,  295- 

296,  344,  347,  349 
Hungarian     poetry,     see     Magyar 

poetry 

Hunt,  Holman,  301 
Hunt,  Leigh,  120,  125,  2945.,  453, 

479 
Hunt,  L.,  and  Lee,  S.  A.,  59,  126, 

266,  301 

Huntington,  F.  D.,  306 
Huntington,  G.  P.,  718 
Kurd,  R.,  117,  287,  541,  564,  565, 

567,  568-569,  573 
Huret,  J.,  224 
Hurgronje,  C.   S.,  636 


Hurst  and  Mackay,  124 

Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  D.,  257,  410 

Hussey,  M.  I.,  363 

Hustvedt,  S.  B.,  480 

Hutchinson,  F.  E.,  279 

Hutten,  U.  von,  576 

Hutton,  R.  H.,  126,  301 

Huxley,  H.  M.,  355 

Huygens,  C.,  338 

Huyssen,  G.,  335 

Hyacinthus  song,  15 

Hyde,  A.  G.,  279 

Hyde,  D.,  291,  295,  307,  749 

Hymn,  17,  89,  106,  112,  165,  176, 
178,  185  ff.,  189,  191-195,  204, 
269,  283,  296,  306,  318,  319,  320, 
321,  329,  335-336,  337,  34i,  343, 
346,  347,  357,  358,  361,  363,  364- 
366,  388,  389,  481,  657,  660,  663 

Hyporcheme,  187 

Ibn  Tufail,  356 

Ibsen,  H.,  351 

Ibycus,  184,  185,  418 

Icelandic  poetry,  339-340,  481,  482, 

767-770 
Idericus,  387 
Idyl,  25,  157,  186,  221,  239  ff.,  288, 

3i3,  323,  34i,  342,  343,  344,  347, 
349,  380,  384,  391,  396,  423,  439, 
440,  443,  445-453  (nature,  func- 
tion, technique),  457,  460,  462, 
464,  470,  472,  473,  475,  476,  477, 
480,  483,  487,  490,  491,  495,  496, 
498,  499,  500,  503,  603-604,  610, 
611-614  (origin  and  develop- 
ment), 613  (list  of  poets),  653,  , 
660,  663,  764,  765,  771,  772 

Iglesias  de  la  Casa,  J.,  260 

Ignacio  de  Luzan,  259 

Illusion  and  the  lyric,  62 ;  and  epic, 

483 

Imbert,  G.,  240 

Imbriani,  V.,  246,  248 

Imitation  in  poetry,  problems  and 
examples,  108,  172,  190,  216,  228, 
245,  252,  256  ff.,  259,  262,  263, 
269,  600-602,  610,  612,  680-681, 
683,  693,  711,  715,  720,  723-724, 
726,  745;  see  also  Classicism, 
Classical  lit.,  Homer,  Pindar, 


INDEX 


8/7 


Anacreon,  Ovid,  Horace,  Tibul- 

lus,  Propertius,  Virgil,  Petrarch, 

etc.,  etc. 

Immermann,  K.  L.,  409 
Immisch,  O.,  375,  597,  602,  637,  673 
Imperial,  F.,  252 
Incremental  repetition,  442 
Indian  poetry,  361-363,  778-782 
Inductive    criticism,    principles    of, 

140-141,  145 

Infantes  de  Lara,  730,  732,  733 
Infortune  (anon.),  99 
Inge,  W.  R.,  302 
Ingelow,  Jean,  295 
Ingemann,  B.  S.,  346,  349,  773 
Intelligents,  the  (Norwegian),  351 
Intuonate,  16 

Irish  Movement,  120,  292,  295 
Irish    poetry,    see    Appendix;    also 

290,  291,  306-309,  748-749 
Isaac,  H.,  274 

Isaiah,  First  and  Second,  366,  411 
Isidore  of  Seville,  88,  89,  518,  520 
Italian  poetry,   16,    225-248,  394- 

397,  419,  712-729 

Jack,  A.  A.,  and  Bradley,  A.  C.,  302 

Jackson,  A.  V.  W.,  358,  360-361 

Jackson,  J.,  687 

Jackson,  V.,  274 

Jacobi,  H.,  780,  782 

Jacobi,  J.  G.,  17 

Jacobowski,  L.,  59,   135,  145,  589, 

593,  598,  637 
Jacobs,  F.,  188 
Jacobs,  J.,  624,  637,  701 
Jacobus  de  Benedictis,  193 
Jacoby,  F.,  163,  380 
Jacopo  d' Aquino,  228 
Jacopo  da  Lentino,  228 
Jacopone  da  Todi,  193,  229,  231 
Jacopus  de  Voragine,  689 
Jacquinet,  P.,  560 
Jaeger,  H.,  351 
Jahnicke,  O.,  752 
Jagic,  V.,  775 
Jalalu'd-Din  Rumi,  357 
James,  R.,  352 
James,  W.,  9,  36 
Jameson,  F.,  753 
Jami,  357,  412 


Jamyn,  Amadis,  218,  398,  536 

Janicke,  K.,  335 

Janin,  J.,  109 

Jansen,  K.,  740 

Janssen,  J.,  327 

Jantzen,  H.,  163,  315 

Japanese  poetry,  368-369,  415 

Jasinski,  M.,  163,  420 

Jasmin,  J.,  224 

Jastrow,  M.,  782 

Jeaffreson,  J.  C.,  302 

Jean  d'Auton,  398 

Jean  de  la  Perouse,  398 

Jeandet,  J.  P.  A.,  218 

Jeanroy,  A.,  145,  163-164,  209,  211,' 

212,   227,  229,   247,  315,  633,  647, 

698 

Jeanroy,  Brandin,  and  Aubry,  206 
Jebb,   R.    C.,    183,   188,    189,   376, 

497,  593,  594,  598,  637-638,  661, 

666,  668,  673,  677,  6.78 
Jeffrey,  F.,  120,  125,  302 
Jennings,  W.,  367 
Jensen,  P.,  597,  638,  782,  783 
Jensen,  W.,  332 
Jeremiah,  366,  394,  411 
Jeremias,  A.,  782 
Jerrold,  M.  F.,  233 
Jeske,  G.,  762 
Jespersen,  J.,  164 
Jevons,  F.  B.,  164,  183,  376 
Jiriczek,  O.  L.,  752,  753,  755,  759, 

760 

Joachimi,  Marie,  333 
Jodelle,  E.,  217,  398 
Joel,  K.,  59-60,  334,  335 
Johannes  Posthius,'  203 
Johannes  Secundus,  203 
Johnson,  C.  F.,  60,  480 
Johnson,  L.,  291 
Johnson,  S.,  118,  287,  288,  289,  417, 

444,  480,  484,  569,  747 
Johnson,  S.,  778 
Johnstone,  P.  de  L.,  782 
Joly,  A.,  709 
Jonas,  F.,  479 
Jonckblaet,  624 
Jonctijs,  D.,  338 
Jones,  E.  C.,  295 
Jones,  E.  D.,  118 
Jones,  E.  O.,  308 


8;8 


INDEX 


Jones,  Henry,  302 

Jones,  O.,  308 

Jones,  W.  L.,  743,  744 

Jongleur,  212,  213,  594,  707,  708 

Jonson,  B.,  276,  277,  279,  282,  403, 

404,  417,  419,  559,  S6o,  561,  581, 

610 

Jonsson,  F.,  339,  768,  769-770 
Jonsson,  J.,  767 
Jordan,  H.,  677 
Jordan,  R.,  268 
Jordan,  W.,  331,  332,  335,  480,  481, 

603 

Jordi  de  Sant  Jordi,  253 
Joret,  C.,  633 
Joseph,  E.,  315 
Josephus,  669 
Jouffroy,  T.  S.,  60 
Jowett,  B.,  513 
Juan  de  Arguijo,  257 
Juan  de  Castellanos,  410 
Juan  de  la  Cueva,  410 
Juan  de  Mena,  252,  255 
Jubainville,   Arbois    de,   306,    677, 

748,   749 
Jubinal,  A.,  212 
Judges,  Book  of,  629 
Juglares,  730,  731 
Julian,  J.,  165,  194,  3°5 
Jullien,  B.,  104,  546 
Jung,  H.,  315 
Juromenha,  734,  735 
Jusserand,  J.  J.,  270,  638,  741 
Justin  the  Martyr,  519 
Juvenal,  87,  515 
Juvencus,  690,  693,  694,  695,  696 

Kaalund,  H.  V.,  350 

Kabelmann,  K.,  565 

Kaegi,  A.,  362,  363 

Kastner,  A.,  408,  417 

Kafka,  L.  M.,  335 

Kaftan,  J.,  352 

Kahn,.R.,  124 

Kalevala,  480,  603,   620-621,   640, 

641,  659,  773-774    (translations, 

774) 

Kalidasa,  362,  412,  590,  781-782 
Kaluski,  354 
Kaluza,  M.,  60,  419 
Kames,  Lord  (H.  Home) ,  568 


Kammer,  E.,  673,  677 

Kannegiesser  and  Witte,  230 

Kant,  I.,  133 

Karajan,  319 

Karajich,  V.  S.,  353,  606,  775 

Karsch  (Karschinn),  Anna, 399, 409 

Kassner,  R.,  287 

Kastner,  L.  E.,  167,  204,  219,  274, 
421 

Kattein,  C.,  446 

Kautzsch,  E.,  364 

Kdvya,  777,  779,  781-782 

Kayser,  J.,  194 

Keach,  283 

Keats,  J.,  1 20,  125,  290  ff.,  420,  452 

Kebble,  T.  E.,  288 

Keble,  J.,  60-61,  296,  481 

Keck,  H.,  760 

Kedney,  J.  S.,  61-62,  427,  449,  475, 
481 

Keene,  C.  H.,  384 

Kehraptgow,  681 

Keidel,  G.  C.,  638 

Keightley,  T.,  574 

Keil's  Grammatici  Latini,  88 

Keinz,  F.,  314 

Kelemina,  J.,  762 

Kelle,  J.,  311 

Keller,  A.  G.,  677 

Keller,  G.,  332 

Kellgren,  J.  H.,  342,  343,  344-345 

Kennedy,  C.  W..  740 

Kennedy,  H.  M.,  660 

Kennet,  B.,  114 

Kent,  C.  F.,  364,  365 

Ker,  W.  P.,  165,  192,  196,  208,  288, 
302,  431  et  passim,  467,  470,  481- 
482,  563,  594,  598,  599,  600  et 
passim,  636,  639,  689,  700,  705, 
708,  739,  74i,  752,  768,  770 

Kerbaker,  M.,  246 

Kerlin,  R.  T.,  447,  614 

Kernahan,  C.,  266 

Kettner,  E.,  756,  760 

Kind,  J.  L.,  288 

Kindermann,  C.  H.,  686 

King,  E.  G.,  364,  365 

King,  H.,  277,  405 
•  King,  L.  W.,  782 

Kingo,  T.,  346,  347,  351 

Kings,  Book  of,  629 


INDEX 


879 


Kingsley,  C.,  288,  296 

Kinkel,  G.,  679 

Kipling,  R.,  291,  294,  296,  297 

Kircher,  E.,  328,  334 

Kirchhoff,  A.,  649,  673,  678 

Kirkpatrick,  A.  F.,  365 

Kittel,  365 

Kittredge,  G.  L.,  288,  441,  442,  605, 

608,  609,  633,  639,  743,  744 
Klaeber,  F.,  739 
Klagelied,  210,  267,  406;  see  also 

Elegy 

Klai,  J.,  319,  321 
Klee,  G.,  760 
Kleen,  E.,  344 
Klein,  208 

Kleinpaul,  E.,  62,  436,  482-483 
Kleist,  E.   C.  von,  323,  327,  331, 

399,  408,  409,  417,  764 
Klenker,  F.  J.,  360 
Klenze,  C.  von,  598,  639,  758 
Klinger,  F.  M.  von,  325 
Klopstock,    F.    G.,    324-327,    331, 

343,  347,  4°8,  4'°9,  4*7,  435,  4^9, 

599,  601,  625,  690,  693,  729,  746, 

763-764 
Kluge,  F.,  635 
Knaack,  G.,  413,  446,  483,  609,  612, 

614 

Knebel,  K.  L.  von,  409 
Knight,  W.,  302 
Knight,  W.  P.,  573 
Knippel,  R.,  614 
Knobloch,  H.,  210,  212 
Knox,  V.,  118,  569 
Koch,  E.   E:,  and  Lauxmann,  R., 

336 

Koch,  M.,  326,  327,  329 
Koch,  M.,  and  Vogt,  F.,  329 
Koch,  T.  W.,  713 
Kochly,  H.  A.  T.,  673,  681 
Koegel,  R.,  311,  702 
Kohler,  A.,  737,  739,  752 
Kohler,  R.,  320 
Kohler,  R.,  681 
Koelbing,    A.,    270 
Kolbing,  E.,  339,  762 
Kbnig,  E.,  365 
Konig,  J.  U.  von,  322 
Konig  Rother,  751,  758,  760 
Konigsfeld,  G.  A.,  194 


Konnecke,  753 

Kopke,  R.,  333 

Koppel,  E.,  270,  274,  302,  421 

Korner,  J.,  585 

Kbrner,  K.  T.,  331 

Korter,  W.,  327 

Korting,  G.,  209,  233,  261,  588,  639, 

703,  709,  713,  725,  734,  747 
Koster,  A.,  329 
Koster,  H.,  188 
Kolmatchevsky,  624 
Kolson,  A.,  208 
Koltzov,  A.  V.,  353 
Korn,  381 

Kosegarten,  325,  408 
Kostlivy,  A.,  406,  408 
Kralik,  R.  von,  673- 
Kraus,  F.  X.,  588,  714,  718 
Krause,  G.,  321 
Krause,  K.,  415 
Krause,  K.  C.  F.,  450 
Kreller,  R.,  589 
Kremer,  A.  von,  356 
Kressner,  611 
Kretschmann,  408 
Kriebel,  H.  E.,  150 
Kroeger,  A.  E.,  312 
Krohn,  J.,  598,  599,  600,  640,  659, 

774 

Kroll,  W.,  686 

Kriiger,  G.,  519,  688  et  passim 
Krumbacher,    K.,    191,    194,    381, 

477,  682 
Kiichler,  C.,  339 
Ktihnemann,  E.,  328 
Kiirenberg,  Der  von,  313,  315,  756 
Kurschner,  311,  321,  330  et  passim 
Kiister,  L.,  669 
Kuhns,  L.  O.,  718,  725 
Kunos,  I.,  355 
Kunstlied,  see  Art  lyric 
Kurth,  G.,  708,  752 
Kurtz,  B.  P.,  508,  592,  593,  640 
Kutcher,  A.,  328 
Kynaston,  277 

Labe,  Louise,  398 
Labitte,  718 
Labouisse,  400 

La  Calprenede,  G.  de  C.  de,  465, 
712 


88o 


INDEX 


Lachevre,  F.,  204 

Lachmann,  K.,  314,  430,  594,  641, 

671,  673,  755,  756,  760 
Lachmann,  K.,  and  Haupt,  M.,  312 
Lachmann-Dissenius,  381 
Lacombe,  P.,  483 
Lactantius,  517,  692 
Ladd,  G.  T.,  485 
Ladoue,  P.,  397 
Lafayette,  Comtesse  de,  543 
Lafenestre,  G.,  219 
La  Fontaine,  J.  de,  103,  219,  220, 

399,  624 

Lagerlof,  P.,  341 
La  Harpe,  J.  F.  de,  106,  108,  554 
Lai,  16,  101,  181,  206,  207,  214 
Laing,  M.,  288 
Laistner,  L.,  739 
Lamare,  C.,  735 
Lamartine,  A.,  34,   109,   221,   223, 

302,  400,  712 
Lamb,  C.,  295 
Lambert,  L.,  225 
Lamentations,  Book  of,  411 
Lamenti,  395-396;  see  also   Elegy 
Lamotte,  H.  de,  22,  104,  464,  492, 

543,  545,  546-547,  548,  55i,  579 

Lampoon,  184 

Landau,  M.,  93,  240 

Landor,  W.  S.,  290  ff.,  439,  452,  573 

Lane,  VV.  C.,  713 

Lang,  A.,  127,  168,  217,  291,  295, 
296,  302,  370,  371,  373,  438,  483, 
533,  593,  598,  608,  641-642,  649, 
659,  672,  673,  677,  679,  754,  756, 
774 

Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers,  678 

Lang,  H.  R.,  249,  255,  265 

Langdon,  S.,  363,  782 

Lange,  G.,  673,  679 

Lange,  K.,  62,  483 

Lange,  R.,  368 

Langland,  W.,  557,  638 

Langley,  E.  F.,  229-230 

Langlois,  C.  V.,  202,  710 

Langlois,  E.,  97,  99,  212,  706,  711 

Lanier,  S.,  63 

Lanman,  362 

Lannoy,  Baroness  de,  338 

Lansdowne,  Lord  (G.  Granville), 
1x6 


Lanson,  G.,  204,  209,  219,  223,  459 

Lanstad,  345 

Lappenberg,  J.  M.,  327 

Lappish  poetry,  352 

Laprade,  V.  de,  109 

La  Rue,  Abbe  de,  708,  710 

La  Rue,  C.  de  (Ruaeus),  543 

La  Rue,  G.  de,  213 

Lasca,  236 

Lassberg,  753 

Lassen,  H.,  352 

Latin  poetry,  medieval,  201-204, 
227,  269,  270,  385-389,  413,  688- 
702 

Latomus,  J.,  576 

Laucherts,  701 

Laude,  229,  231,  233,  236,  237 

Laudun  d'Aigaliers,  101 

Lauer,  J.  F.,  673 

Laumonier,  P.,  101,  218 

Launis,  A.,  774 

Laurand,  L.,  668,  673 

Laurenza,  V.,  238 

Laveleye,  E.  de,  598,  599,  642,  758, 
770 

Lavoix,  H.,  213 

Lawrence,  D.  H.,  291 

Lawrence,  W.  W.,  740,  741 

Lawton,  W.  C.,  643,  677 

Lay,  epical,  428,  482,  582,  584, 
594-595,  598,  609,  620-621,  625, 
632,  635,  636,  638,  640,  646,  663, 
671,  697,  703,  726,  731,  737,  742, 
750,  7Si,  756,  767,  774,  778,  779, 
783 

Lay  am  on,  742,  744 

Leaf,  W.,  594,  643,  648,  649,  673- 
674,  677,  678 

Leahy,  A.  H.,  749 

Lear,  Edward,  296 

Leather,  Mary  S.,  288 

Leautaud,  P.,  see  under  Bever,  A. 
van,  and  Leautaud,  P. 

Le  Bon,  G.,  593 

Le  Bossu,  R.  P.,  138,  426-427  et 
passim,  456,  457,  458,  480,  484, 
539,  540,  543,  544,  545,  547,  549, 
55i,  553,  558,  563,  564,  565,  566. 
567,  578,  666 

Lebrun,  C.  F.,  553 

Lebrun,  E.,  104 


INDEX 


881 


Lebrun-Pindare,  P.  D.  E.,  105,  220, 

400,  416 

Lechleitner,  F.,  315 
Le  Clerc,  J.,  S44-S4S 
Leconte  de  Lisle,  46,  222,  400 
Lee,  S.,  25,  128,  219,  274,  421 
Lee,  V.,  93,  241,  3°2 
Leendertz,  P.,  338 
Lees,  J.,  309 
Leeuwen,  J.  van,  674 
Lefranc,  A.,  218 
Le  Franc  de  Pompignan,  105 
Lega,  G.,  231 

Le  Gallienne,  R.,  128,  291,  294,  302 
Leger,  L.,  775 
Legge,  J.,  367 
Le  Goffic,  C.,  374,  453 
Legouis,  E.,  302 
Legouve,  400 

Legrand,  P.  E.,  378,  446,  614 
Legras,  688 
Legrelle,  A.,  351 

Lehmann,  R.,  132,  134,  135,  589 
Leiche,  181,  200,  212,  418 
Leichtlen,  J.,  756 
Leitzmann,  A.,  761 
Le  Maire  de  Beiges,  J.,  398 
Lemaitre,  J.,  no 
Lemcke,  C.,  134,  317,  589 
Lemcke,  L.,  600,  643 
Lemene,  239,  241,  243 
Lemnius,  S.,  576 
Lemos,  M.,  735 
Le  Moyne,  Le  Pere,  538,  541,  562, 

711 
"Lenau"     (Strehlenau,    N.    von), 

331,  409 
Lenient,  C.,  224 
Lennep,  338 
Lenngren,  Anna  M.,  343 
Lentzner,  C.  A.,  165,  274,  421 
Lenz,  J.  M.  R.,  326 
Leo,  F.,   189,  381 
Leo,  H.,  739 
Leonard,  400 
Leoni,  E.,  735 
Leonidas  of  Tarentum,  414 
Leonio,  V.,  395 
Leopardi,   G.,   233,   244,   246,   247, 

302,  397 
Leopold,  K.  G.  af,  342 


Le  Petit,  J.,  204 

Lermontov,  M.  V.,  353 

Lesbian  or  Aeolic  lyric,  184,  417, 

418,  419 

Lescurel,  J.  de,  210 
Lessing,  G.  E.,  32,  132,  325,  327, 
.  328,  417,  475,  580-581,  585 
Lessing,  O.  E.,  335 
Letourneau,  C.,  165,  643 
Le  Tourneur,  399 
Leuthold,  H.,  223,  332,  334 
Levati,  E.,  244 
Lever,  295 
Levertin,  O.,  344 
Levi,  E.,  229,  234,  236 
Levi-Malvano,  E.,  243 
Levin,  J.,  352 
Levy,  P.,  165 
Levy,  R.,  320,  415 
Lewent,  K.,  210 
Lewes,  G.  H.,  121,  329 
Lewis,  C.  M.,  63 
Lewis,  G.  C.,  487 
Leyden,  J.,  742 
Leyser,  P.,  89,  702 
Libius  Disconius,  569 
Lichtenberger,  E.,  328 
Lichtenberger,  L.,   753,   755 
Licinus,  414 
Lidner,  B.,  343 
Liebenberg,  F.  L.,  352 
Liebusch,  G.,  327 
Lieder-Theorie,  585,  586,  594,  598, 

621,  625,  631-632,  635,  636,  639, 

640,  641-642,  646,  647-648,  650- 

651,  658-659,  664,  667,  669-675, 

731,  737,  739,  756,  76o 
Liliencron,  R.  von,  319,  336 
Lillge,  F.,  674 
Lilly,  M.  L.,  485,  643 
Lindblad,  E.  W.,  344 
Lindsay,  W.  M.,  196,  518 
Ling,  P.  H.,  343,  771 
Lintilhac,  E.,  209,  494 
Linus  song,  15 
Lippi,  L.,  729 
Lipscomb,  H.  C.,  688 
Literary   criticism,   rise   in   Greece, 

508-509 
Literary    epic,    see    Epic,    natural 

versus  artificial ;    also   430,  488, 


882 


INDEX 


497,    574,   601,    604    (list),    663, 

680-681,  684,   744-748,   763-766, 

770-773,  778-782 
Litteratures  populaires  de  toutes  les 

nations,  165 

Littlebury  and  Boyer,  549 
Littmann,  356  • 

Lityerses  song,  16 
Litzmann,   B.,  328 
Liverani,  A.,  686 
Livius  Andronicus,  682-683 
Livy,  497 

Ljunggren,  G.,  344,  345 
Lloyd,  M.,  165,  365,  401,  403 
Llywarch  Hen,  402 
Lobo,  F.  A.,  735 
Lobo,  R.,  410 

Lockhart,  J.  G.,  120,  255,  302 
Locke,  J.,  115,  550 
Locker-Lampson,   F.,  32,  63,   266, 

295   '    • 
Lodge,  T.,  610 
Loebe,  R.,  692 
Lobell,  J.  W.,  328,  764 
Lonnrot,  E.,  621,   773 
Loeper,  G.  von,  328 
Logau,  F.  von,  318,  417 
Lohenstein,  K.  von,  319,  321,  341, 

408 

Lohre,  H.,  485 
Loise,  F.,  485,  593,  599,  600,  643- 

644,  713 
Loiseau,  261 
Lollis,  C.  de,  229,  230 
Lombard,  A.,  550 
Lombardi,  A.,  240 
Lomonosov,  M.  V.,  353 
Londonio,  C.  G.,  246 
Long,  J.  D.,  687 
Longepierre,  Baron  de,  492 
Longfellow,  H.  W.,   166,   249,  261, 

337,  34°,  345,  346,  748 
Longinus,  87,  119,  137,  459,  4^5, 

475,  509,  512,  513 
Longnon,  H.,  218 
Longus,  610 
Lonsdale  and  Lee,  687 
Loots,  C.,  766 
Lope  de  Moros,  251 
Lope  de  Vega  Carpio,  410 
Lopes  de  Mendonqa,  265 


Lopez,  Pero,  251 

Lopez  de  Mendoza,  I.,  252,  255 

Loth,  J.,  309 

Lotspeich,  C.  M.,  770 

Lotze,  H.,  63,  431  et  passim,  485, 

600 

Louis  le  Laboureur,  711 
Lovelace,  276 
Lover,  295 

Lowell,  J.  R.,  296,  302,  420,  742 
Lower   races,   poetry   of,  369-374, 

411,  421,  478,  591-593,  598,  607, 

627,  628,  629,  633,  637,  640,  644, 

645,  647,  649-650,  654,  663,  783 
Lowndes,  288,  308 
Lowth,  R.,   117,  365,  453 
Loyson,  C.,  400 
Lubbock,  Sir  J.,  373 
Lucan,  458,  516,  517,  566,  601,  660, 

687,  712 

Lucas,  St.  John,  205,  226 
Luce,  M.,  302 
Luce,  S.,  705,  728 
Luce  de  Lancival,  712 
Lucian,  414 
Lucidor,  Lars,  341 
Lucilius,  382 
Lucillius,  414 
Lucretius,  191,  429,  516,  660,  692, 

694 

Ludlow,  J.  M.,  752,  758,  760 
Ludwig,  A.,  362,  781 
Ludwigslied,  750 
Liideritz,  A.,  315 
Liining,  O.,  739 
Liitjens,  A.,  644,  752 
Luiken,  J.,  337 
Lull  (or  Lully),  R.,  253,  255 
Lundius,  B.,  202 
Luquiens,  F.  B.,  705 
Luther,  M.,  129,  318,  576 
Luzio,  A.,  722 
Lycophron,  453 
Lydgate,  270 
Lyell,  C.,  232 
Lynn,  M.,  280 
Lyon,  316 
Lyric,  classification  of,  34-35,  135, 

138 
Lyric,  definitions  of,  3-8;   §§   1-6, 

passim 


INDEX 


883 


Lyric,  function  of  the,  35-40;  §§ 
1-3,  passim 

Lyric,  its  song-like  quality,  6-7 

Lyric,  theory  and  history  of,  3-422 
(for  details,  see  Table  of 
Contents) 

Lyric  and  epic,  priority  in  develop- 
ment, 143,  144,  151,  158,  159, 
163,  168,  169,  176,  178,  181,  184, 

373,  485,  489,  5°2,  503,  S9I-S93, 
595,  625,  629,  636,  637,  638,  648, 
654,  659,  663,  667 

Lyric  and  idyl,  interrelation,  447- 
448 

Lyric  as  essence  of  poetry,  7,  9,  52, 
55,  60,  107 

Lyric  poets,  references :  Afghan, 
355;  Babylonian-Sumerian,  363, 
412;  Byzantine,  see  Greek;  Cel- 
tic, 306-309;  Chinese,  367-368; 
Danish-Norwegian,  345~352 ; 

Dark  Ages,  88-89,  191-201,  385- 
389,  413;  Dutch,  337-338;  Egyp- 
tian, 364;  English,  111-129,  265- 
306,  401-406,  416-417,  419-420; 
French,  97-111,  204-225,  392-393, 
397-401,  416,  419;  German,  129- 
136,  309-336,  406-409,  417; 
Greek  and  Roman,  85-88,  183- 
191,  374-385,  412-415,  418;  He- 
brew (Ancient),  364-366,  411- 
412;  Icelandic,  339-340;  Indian, 
361-363,  412  ;  Italian,  89-97,  225- 
248,  394-397,  419;  Japanese, 
368-369,  415;  Lappish  and  Fin- 
nish, 352;  Lower  races,  369-374, 
411,  421;  Medieval  Latin,  201- 
204;  227,  393;  Modern  Latin, 
393-394,  4*5,  418-419;  Oriental, 
354  ff.,  411-412,  415;  Persian, 
356-361,  412;  Portuguese,  261- 
265,  410;  Provencal,  see  under 
French,  also  227-229;  Russian, 
352-353;  Scandinavian  (in  gen- 
eral), 339;  Serbian,  Cheskian, 
Magyar,  and  Polish,  353~354; 
Spanish,  248-261,  410;  Swedish, 
340-345 ;  Syriac  and  Armenian, 
355;  Turkish,  354~355 

Lyrical  narrative,  195,  197-198, 
207,  373,  377,  378,  386,  440,  654, 


691,  693-694,  697,  767,  7735  see 
also  Ballad,  Epic,  and  Lyric 
Lytton,  Lord,  742 

Maack,  R.,  288,  614 
Mabilleau,  L.,  223 
MacAlister,  R.  A.  S.,  744 
Macaulay,  G.  C.,  288 
Macaulay,  T.  B.,  48,  285,  288,  294, 
296,  302,  443,  464,  485,  572,  644, 

747 

Macbean,  L.,  308 
Maccallum,  M.  W.,  743,  763 
Macculloch,  J.  A.,  593,  598,  644 
Macdonell,  A.  A.,  362,  590,  781,  782 
Macdowall,  M.  W.,  758 
Macer,  683 
Macgilwray,  J.,  452 
Machaut,  G.  de,  214 
Machiavelli,  235 
^lachines,  epic,  see  Marvelous 
Mackail,  J.  W.,  25,  32,  64,  166,  302, 

4i3,  444,  486,  614,  644,  674,  678, 

681,  683,  68? 
Mackay,  280 

Mackenzie,  A.  S.,  593,  598,  645 
Mackenzie,  John,  308 
Mackie,  A.,  302 
Maclean,  Magnus,  308,  749 
"Macleod,  Fiona,"  see  Sharp,   W. 
Macleod,  M.  C.,  308 
MacNeill,  J.,  749 
Macpherson,  J.,  283,  286,  289,  308, 

533 

Macri-Leone,  F.,  234,  610,  645 
Macrinus,  J.  S.,  418 
Macrobius,  87,  515,  541 
Madden,  Sir  F.,  744 
Madius  (=V.  Maggi  ?),  523 
Madrigal,  16,   169,   173,   179,   215, 

226,  233,  238,  271,  273,  274,  275, 

321,  398 

Maerlant,  J.  van,  337,  765 
Maeterlinck,  M.,  224 
Maetzner,  E.,  212 
Maffei,  A.,  244 
Maffei,  S.,  94,  532 
Magalhaes,  G.  de,  736 
Maggi,  C.  M.,  239,  241 
Maggi,  V.,  524 
Maggiolate,  16 


884 


INDEX 


Magical  song,  see  Charms 

Magnier,  L.,  686 

Magnus,  L.  *A.,  775 

Magnusson,    E.,    and    Morris,    W., 

339,   7?o 
Magrim,  G.,  240 
Magyar   (Hungarian)   poetry,  353- 

354,  775 

Mahabharata,  505,  778-781   (trans- 
lations, 779-780) 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.,  166,  376,  651 
Mahn,  C.  A.  F.,  205,  208 
Maigron,  L.,  544 
Maikov,  A.,  353 
Mailath,  Count,  354 
Main,  290 
Maitland,  T.,  see  under  Buchanan, 

R. 

Majoragius,  523,  524 
Malaspina,  Alberto,  227 
Malcolm,  Sir  J.,  778  « 

Malde,  E.  de,  727 
Malecki,  A.,  354 
Malherbe,  F.  de,  100,  102,  219,  399, 

419,  618 

MalletL  P.  H.,  770 
Mallinatha,  590 
Malmignati,  A.,  243 
Malmignati,  J.,  728 
Malmstiom,  B.  E.,  340,  344,  345 
Malone,  E.,  466 
Malory,  Sir  T.,  436,  742,  744 
Malusa,  P.,  189 
Mambrun,  P.,  426,  456,  486,  541, 

566 

Mameli,  244 
Mamiani,  244 
Manacorda,  G.,  320 
Mancini-Mazarini,  L.  J.  B.,  due  de 

Nivernais,  105,  399 
Manesse,  312 
Manfredi,   241 
Mangan,  J.  C.,  294,  307 
Mango,  F.,  240 
Manheimer,  V.,  321 
Manitius,  M.,  166,  191,  645,  688  et 

passim 

Manly,  J.  M.,  141,  166,  645 
Mann,  M.  M.,  762 
Manni,  245 
Manoel  de  Portugal,  D.,  263 


Manrique,  Gomez,  252,  254 

Manrique,  Jorge,  252 

Mantuan,  610,  649 

Mantz,  H.  E.,  645 

Manuel,  D.  J.,  263 

Manuel,  E.,  400 

Manuel  de  Villegas,  257 

Manx   poetry,   see   Appendix,   also 

306 
Manzoni,  A.,  96,  244,  246,  397,  583, 

727 

Mapes,  W.,  202 
Maranta,  523 
Maratti,  243 
Marcabrun,  208 
Marcellus,  Comte  de,  681 
March,  Auzias,  253,  255,  261 
March,  F.,  739 
March,  F.  A.,  194 
March,  Jaume,  253 
March,  Pere,  253 
Marchand,  Abbe  C.,  218 
Marchesi,  G.  B.,  528 
Marchetti,  244 
Marcus  Aurelius,  509 
Marden,  C.  C.,  730 
Mare,  W.  de  la,  291 
Mari,  G.,  89,  98 
Marie  delle  Grazie,  765 
Mariendichtung,  313,  346,  402,  406 
Marin,  F.  R.,  249,  260 
Marinism,   238-240,    257-258,   341, 

396,  527,  530 

Marino  (or  Marini),  238-240,  319, 
•  396,  500,  542,  728 
Markham,  C.,  778 
Marmontel,  J.  F.,  22,  106,  416,  545, 

55^-552,  712 
Marnix,  F.  van,  337 
Marolles,  M.  de,  543 
Marot,  C.,  99,  101,  167,  215  ff.,  391, 

397-398,  416 
Marradi,  G.,  245 
Marsan,  J.,  645 
Marsh,  A.  R.,  431,  444,  486,   599, 

600,  645,  705 

Marston,  P.  B.,  291,  294,  295,  296 
Marsuppini,  720 
Marta,  H.,  92,  528 
Martelli,  P.  J.,  94 
Marthiya,  357 


INDEX 


885 


Martial,  87,  100,  190,  320,  413,  415, 
416,  515 

Martin,  E.,  315,  624,  637,  760 

Martin,  Sir  T.,  381,  617 

Martinengo-Cesaresco,  Countess  E., 
167,  248 

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  260 

Martinez  de  Medina,  252 

Martinez  y  Guertero,  L.  R.,  260 

Martinon,  P.,  167,  204,  215,  216 

Martins,  O.,  735 

Marty-Laveaux,  99 

Maruffi,  G.,  725 

Marvell,  A.,  277,  278,  419 

Marvellous  in  poetry,  120,  323-324, 
325,  424,  425,  426,  432,  437,  440, 
454,  456,  457,  461,  462,  465,  467, 
470,  473,  477,  483,  484,  493,  495, 
501,  506,  507,  508-512,  514,  517, 
530,  53i,  532,  537,  539,  S4i,  542, 
544,  546,  549,  55°,  55i,  552,  553, 
554,  566,  567,  568,  576,  578,  600, 
617,  619,  622,  630,  635,  640,  642, 
680,  696,  708,  737,  740,  755,  773 

Marzials,  T.  J.  H.,  291,  294,  296 

Masefield,  J.,  291,   294,   295,   296, 

297 

Masing,  W.,  328 
Mason,  W.,  283,  405,  419 
Maspero,  G.,  783 
Masqueray,  P.,  64,  189,  376,  378, 

412 

Massera,  A.  F.,  231 
Massey,  Gerald,  295 
Massey,  W.,  568 
Massing,  H.,  646,  708 
Masson,  D.,  288,  302,  747 
Masson,  G.,  168,  205 
Mathnawt,  357 
Mattei,  L.,  93,  528 
Matthews,  B.,  128,  168 
Matthias,  T.  J.,  288 
Matthisson,  F.,  310,  331,  408 
Mattioli,  L.,  721 
Maugain,  G.,  240 
Maurer,  O.,  302 
Maury,  G.  B.,  327 
Maury,  J.  M.,  249 
Maximianus,  384 
Maximus  Tyrius,  510,  513 
May,  C.,  735 


May-day  fetes  and  the  lyric,  212 

Mazzini,  G.,  97,  534 

Mazzone,  R.,  238 

Mazzoni,  G.,  95,  236-237,  240,  243, 

244,  245,  246,  672,  727,  729 
Mazzoni,  J.,  527 
McBryde,  J.  M.,  Jr.,  574 
McCarthy,  J.,  307 
McDougall,  W.,  258,  593,  601 
McGillivray,   740 
McGregor,  Sir  James,  308 
McKin,  J.  M.,  150 
Mead,  W.  E.,  744 
Meaning  versus  rhythm  in  songs,  12, 

142,  145-146,  155,  159,  372 
Medici,  Lorenzo  de',  235,  236,  237, 

396 

Medico,  Dal,  248 
Medina,  V.,  260 
Meier,  J.,  168,  486,  598,  646 
Meineke,  A.,  378 
Meiners,  C.,  132 

Meistergesang,  316  ff.,  407,  416,  764 
Melanchthon,  P.,  415,  576 
Melchior,  F.,  334 
Meleager  of  Gadara,  414 
Meli,  G.,  243 
Melic  verse,  i84ff. 
Melissus,  P.,  320 
Mellin  de  St.  Gelais,  216,  218,  274, 

398,  416 

Melone,  C.  da  M.,  528 
Melton,  W.  F.,  279 
Melzi,  G.,  723 
Menage,  G.,  492 
Mendelssohn,  M.,  64-65,  132,  460, 

S8o 

Mendes  dos  Remedies,  261 
Mendheim,  M.,  765 
Menendez  y  Pelayo,  M.,  136,  248, 

255,  259,  732 
Menezes,  D.  J.  de,  263 
Menge,  327 
Menghini,  M.,  240 
Mengin,  U.,  302 
Menini,  F.,  93 
Menzies,  J.,  740 

Menzini,  B.,  93,  240,  395,  419,  527 
Merbach,  H.,  739 
Mercantini,  244 
Mercier,  L.,  539,  546,  553,  554 


886 


INDEX 


Meredith,  George,  291 

Meres,  F.,  112,  556,  557,  561 

Merian,  J.  B.,  582 

Merimee,  E.,  258 

Merk,  C.  J.,  708  ' 

Merkel,  R.,  681 

Merlet  and  Lintilhac,  705 

Merobaudes,  Flavius,  198,  386 

Merrill,  E.  T.,  381 

Merrill,  W.  A.,  194 

Merry  and  Riddell,  678 

Mess,  A.,  163 

Messenius,  J.,  341 

Mestica,  G.,  97,  233,  244,  247,  528 

Metastasio,  P.,  241,  242,  395,  533 

Metcalf,  F.,  339 

Methodius,  192 

Metrodorus,  509 

Meursius,  J.,  669 

Mexia,  H.,  252 

Mey,  316 

Meyer,  E.,  778 

Meyer,  F.  H.  A.,  328 

Meyer,  G.,  158 

Meyer,  Kuno,  306,  307,  309,  749 

Meyer,  P.,  205,  206,  209,  210,  212, 

490,  595,  625,  646,  708,  709 
,  Meyer,  R.  M.,  329,  330,  739 
Meyerfeld,  M.,  288 
Meyers,  Ernest,  294 
Meynell,  Alice,  291,  295,  302 
Meynell,  E.,  302 
Mezieres,  A.,  233 
Michel,  Ferd.,  315 
Michel,  Francisque,  254 
Michelangeli,  L.  A.,  187 
Michelangelo,  237,  396 
Michiels,  A.  F.,  107 
Mickiewicz,  A.,  354,  775 
Mickiewicz,  L.,  775 
Miessner,  W.,  333,  334 
Migne,  J.  P.,  385,  518,  679,  689, 

698 

Miguel  de  Unamuno,  D.,  250 
Mijatovich,  E.  L.,  353 
Mikkel  of  Odense,  346 
Miklosich,  F.,  646,  775 
Mild   y   Fontanals,   210,   249,   250, 

255,  729,  730,  732,  733 
Miles,  A.  H.,  33,  290,  302,  306 
Milhouard,  A.,  224 


Mill,  J.  S.,  121,  138,  302,  433  et 
passim 

Millar,  John,  570 

Millar,  J.  H.,  288 

Millard,  F.,  742 

Miller,  A.  B.,  302 

Miller,  G.  M.,  in,  168,  431  et 
passim,  486,  557,  608,  646-647 

Miller,  J.,  306 

Miller,  J.  M.,  325,  408 

Millevoye,  C.  H.,  109,  221,  397, 
400 

Millington,  E.  J.,  496 

Millot,  C.  F.  X.,  210 

Mills,  C.,  728 

Mills,  L.  H.,  259 

Mills  and  Darmesteter,  359 

Milman,  H.  H.,  365,  702 

Milnes,  R.  M.,  Lord  Houghton,  301 

Milo,  388,  691,  697 

Milton,  J.,  34,  276,  277,  278,  279, 
282,  288,  293,  295,  322,  323,  391, 
405,  418,  419,  424,  429,  438,  439, 
453-454,  455,  457,  458,  463,  464, 
469,  470,  473,  476,  480,  481,  485, 
488,  491,  497,  499,  504,  505,  506, 
55i,  559,  56o,  561,  562,  563,  564, 
565,  566,  567,  568,  569,  570,  573, 
574,  575,  578-579,  593,  594,  596, 
599,  601,  603,  622,  636,  638,  667, 
690,  693,  742,  745-748  (editions 
and  translations,  745-746),  763, 

764 
Mimnermus,    184,    189,    376,    377, 

378,  380 
Minnesang,  149-150,  207,  228,  230, 

310,  312-317,  332,  407,  416    . 
Minoan  culture  of  Crete,  676-678 
Minor,  J.,  329    . 
Minot,  L.,  269 
Minstrelsy,  569,  571,  594,  595,  599, 

619,  638,  640,  647,  667,  671,  672, 

708,  726,  737,  751 
Minto,  W.,  279 
Minturno,  Ant.,  91,  100,  395,  426, 

463,  522,  523,  524,  525,  576 
Minucius  Felix,  517 
Miracles  and  Mysteries,  167,  397, 

.402 

Miscellanies,  English,  271,  273,  276 
Mistral,  F.,  224 


INDEX 


887 


Mitchell,   D.,  308 

Mittler,  F.  L.,  320 

Mitzana,  R.,  258 

M'Kie,  J.,  286 

Mockel,  A.,  224 

Mock-heroic  epic,  439,  457,  460, 
469,  472,  483,  499,  500,  604,  712, 
720-721,  724,  728-729,  772,  773 

Moe,  Bishop  J.,  351 

Moebius,  T.,  767 

Moller,  350 

MSller,  H.,  737,  739       ; 

Mb'nckeberg,  327 

Mbrike,  E.,  332 

Mb'rner,  J.  von,  647,  752 

Moggride,  W.,  453 

Mogk,  E.,  339,  345,  758,  767,  768, 
770 

Mohl,  J.  von,  777 

Mohnike,  G.  C.  F.,  194 

Moland,  L.,  708 

Molesworth,  Sir  W.,  478 

Moliere,  347 

Molinier,  A.,  706 

Molins,  A.  de,  261 

Mollevant,  400 

Molteni,  E.  G.,  254,  265 

Molza,  F.,  237,  396 

Momigliano,  A.,  231 

Mommsen,  T.,  682 

Monaci,  E.,  97,  226,  227,  229,  265, 

534 

Mone,  F.  J.,  194,  624 
Monge,  L.  de,  438,  487,  705,  725, 

732,    733,   758 

Monier-Williams,  Sir,  779,  781 
Monnier,  F.,  697 
Monnier,  P.,  235 
Monro,  D.   B.,  86,  438,  672,  674, 

678,  679 

Monro,  H.,  291,  295,  595,  596 
Monro  and  Allen,  678 
Montaiglon,  A.  de,  210 
Montaiglon  and  Rothschild,  217 
Montalvo,  G.  de,  733 
Montaudon,  Monk  of,  208,  210,  250 
Mont6gut,  E.,  no,  223 
Montemayor,  J.  de,  444,  610. 
Montesquieu,   104,   551 
Montgomerie,  A.,  274 
Montgomery,  Guy,  374 


Montgomery,  H.  R.,  307 

Montgomery,  James,  296 

Monti,  G.,  302    • 

Monti,  V.,  96,  243, 244,  246,  534,  729 

Moody,  W.  V.,  296,  420 

Mooney,  G.  W.,  681 

Moore,  E.,  232,  718 

Moore,  G.  F.,  364 

Moore,  S.,  740 

Moore,  T.,  294,  295,  .296,  302 

Moore,  T.  S.,  291,  294 

Moorman,  F.  W.,  168,  279,  647 

Moorsom,  R.  M.,  195 

Moral  purpose  of  the  epic,  426,  465, 
472,  484,  487,  489,.  492,  506,  514, 
520-521,  531,  537,  538,  544,  547, 
548,  552,  556,  557,  559,  563,  567, 
576,  644 

Morandi,  L.,  95,  243 

More,  H.,  115 

More,  Jacob,  288 

More,  P.  E.,  128,  291,  302-303, 
749 

More,  Sir  T.,  415 

Moreau,  H.,  400 

Morel,  J.  de,  436 

Morel,  L.,  288 

Morel-Fatio,  A.,  219,  249,  256,  420 

Morello,  V.,  247 

Morf,  H.,  215,  420,  686,  723,  725, 

.     729 

Morfill,  W.  R.,  353,  354,  774,  775 

Morgan,  B.  Q.,  315 

Morgan,  L.  H.,  370 

Morhof,  D.  G.,  130,  577,  669 

Morley,  H.,  265,  307,  702,  739,  748, 

749 

Morley,  John,  303 
Mornet,  D.,  614 
Morpurgo,  A.,  238 
Morrice,  J.  C.,  309 
Morris,  Lewis,  294,  433,  488,  603, 

748 
Morris,  William,   290  ff.,  339,   420, 

603,  678,  687,  743,  748,  770 
Morsolin,  B.,  238,  524 
Morton,  E.  P.,  288 
Morun'gen,  H.  von,  207 
Moschus,   186,  379,  380,  391,  483, 

610,  649 
Motet,  200,  206,  207 


888 


INDEX 


Motherwell,  W.,  168,  284,  296 
Mott,  L.  F.,  210,  274,  718 
Motteau,  687 
Motz,  H.,  676 
Moulton,  J.  H.,  356,  360 
Moulton,  R.  G.,  65-66,   149,  365, 

415,  487,  592,  604,  605,  612,  647- 

648 

Mucha,  O.,  218 
Mulder,  D.,  674 
Miillenhoff,  K.,  311,  737,  739,  756, 

760 

Miillenhoff  and  Scherer,  311 
Miiller,  A.,  270 
Miiller,  C.,  321 
Muller,  C.  H.,  312 
Miiller,  E.,  487,  588 
Muller,  F.,  373 
Muller,  I.  von,  189,  191  et  passim, 

588 
Muller,  K.  O.,  168,  376,  431,  487, 

586,  648,  675 
Muller,  M.,  354 

Muller,  Max,  333,  359,  362,  363 
Muller,  N.,  739 

Muller,  Wilhelm  (poet),  331,  333 
Miiller,  Wilhelm,  597,  648,  752,  755, 

756 

Muller,  W.  M.,  364 
Miinnich,  354 
Miinscher,  K.,  510 
Mutzell,  J.,  336 
Muir,  J.,  362 

Mulgrave,  Earl  of,  114,  562 
Muller,  H.  C.,  574 
Mullinger,  J.  B.,  697 
Mullinger  and  Masterman,  747 
Multineddu,  S.,  727 
Munch,  A.,  351,  773 
Muncker,  F.,  327,  328,  764 
Munford,  W.,  678 
Muoni,   G.,   243,   246,   727 
Muratori,  L.  A.,  94,  491,  530-531 
Mure,  W.,  169,  376,  593,  648,  674 
Muret,  M.,  244 
Murillo,  249 
Murray,    G.,    128,   418,    575,    598, 

648-649,  674,  677,  683 
Musaeus,  682 
Music  and  poetry,  42,  62,  63,  106, 

117,  127,  142,  143,  156,  159,  180, 


187,  189,  209,  213,  218,  268,  271, 
273,  274,  275,  374,  375,  378,  389, 
622 

Musical  accompaniment,  4,  n 

Muspilli,  750 

Musset,  A.  de,  221,  223,  400 

Musset,  P.  de,  223 

Mustard,  W.  P.,  649 

Muth,  R.  von,  753,  755 

Mutinelli,  396 

Muzio,  G.,  91 

Myers,  £.,-513,  678 

Myers,  F.  W.  H.,  291,  294,  295,  303, 
487,  684 

Myers,  Irene,  423,  425,  430,  459, 
463,  488,  494,  503,  520,  575  et 
passim,  649—650 

Mynster,  C.  L.  N.,  352 

Myres,  J.  L.,  677 

Mysticism  and  poetry,  286,  287, 
300,  302,  304,  331,  343,  349,  357, 
359,  360,  361,  402,  405,  407,  409, 
412,  437,  510,  511,  520,  622,  691, 
695,  699,  718 

Myth  (origin,  distribution,  preser- 
vation, etc.),  626 

Myth  in  epic,  -432,  457,  459,  460, 
461,  463,  480,  481,  482,  489,  495, 
507,  508-509,  517,  5i8,  530,  53i, 
538,  549,  550,  561,  567,  584, 
597-598,  599,  619,  626,  629,  637, 
642,  648,  656,  659,  660,  662-663, 
680,  693,  737,  739,  740,  754,  755; 
see  also  Marvellous 

Nadler,  J.,  333 
Nadrowski,  R.,  758 
Nagelsbach,  C.  F.  von,  677 
Naevius,  414,  683,  685 
Nagel,  W.,  614 
.  Nageotte,  E.,  183 
Nagl,  J.  W.,  753 
Nairne,  Lady,  284 
Napolski,  M.  von,  208 
Nardi,  Jacopo,  235 
Nash,  D.  W.,  749 
Nash,  T.,  112,  557 
Naso,  388 
Natali,  G.,  243 

Naturalism,  46,  108,  260,  264,  292, 
332,  344,  397,  409 


INDEX 


889 


Nature,  poetic  treatment  of,  147, 
188,  189,  199,  209,  267,  277,  278, 
279,  281-285,  288,  289,  291  ff., 
3iS,  319,  322,  323,  328,  331,  348, 
349,  350,  379,  387,  388,  399,  4°8, 
448,  449-45°,  452,  492,  574,  610, 
613,  614,  676,  680,  685,  718,  738, 

739 

Nauck,  A.,  513,  678 
Naylor,   E.  W.,  274 
Neale,  J.  M.,  194 
Neander,  J.,  319 

Neboliczka,  O.,  130,  326,  327,  611 
Neele,  H.,  573 
Neff,  K.,  199 
Neff,  T.  L.,  210 
Neff,  W.,  135 
Negri,  Ada,  245 
Negri,  G.,  718 
Negrisoli,  I.,  682 
Negro  songs,  American,  150 
Neidhart  von  Reuenthal,  314,  407 
Neilson,   W.   A.,   66-67,    169,    210, 

270,  488 

Neilson  and  Webster,  268 
Nekrasov,  N.  A.,  353 
Nelle,  W.,  336 

Nemesianus,   384-385,    391,    610 
Nencioni,  E.,  727 
Neoptolemus  of  Parium,  514 
Nerval,  Gerard  du,  225 
Nessler,  K.,  489 
Nettement,  A.  F.,  no 
Nettleship,   H.,   86,    87,   436,    460, 

488,  509,  5I4-5I5,  683 
Nettleship,  J.  T.,  303 
Neukirch,  B.,  322 
Neiwnark,  319 
Nevinson,  H.,  633 
Newberry,  J.,  117,  568 
Newbolt,  H.,  291 
Newell,  W.  W.,  743 
Newman,    F.    W.,   455,    456,    678, 

679 

Newman,  J.  H.,  295,  296,  300 
Newman,  L.   I.,  and   Popper,  W., 

366,  373 
Newton,  J.,  283 
Nibelungenlied,  461,  468,  481,  482, 

487,    491,    505,    571,    584,    585, 

593,  622,  625,  641,  642,  660,  663, 


75i,   753-759    (comparison   with 

Homeric  epics,  754;  editions  and 

translations,  757),  760 
Nicander,  379 
Niccolini,   244 
Nichol,  J.,  288,  302 
Nichols,  J.,  288 
Nicholson,  R.  A.,  355 
Nicholson,  F.  C.,  312 
Nickel,  W.,  169,  315 
Nicolai,  C.  F.,  579,  580 
Nicolai  Secundus,  J.,  203 
Nicolay,  C.  L.,  258 
Nicoll,  W.  R.,  and  Wise,  T.  J.,  303 
Niese,  B.,  674 

Nietzsche,  F.  W.,  332,  334,  335,  344 
Nigra,  247 
Nisard,  C.,  169 
Nisard,  D.,  109,  303,  688 
Nisieli,  U.,  92,  529 
Nitze,  W.  A.,  710 
Nitzsch,  G.  W.,  595,  599,  635,  650- 

651,  664,  674 
Nivard,  623 
Nivernais,  Due  de,  see  under  Man- 

cini-Mazarini,  L.  J.  B. 
NizamI,  777 
Nobile,  244 
Nobiling,  O.,  265 
Noble,  J.  A.,  25,  67,  302,  421 
Nodier,  C.,  224,  400 
Noel,  1 6 
Noel,  R.,  302 

Noldeke,  T.,  355,  776,  777,  778 
Nolhac,  Pierre  de,  233 
Nomos,  15,  186 
Nonnus,  667,  681-682 
Noppen,  C.  L.  van,  748 
Norden,  C.  L.  van,  338 
Norden,  E.,  88,  686,  694,   702 
Nordenflycht,  Hedvig  C.,  342 
Norse  poetry,  Old,  767-770 
Norton,  C.  E.,  232 
Norwegian     poetry,    see    Danish- 
Norwegian  poetry 
Notker  Balbulus,  193,  200 
"Novalis"   (Hardenberg,  F.  von), 

331,  333,  343 

Novati,  F.,  202,  226,  227,  624,  702 
Novery,  R.  de,  735 
Nowack,  W.,  365 


890 


INDEX 


Noyes,  A.,  291,  294,  295,  296,  297, 

303,  748 
Noyes,  G.  R.,  and  Bacon,  L.,  353, 

606,  775 
Nugent,  T.,  550 
Nunes,  J.  J.,  262 
Nunez  de  Arce,  260 
Nusch,  A.,  754 
Nutt,  A.,  288,  308,   710,  743,  749, 

762 

Nutzhorn,  H.  F.  F.,  674 
Nyberg,  Julia,  343 
Nyblom,  345 
Nyrop,  K.,  651,  703,  705,  708- 

Objective  attitude  of  poet  in  epic, 
424  ff.,  431,  441,  443,  454,  463, 
469,  477,  487,  495,  496,  500,  502, 
570,  586,  602,  667 

Occasional  lyric,  4,  142,  144,  164, 
181,  186-187,  198-201,  205,  215, 
251,  371-373,  378,  383,  386,  387, 
388,  390,  393,  416,  418,  421;  see 
also  Elegy,  Epigram 

Ochoa,  734 

Ochsenbein,  W.,  303 

O'Curry,  Eug.,  306 

"Odd,     Orvar"      (Sturzen-Becker, 

O.  P.),  344 

Ode,  17-22, 100  ff.,  112  ff.,  125,  130- 
i3i>  153,  216,  218,  219-220,  237, 
238-243,  245,  259-260,  263,  276, 
277-278,  281-282,  290,  296,  320, 
323,  324,  327,  337,  338,  341,  351, 
353,  357,  359,  367,  372,  417-420 

Odel,  A.,  342 

O'Donoghue,  D.  J.,  290 

Oegier,  336 

Oehlenschlager,  A.  G.,  346,  349,  350, 
352,  77i,  773 

Oelsner,  H.,  232-233,  712,  718 

Oertner,  J.,  135 

Oettl,  F.,  687 

Ogilby,  687 

Ogilvie,  J.,  117,  405,  569 

Ogle,  G.,  204 

Ogle,  M.  B.,  202,  208,  315 

Oldenberg,  H.,  362 

Oldham,  J.,  405 

OHphant,  T.,  169,  274 

Oliviers,  Flies  des,  105 


Olmstead,  E.  W.,  169,  420 

Olrik,  A.,  345,  488-489,  588,  772 

Oman,  J.  C.,  781 

Omand,  T.  S.,  455-456 

Omar  Khayyam,  357,  358,  360 

Omond,  T.  S.,  67,  288,  303 

O'Neill,  J.,  749 

Ongaro,  F.  dall',  245 

Opitz,  M.,  129-130,  318,  319,  321, 
323,  34i,  346,  407,  409,  4i7,  4i9, 
576,  763 

Oporinus,  610,  613 

Oral  tradition,  see  Ballad,  Saga, 
Lay,  Gests;  also  428,  431,  477, 
582,  584,  594,  599,  605  ff.,  623, 
629,  636,  640,  663,  666,  749,  750, 
768,  774 

Orchard,  T.  N.,  747 

O'Reilly,  Ed.,  306 

Orendel,  751 

Oriental  poetry,  34,  62,  146,  180, 
189,  354  ff-,  411-412,  415,  477, 
505,  612,614,632 

Orientius,  386 

Origen,  518,  521 

Origin  of  narrative  and  lyric 
poetry,  591-593 

"  Orinda  "   (Katherine  Philips)  ,277 

Orlandi,  F.,  246 

Orr,  Alexandra,  303 

Orsi,  G.  G.,  544 

Orth,  F.,  210 

Ortiz,  R.,  265 

Osgood,  C.  G.,  747 

O'Shaughnessy,  A.,  291,  294 

Ossian,  Poems  of,  283,  286,  288,  289, 
308,  324,  325,  327,  343,  397,  399, 
408,  530,  533,  570,  573,  582,  633, 
634,  668,  670,  748,  749,  771 

Ostrowski,  C.,  775 

"O'Sullivan,  Seumas"  (James  Star- 
key),  291,  295,  297 

Oswald,  751 

Oswald,  J.  G.,  332 

Otfried  of  Weissenburg,  750 

Otto  delle  Colonne,  228 

Otto,  E.,  739 

Ottonaio,  235 

Otway,  T.,  419 

Ouseley,  Sir  G.,  361 

Ouvre,  H.,  170,  651 


INDEX 


891 


Ouwaroff,  681 

Ovid,  87,  101,  105,  182,  184,  190, 

IQI,   210,   216,   241,   2S2,   255,    257, 

379,  38i,  382-384,  388,  393,  394, 

395,  400,  406,  414,  515,  696,  709 
Owen,  D.  E.,  274,  421 
Owen,  or  Owenus,  J.,  179,  329,  415, 

416 

Owen,  S.  G.,  381 
Owen,  W.,  309,  402 
Oxford  History  of  Music,  17 
Oxford  Movement,  292 
Ozanam,  A.  F.,  231,  694,  699,  718, 

719 

Packard,  L.  R.,  672 

Pacuvius,  414 

Padelford,  F.  M.,  92,  270,  272,  274, 

275,  421,494,  513 
Paean,  185 

Paez  de  Ribera,  R.,  252 
Pagano,  A.,  240 
Page,  C.  H.,  290,  298 
Pages,  A.,  255 
Palacio,  M.  del,  260 
Paldamus,  310 
Paleologue,  M.,  223 
Palesi,  F.,  94 

Paley,  F.  A.,  418,  651,  674,  681 
Palgrave,   F.   T.,   6,   67,    127,    170, 

266,  272,  278,  284-285,  297,  302, 

306,  574 
Palladas,  414 
Palmer,  381 

Palmer,  G.  H.,  279,  679 
Palmer,  R.,  306 
Palonski,  353 

Paludan-Miiller,  F.,  350,  352,  773 
Panegyric,  197-198,  200,  243,  367, 

382,  383,  386,  387,  388,  403,  406, 

407,  416,  481,  691 
Panizzi,  A.,  651,  722 
Pantoum,  16 
Panzacchi,  245 
Panzer,  F.,  431,  489,  588,  627,  652, 

758,  760,  762 

Papillon  and  Haigh,  686-687 
Paquet,  330 

Parable,  439,  472,  500,  663 
Paradise  Lost,  Regained,  see  Milton 
Parallelism,  200,  373 


•Paraphrase,  metrical,  of  Bible,  690, 
693,  694,  740,  750 

Parducci,  A.,  214 

Parini,  G.,  240,  241-242,  243 

Paris,  G.,  145,  170,  205,  209,  211, 
214,  595,  610,  623,  624,  633,  646, 
647,  652,  701,  705,  708,  709,  710, 
723>  73°,  74i  et  passim 

Paris,  G.,  and  Langlois,  E.,  212 

Paris,  G.,  and  Myer,  P.,  431  et  pas- 
sim, 489-490 

Paris,  P.,  211,  624,  702,  708,  710 

Parmenides,  475,  516 

Parnassiens,  108,  222,  260,  264 

-Parnell,  T.,  282,  288,  417,  611 
^Parny,  E.  D.  de  Forges,  Vicomte  de, 
220,  400 

Parode,  189 

Paroenia,  15 

Parrot,  H.,  417 

Parry,  J.,  309 

Parseval  de  Grandmaison,  712 

Partheneia,  186 

Parthenius  of  Nicaea,  379,  383 

Parzanese,  244 

Parzival,  625,  762 

Pascal,  C.,  227 

Paschal,  G.  W.,  681 

Pascoli,  245 

Pasquier,  £.,  541 

Pastonchi,  245 

Pastoral  elegy,  378  ff.,  384,  391-392 

Pastoral  epical  poetry,  423,  439, 
440,  443-445  (nature  and  func- 
tion), 446  ff.  (idyl),  454,  462, 
467,  470,  472,  473,  476,  477,  480, 
485,  490,  5°o,  Si4,  52i,  530,  561, 
575,609-611  (origin  and  develop- 
ment), 612,  618,  626,  635,  643, 
645,  647,  649,  655,  657,  660,  665 

Pastoral  lyric  poetry,  30,  102,  116, 
118,  157,  161,  168,  181,  209,  234, 
237>  239  ff-,  256,  262  ff.,  268,  271, 
272,  275,  276,  278,  279,  319,  321, 
326,  337,  350,  378,  386,  387,  391- 
392,  397,  404.  See  further  under 
Pastoral  epical  poetry 

Pastourelle,  16,  30,  207,  210,  211, 
212,  214,  269,  314,  610 

Pastrello,  F.,  493 

Patard,  M.  V.,  214 


892 


INDEX 


Pater,  W.,  122,  127,  294,  303,  713 
Paterno,  L.,  395 

Pa'tin,  H.  J.  G.,  191,  614,  683,  688 
Patmore  C.,  21,  67,  291,  295,  296, 

301,  420 

Paton,  W.  R.,  188 
Patricius,  see  Patrizzi,  F. 
Patriotic  lyric,  224,  244-245,  260, 

264,  266,  269,  296,  323,  327,  331, 

335,  344,  348,  350,  366,  375,  4°°, 

407 

Patrizzi,  F.,  490,  523,  526,  529,  568 
Patterson,  F.  A.,  270 
Patterson,  P.  T.,  308 
Patterson,  W.  M.,  124 
Pattison,  M.,  67,  574,  747 
Patzak,  B.,  415 
Patzig,  H.,  758 
Pau  de  Bellviure,  253 
Paul,  H.,  170-171,  266,  267,  311  ff., 

314,  352,  652,  749,   756,   758  et 

passim 

Paul,  H.  W.,  303 

Paulinus  of  Nola,  198,  385,  691,  694 
Paulinus  of  Pella,  695 
Paulinus  of  Perigueux,  691,  695 
Paulus  Diaconus,  388,  696 
Payne,  W.  M.,  303 
Paz  y  Melia,  A.,  254 
Pazzi,  524,  541 

Peacham,  H.,  113,  558,  560,  561 
Peacock,  T.  L.,  171,295, 296, 303, 653 
Pearch,  G.,  280 
Pechel,  R.,  32,  67,  415 
Peck,  H.  T.,  68,  128,  575 
Pedersen,  C.,  346 
Pedo  Albinovanus,  683 
Pedro,  D.,  262 
Pedro  de  Flores,  734 
Pellegrini,  F.,  230 
Pellegrino,  C.,  526,  528 
Pelletier  du  Mans,  J.,  101,  102,  536 
Pellico,  S.,  397 
Pellissier,  G.,  99  ff.,   106,  no,  217, 

221,  535,  537,  7" 
Pellizzari,  A.,  230 
Peltzer,  B.  J.,  189 
Pemberton,  H.,  567 
Penitential    lyric,     270;     see    also 

Elegy,  Sacred  lyric 
Peper,  W.,  135 


Pepock,  J.,  754 

Percopo,  E.,  218,  230,  234,  238 
Percy,  Bishop,  283,  285,  287,  324, 
564,  565,  569,  634,  653,  743,  770 
Peres,  R.  D.,  261 
Perez  de  Guzman,  F.,  252 
Perfetti,  241 
Periodicals,  English,  i8th  Century, 

"5 
Periodicals,  English,  igth  Century, 

119 
Periodicals,  German,  i8th  Century, 

131 

Perizonius,  J.,  669 
Perrault,  C.,  103,  219,  459,  492,  493, 

538,  54°,  542,  543,  544,  662,  669- 

670,  712 

Perry,  E.  D.,  170,  183 
Perry,  T.  S.,  129,  288,  303,  317 
Perry,  W.  C.,  458,  677 
Persian  poetry,  356-361,  762,  776- 

778 

Persius,  87,  515 
Perticari,  244 
Pervigilium  Veneris,  190 
Pesenti,  A.,  246 
Pesta,  H.,  288 
Peters,  E.,  701 
Peterson,  J.,  567 
Peteut,  P.,  55o 
Petit  de  Julleville,  L.,  99,  171,  213, 

537,  703,  70S,  7°8,  7°9  et  passim 
Petrif,  A.,  354 
Petrarch  and  his  influence,  172,  200, 

216,  218,  223,  232-234,  236-237, 

255,   256  ff.,   271,   273,   274,   275, 

276,  39i,  395,  396,  398,  41°,  50°, 

521,  523,  610,  719-721 
Petrarchan  sonnet,  23 
Petri,  O.  and  L.,  341 
Petrie,  F.,  783 
Petrocchi,  P.,  246 
Petronius,  87,  515 
Petrus  Lotichius,  203 
Petsch,  R.,  171 
Petzet,  C.,  335 
Petzholdt,  J.,  713 
Pfaff,  F.,  312 
Pfeiffer,  Emily,  291,  295 
Pfeiffer,  F.,  314,  756 
Pfizmaier,  A.,  368 


INDEX 


893 


Pflanzel,  M.,  219,  420 

Phaer,  T.,  555,  556,  557,  687 

Phanocles,  379 

Phelps,  W.  L.,  288 

Philetas  of  Cos,  379,  380,  612 

Philips,  A.,  282.  419,  611 

Philips,  J.,  611 

Philipson,  E.,  210 

Phillimore,  C.  M.,  233,  727 

Phillimore,  J.  S.,  381 

Phillips,  E.,  114,  562 

Phillips,  S.,  291,  295,  297 

Phillips,  W.  A,  755 

Philo  Judaeus,  518,  521 

Philosophical     criticism,     132-133, 

139  et  passim 
Philostephanus,  379 
Philostratus,  510,  513 
Philoxenus,  186 
Phoenix,  poems  on,  692 
Phosphorists,  343,  771 
Photius,  679 
Phrynicus,  377 
Physiologus,  see  Beast  epic 
Piazza,  S.,  171-172,  413 
Pica,  V.,  224 
Piccioni,  L.,  243 
Picco,  F.,  240,  705 
Piccolomini,  A.,  523,  524,  541 
Pichon,  R.,  381 
Pickering,  C.  J.,  361 
Pico  della  Mirandola,  561 
Pidal,  P.  J.,  732 
Pidal,  R.  M.,  653,  729,  730,  731, 

732,  733 

Pier  delle  Vigne,  227-228,  230 
Piergili,  G.,  246 
Fieri,  M.,  172,  218,  236 
Pierre  de  Laudun,  537 
Pierre  le  Picard,  624 
Pietro  della  Valle,  93 
Pigna,  G.,  426,  490,  525,  526,  568 
Pilatus,  Leo,  719 
Pillet,  A.,  212 
Pinckert,  363 
Pindar,  60,  79,  103,  113,  178,  181, 

185,  188,  189,  358,  417-418,  So8, 

Si3,  5iS 
Pindaric  ode,  101  ff.,  116,  117,  216, 

217,    2l8,    2IO-22O,    238-240,    277- 
278,  417-418,  419 


Pindemonte,  I.,  397 

Finder,  N.,  190 

Pineau,  L.,  340 

Pineyro,  E.,  260 

Pinnecuick,  284 

Pintor,  F.,  238 

Piper,  P.,  312 

Piquet,  F.,  762 

Piron,  A.,  220,  416 

Pischel,  R.,  781 

Pischinger,  A.,  189 

Pisistratus,  redaction  of,  669 

Pitni-Piraino,  V.,  235 

Pitra,  Cardinal,  194 

Pitre,  248 

Piumati,  A.,  234,  246,  725 

Pizzi,  I.,  361,  776,  777,  778 

Plainte,    209,   392,   394,   395,   397, 

398,  410;  cf.  377,  379-38o;  see 

also  Elegy 

Planche,  G.,  109,  223 
Planctus,  388-389;  see  also  Elegy 
Platen,  A.,  331,  333 
Plato    and    his    influence,    86,    90, 

186,  218,  274,  508,  509,  510,  513, 

517,  520,  545 
Pleiade,  99-102,  215-219,  271,  273, 

274,  398,  419,  535-537,  7" 
Plessis,  F.,  68,  380,  381 
Plessow,  M.,  624 
Pliny  the  Younger,  87,  515 
Plot  in  epic,  435-436,  487,  5°3,  So5, 

53°,  539,  552,  572,  586,  599,  601, 

631,  691,  697-698 
Plotinus,  510,  513 
Ploug,  C.,  350 
Pliiss,  H.  T.,  476,  490,  588 
Plumptre,  E.  H.,  232,  418 
Plutarch,   87,  475,   510,   513,   520, 

521,  669 

Poe,  E.  A.,  69,  82,  368 
Poema  de  Ferndn  Gonzalez,  730 
Poerio,  244 
Poeschel,  H.,  413 
Poestion,  J.  C.,  339 
Poetic  truth,  509,  544 
Poetics,  history  of,  85 
Poetry,  definitions  of,  41 
Pohlenz,  M.,  380 
Poitevin,  220 
Poitiers,  Count  of,  see  GuUlaume  IX 


894 


INDEX 


Poletto,  D.  G.,  713 
Polish  poetry,  353-354,  774~775 
Political  lyric,  15,  184,  187,  206 
Poliziano  (Politian,  Politianus),  A., 

203,  204,  235,  396,  449,  521-522, 

523,  610,  720 
Pollak,  L.,  758  . 
Pollen,  J.,  353 
Pollok,  R.,  429 
Pomairols,  C.  de,  223 
Pommrich,  747 
Ponce  de  Leon,  L.,  257 
Pons,  J.-F.  de,  492,  547 
Pons  de  Verdun,  416 
Pont,  Gratien  du,  99 
Pontano   (Pontanus),  J.,  396,  415, 

4i8,  515,  543 
Ponticus,  683 

Pontmartin,  A.  de,  109,  224 
Pontoux,  C.,  398 
Pontus  de  Tyard,  217,  218 
Ponzian,  G.,  686 
Foot,  H.  C.,  338 
Pope,  A.,  138,  281,  285,  286,  287, 

288,  289,  322,  323,  341,  399,  405, 

416,  419,  426,  452,  455,  484,  492, 

532,  562,  564,  566,  567,  568,  579, 

610,  611,  614,  634,  678 
Popovich,  353,  775 
Popul  Vuh,  783 
Popular  lyric,  see  Folk  lyric 
Porphyry,  5i°-5n,  5i3,  521 
Porta,  C.,  96,  244 
Porter,  J.  A.,  774 
Porter,  W.  N.,  368 
Portman,  M.  V.,  374 
Portuguese   poetry,   252-253,   261- 

265,  410,  734-736,  783 
Posnett,  H.  M.,  69,  141,  145,  172, 

438,  456,  490,   593,   599,  600  et 

passim,   645,   649,   653-654,   659, 

660,  781 

Post,  C.  R.,  255 
Postel,  C.  H.,  577 
Postgate,  J.  P.,  381,  384 
Potez,  H.,  172,  397,  399,  400 
Potgieter,  E.  J.,  338 
Potter,  Dirk,  337,  765 
Potthast,  698 
Pound,  L.,  654 
Praed,  294,  295 


Pragmatic  poetry,  40,  54,  132,  583 

Pralle,  G.,  315 

Pram,  C.  H.,  772  • 

Prati,  244,  245 

Pratt,  I.  A.,  782 

Prayer,  lyric  Christian,  198,  200 

Pre  Agostino,  396 

Prendergast,  678 

Pre-Raphaelites,   120,   292  ff. 

Prestage,  E.,  261,  263 

Preston,  H.  W.,  210 

Preston,  W.,  118 

Preti,  238 

Priamel,  417 

Priapea,  190 

Price,  R.,  664 

Price,  T.  R.,  25,  128 

Primitive  song  and  story,  142,  144, 

15°,  155-156,  159,  160,  177,  180 
Prince,  J.  D.,  363 
Prior,  M.,  116,  281,  285,  287,  289, 

4i7 

Prior,  R.  C.  A.,  346 

Proba,  693 

Probability  in  epic  plot,  see  Mar- 
vellous in  poetry;  also  436,  454, 
479,  5°8,  514,  524,  530,  550,  566, 
572 

Proclus,  86,  137,  679 

Proculus,  384 

Prohle,  H.,  327 

Proelss,  J.,  334 

Prolss,  R.,  135,  334,  589 

Progress,  506,  540 

Propertius,  68,  101,  163,  190,  381, 
382-384,  394,  400,  405,  414 

Propriety,  canon  of,  100 

Prosodion,  186 

Prosody,  41 

Proto,  E.,  725 

"Prout,  Father"  (Francis  Ma- 
hony),  217,  296 

Provencal  poetry,  16,  143,  174,  205- 
211,  227-229,  234,  250  ff.,  262, 
264,  269,  3I3-3H,  3i5,  392-393, 
395,  410,  416;  revival  of,  224 

Proverb,  372,  663 

Prudentius,  193,  197,  690,  691,  693- 
694,  695,  750 

Prudhomme,  see  under  Sully- 
Prudhomme 


INDEX 


895 


Prutz,  R.  E.,  327,  331,  351 

Psychological  method  in  criticism, 
€23-124,  152,  155,  258,  262,  359, 
479,  483,  490,  534,  591-593,  601, 
658-659,  717-718;  see  also  Crea- 
tive imagination,  psychology  of 

Psychology  of  imitation  and  in- 
vention, see  Creative  imagina- 
tion; also  123-124,  601 

Psychology  of  the  simpler  peoples, 
373-374,  593,  658-659 

Publication,  method  of  and  in- 
fluence upon  poetry,  185 

Pucci,  Antonio,  233,  234 

Puccianti,  G.,  247 

Pughe,  F.  H.,  303 

Pugliese,  Rugieri,  228 

Pulci,  B.,  236,  500 

Pulci,  Luca,  720,  721 

Pulci,  Luigi,  236,  651,  721,  729 

Puranas,  781 

Purchard  von  Reichenau,  691 

Puschmann,  A.,  129 

Pusey,  Keble,  and  Newman,  690 

Pushkin,  A.,  353,  774 

Puttenham,  G.,  112,  426,  557,  558 

Puymaigre,  Count  Theod.  de,  255, 
732 

Pye,  H.  J.,  439,  454,  570 

Pyre,  J.  T.  A.,  303 

Qasida,  357 

Qifa,  357 

Quadrio,    F.,    69,    93-94,    172-173, 

490-491,  530,  532,  564  et  passim 
Quarles,  276,  405 
Quattromani,  92 
Quellien,  N.,  309 
Quental,  A.  de,  264 
Querengo,  F.,  93,  528 
Querol,  V.  W.,  260,  410 
Quevedo,  F.  de,  258,  410 
Quiller- Couch,   Sir  A.  T.,   25,   69, 

266,  290,  291 

Quinet,  E.,  655,  677,  682,  708 
Quintana,  M.  J.,  249,  260 
Quintilian,  87,  137,  384,  514 
Quintus  Smyrnaeus,  601,  681 

Raban,  388 

Rabb,  Kate  M.,  491,  655 


Rabirius,  683 
Racan,  H.,  399,  541 
Racine,  J.  B.,  543 
Radbod, 388 
Radloff,  V.  V.,  783 
Radtke,  G.,  758 
Radulphus,  194 
Ragey,  P.,  203 
Raimondi,  F.,  395 
Rajna,  P.,  491,  534,  597,  616,  653, 
655.  7°5,  7o8,  721,  722,  723,  725 
Raleigh,  Sir  W.  (Jr.),  288,  303,  572, 

574,  747 

Ralston,  W.  R.  S.,  775 
Rdmdyana,    778-781    (translations, 

78°) 

Rambach,  A.  J.,  194 
Rambaud,  A.,  655,  774 
Ramler,  K.  W.,  323,  327,  331,  409 
Ramon  of  Toulouse,  Pierre,  250 
Ramsay,  Allan,  275,  280,  284,  611 
Ramsay,  And.  M.,  549-550,  570 
Ramsay,  G.  G.,  381 
Rand,  E.  K.,  686 
Randolph,  T.,  419 
Ranieri,  247 
Rankin,  R.,  753 
Rapin,  R.,  426,  452,  491-492,  523- 

524,  540,  543,  558,  559,  562,  669, 

681 

Rapisardi,  245 
Rasi,  P.,  375,  381 
Rassmann,  A.,  752,  758 
Ratzel,  F,,  373 
Raunie,  E.,  221 
Raverty,  H.  G.,  355 
Ravn,  346 
Rawnsley,  296 
Raymond,  G.  L.,  492 
Raynaud,  G.}  206,  211,  212,  213 
Raynouard,  F.,  206,  208 
Razzoli,  G.,  722 
Reade,  W.  H.  V.,  719 
Realistic  movement,  330,  331,  332, 

335,  344,  350 
Redhouse,  J.,  355 
Redi,  F.,  239,  240 
Redondilha,  263 
Reed,  E.  A.,  361,  778 
Reed,    E.   B.,   69-70,    173,    265  ff., 

275,  290 


896 


INDEX 


Reenberg,  T.,  347 

Reeve,  Clara,  543,  564,  565,  569- 
570,  655 

Reflective  poetry,  33-34.  184,  323, 
334,  337,  338,  357,  373,  376, 
39°,  39i,  394,  402,  404,  409,  440, 
491,  604,  684 

Refrain,  ballad,  440,  658 

Regner  and  Lengblom,  344 

Regnier,  H.  de,  224 

Regnier,  M.,  219,  492 

Regnier-Desmarais,  F.  S.,  546 

Regolo,  523 

Rehengac,  V.  de,  106 

Reborn,  K.,  757 

Reichardt,  F.,  760 

Reichel,  E.,  326,  578 

Reichel,  W.,  677 

Reid,  J.,  308 

Reina,  M.,  260 

Reineke  Fuchs,  623-624,  625 

Reinhardstottner,  C.  von,  735 

Reinmar  von  Hagenau,  314,  407 

Reinmar  von  Zweter,  314 

Reinsch,  H.,  561 

Reismann,  A.,  17,  310 

Reisner,  363 

Reissenberger,  624 

Reissert,  O.,  635 

Reitzenstein,  R.,  375,  376,  380,  412, 
413,  614 

Religious  character  of  the  epic, 
see  Marvellous  in  poetry;  also 
§  8,  passim ;  also  506,  586,  599, 
602,  617,  634,  662,  684,  685;  also 
Christian  religion  and  the  epic 

Renan,  307,  741 

Renard,  roman  de,  623-624,  637, 
701,  711,  763,  765 

Renard,  G.,  no 

Renascida,  A.  F.,  262 

Renier,  R.,  234 

Rennert,  H.  A.,  655 

Renouvier,  C.,  223 

Repetitions  in  epic,  see  Formulae, 
epic 

Requier,  Guiraut,  209 

Resende,  A.  F.  de,  263 

Resende,  Garcia  de,  263 

Restori,  A.,  209 

Reuchlin,  J.,  576 


Reumann,  R.,   712 

Reville,  A.,  758 

Reynard    the    Fox,    see    Renard, 

roman  de;  also  Reineke  Fuchs 
Reynolds,  H.,  561 
Reynolds,  M.,  288,  303 
Rhetoricians,   English,  555 
Rhetoricians,  Greek,  512,  513 
Rhetoricians,  Roman,  514 
Rhoades,  J.,  687 
Rhyme,  196,  200 
Rhys,  E.,  70,  173,  265  ff. 
Rhys,  Sir  J.,  741,  743,  744 
Ribbeck,  O.,  515,  614,  686 
Ribeiro,  B.,  263 
Ribot,  124,  601 
Ricci,  A.  M.,  532,  729 
Riccoboni,  523,  524,  541 
Rice,  W.,  204 

Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  211 
Richardson,  J.,  567 
•  Richardt,  C.,  350 
Richey,  A.  G.,  758 
Richter,  H.,  288 
Richter,  J.  P.  F.,  70,  125,  132,  446, 

580,  581,  586,  589 
Richter,  J.  W.  O.,  312 
Richter,  P.,  686 
Rickert,  E.,  270 
Riddle,  171,  177,  198,  267,  268 
Ridgeway,  W.,  598,  677,  755 
Riedl,  F.,  354 
Riese  and  Biicheler,  413 
Rigal,  E.,  636 
Rigault,  H.,  492,  563 
Rigutini,  G.,  247 
Riley,  H.  T.,  687 
Rimbault,  E.  F.,  275 
Rispetto,  16,  395 
Rist,  J.,  318,  319,  321 
Ritchie,  Anne  T.,  303 
Ritson,  J.,  173,  275,  280,  284 
Ritter,  O.,  288 
Ritter,  R.,  686 
Ritter  von  Rittersberg,  354 
Rivadeneyra,  248,  256,  259 
Rival ta,  E.,  230 
Robecchi,  L.,  247 
Robert,  624 
Robert,  C.,  674,  677 
Roberthin,  R.,  318 


INDEX 


897 


Roberts,  A.,  and  Donaldson,  J.,  689 

Roberts,  H.  D.,  288 

Roberts,  W.  R.,  86,  87,  509,  512, 

Si3 

Robertson,  F.  W.,  303 

Robertson,  J.  G.,  309,  329,  747 

Robertson,  J.  M.,  127,  303 

Robin  Hood,  Gest  of,  620,  632 

Robinson,  J.  H.,  and  Rolfe,  H.  W., 
234 

Robinson-Darmesteter,  A.  Mary  F., 
291,  294 

Robortelli,  F.,  91,  523,  524,  541 

Rocafort,  J.,  70,  106,  220,  492,  552, 
611 

Rocca,  L.,  719 

Rochefort,  G.  B.  de,  553 

Rochester,  Earl  of  (Wilmot,  J.), 
277,  419 

Rod,  E.,  no,  123,  247,  303 

Rodrigues  de  Sa  e  Menezes,  J.,  263 

Ronning,  T.,  737,  739 

Rordam,  H.  F.,  351 

Roethe,  G.,  314 

Roetteken,  H.,  762 

Rottiger,  K.  W.,  762 

Rogers,  A.,  776 

Rogers,  R.  W.,  363 

Rogers,  S.,  294 

Rohde,  E.,  174,  375,  376,  709 

Roiron,  F.  X.  M.  J.,  686 

Roland,  Chanson  de,  481,  487,  489, 
S7i,  575,  585,  593,  594,  622,  641, 
646,  703-706  (editions  and  trans- 
lations, 704),  721,  723,  726,  731, 
732 

Rolland,  E.,  171,  225 

"Roll-calls"  of  the  poets,  87,  492, 
556,  560,  561 

Rolleston,  T.  W.,  291,  513 

Rolli,  P.,  241,  243,  395 

Rollin,  C.,  550-551 

Roman  de  la  Rose,  711,  765 

Roman  poetry,  5,  27,  189-191,  381- 
385,  412-415,  418,  682-688 

Romanceiros,  410,  735 

Romanceros,  250,  410,  733,  734 

Romances,  25,  211,  212,  313,  357, 
360,  439,  472,  473,  478,  481-482, 
483,  486,  496,  503,  507,  525-527, 
532,  540,  542,  543,  55i,  565,  568, 


569,  570,  603-604,  609,  6n,  612, 
639,  644,  645,  652,  663,  664,  690, 
694,  697,  709-711,  73°,  73i,  732, 
733,  735,  741-744,  750,  761-763, 
765,  770,  773,  775 

Romano,  B.,  87,  515 

Romantic  epic,  426,  462-463,  472, 
483,  486,  490,  495,  496,  501,  503, 
507,  522,  525-527,  530,  532,  568, 
575,  632,  651,  720,  721-728,  733, 
744-745,  751,  761-763,  777;  see 
also  Ariosto,  Boiardo,  Tasso, 
Spenser 

Romanticism,    107,    115,    119-120, 

I3O,  217,  219,  221-222,  224,  244- 
247,  26O,  264,  28l,  282,  283,  284, 
287,  288,  291  ff.,  325,  330  ff.,  338, 

343  ff.,  348  ff.,  353,  397,  400,  419- 

420,  456,  564,  634,  766,  771 
Romanus,  192 
Romizi,  A.,   725 
Ronca,  203 
Rondeau,   16,   no,   117,   129,   210, 

212,  214 

Rondel,  i6,«  129,  214,  269 
Rondet  de  carol,  16,  207 
Ronsard,  P.  de,  101,  112,  130,  167, 

172,  215-218,  391,  398-399,  419, 

426,  536,  537,  541,  576,  601,  622, 

711 

Roosen,  B.  C.,  336 
Root,  R.  K.,  740 
Rosa,  Salvator,  239 
Roscoe,  T.,  657 
Roscoe,  W.,  566 
Roscommon,  Earl  of  (Dillon,  W.), 

562 

Rosenbauer,  A.,  99 
Rosenbliit,  H.,  317 
Rosenhane,  G.,  341 
Rosenkranz,  K.,  134,  412 
Rosenplut  (Schnepperer),  H.,  417 
Roses,  poetry  of,  399 
Rosini,  526 
Rosny,  L.  de,  369 
Ross,  Alex.,  284 
Ross,  E.  A.,  258,  593,  601 
Ross,  R.,  291,  295 
Rossetti,  C.,  128,  294 
Rossetti,  D.  G.,  126  ff.,  232,  290  ff., 

405,  443,  719 


INDEX 


Rossetti,  G.,  244,  245 

Rossetti,  M.  F.,  714 

Rossetti,  W.  M.,  303 

Rossi,  G.,  240 

Rossi,  M.,  238 

Rossi,  V.,  90,  235 

Roth,  F.  W.  E.,  194 

Roth,  R.,  362 

Rothe,  624 

Rothe,  C.,  674 

Rothen,'  A.  C.,  577 

Rothstein,  381 

Rothstein,  J.  W.,  366 

Rotter,  C.,  174 

Rouge,  I.,  333 

Rouget  de  Lisle,  220 

Rousseau,  J.  B.,  104,  220,  416,  419 

Rousseau,  J.  J.,  107,  289,  325,  326, 

327,  343,  397,  545,  55*,  670 
Routh,  B.,  551 
Routh,  H.,  288 
Routh,  J.  E.,  Jr.,  in,  739 
Roux,  A.,  244 

Rowbotham,  J.  F.,  207,  728 
Rowe,  Eliz.,  405  ' 

Rowe,  N.,  566 

Rowley,  T.,  see  Chatterton,  T. 
Roy,  C.,  106 
Royce,  J.,  303 
Ruaeus  (La  Rue,  C.  de),  543 
Rub&i  (rubaiyat),  357 
Rubieri,  226 
Rubio  y  Lluch,  A.,  189 
Rubi6  y  Ors,  J.,  261 
RudagI,  360 
Rudel,  Jaufre,  208 
Rudolf  von  Fenis,  314 
Ruckert,    F.,   331,    333,    356,   361, 

409,  777 

Ruckert,  H.,  760 
Rucktaschl,  T.,  99  ff.,  536,  537 
Rueda,  S.,  260 
Ruhle,  611 

Ruiz,  J.,  251,  254,  255 
Rulhiere,  416 

Runeberg,  J.  L.,  344,  345,  772 
Ruodlieb,  750 
Ruscelli,  G.,  91 
Ruskin,  J.,  294,  444 
Russell,  G.  W.  ("A.  E."),  291,  295 
Russell,  G.  W.  E.,  304 


Russian  poetry,  352-353,  774-77S 
Rustico  di  Filippo,  228,  230 
Ruth,  Book  of,  447,  613 
Rybnikof,  P.,  774 
Rydberg,  V.,  344,  769 
Ryder,  A.  W.,  363,  779 
Ryle,  H.  E.,  364 
Rymer,  T.,  491,  558,  560 

Sa'adi,  357,  412 

Saalschutz,  365 

Saar,  F.  von,  409 

Sabatier,  22,  106 

Sabinus  (cf.  Ovid, .  Ex.  Pont,  iv, 
16,  13-16),  683 

Sabinus,  G.,  203 

Sacchetti,  F.,  233,  234 

Sachs,  C.,  210 

Sachs,  H.,  317,  319,  576 

Sachse,  M.,  210 

Sacred  lyric,  see  Hymn ;  also  150, 
172,  176,  181,  184,  193,  205,  213, 
228-229,  231,  236,  244,  251,  254, 
267-268,  270,  276,  279,  283,  290, 
295,  312-313,  318,  319,  320,  341, 
343,  346,  347,  349,  357-358,  360, 
361,  362,  363,  364-366,  372,  387, 
402,  407,  432,  437 

Sa  de  Miranda,  F.  de,  263,  410 

Sadolet,  J.,  418 

Saga,  428,  439,  470,  480,  481,  483, 
488-489,  491,  500,  589,  598,  604, 
619,  646,  650,  652,  653,  656,  660, 
662,  663,  767-770,  774 

Saint-Amant,  M.  A.  de  G.,  Sieur  de, 
419,  452,  541 

Saint-Evremond,  Seig.  de,  432,  433, 

492,  493,  539,  545,  579 
Saint-Hyacinthe,  T.  de,  492,  548 
Saint-Lambert,  399 
Saint-Marc  Girardin,  764 
Saint-Sorlin,  see  Desmarets,  J. 
Sainte-Beuve,  C.  A.,  47,  70-71,  99, 

108,  122,  217,  218,  220,  223,  224, 

288,  304,  439,  452,  492-493,  681, 

778 

Sainte-Palaye,  J.  B.  de,  210,  728 
Saints'  legends,  626,  657,  658,  689, 

691,  695,  697-698,  701 
Saintsbury,  G.,  16,  22,  71-72,  86, 

88,  in,  122,  125,  174,  197,  205, 


INDEX 


899 


217,  261,  265,  260,  279,  288,  289, 

304,  419,  439,  456,  465,  466,  484, 

494,  656,  702,  706,  719,  741,  747, 

770  et  passim 
Salel,  H.,  536 
Salfi,  F.,  238 
Salio,  G.,  94,  395 

Salis-Sewis,  Freiherr  von,  331,  408 
Salman  und  Morolf,  751 
Salmasius,  C.,  669 
Salomo  III,  388 
Salons,  French,   220 
Salt,  H.  S.,  304 
Saluts,  392 
Saluzzo,  D.  R.,  729 
Salvadore,  93 
Salvador!,  G.,  230,  231 
Salviati,  L.,  524,  526,  529 
Sampson,  J.,  304 
Samuel,  Book  of,  629 
Sanches,  D.  A.,  262 
Sanchez,  F.,  255 
Sanchez,  T.  A.,  734 
Sandbach,  F.  E.,  753,  757,  759 
Sander,  F.,  230 
Sandys,  277 

Sandys,  J.  E.,  86,  184,  668,  679,  702 
Sanford,  E.  C.,  124 
San  Marte,  762 
Sannazaro,  J.,  203,  391,  395,  396, 

415,  610,  649 

Santayana,  G.,  304,  494,  719 
Santillana,  Marquis  of,  see  Lopez 

de  Mendoza 
Sanvisenti,  B.,  255,  721 
Sappho,  87,  103,  105,  184,  188,  189, 

358,  417,  418,  510 
Saran,  F.,  315 
Sarasin,  P.,  and  F.,  374 
Sargant,  E.  B.,  291,  295 
Sarrazin,  G.,  304,  739,  740 
Sarrazin,  J.  V.,  174,  223 
Satire,  metrical,  439 
Saude,  E.,  565 
Sauer,  A.,  322,  327 
Saupe,  E.  J.,  589 
Savioli,  L.,  241,  243,  395 
Savj-Lopez,  P.,  231,  234,  255,  258 
Savonarola,  G.,  236,  522 
Saxo  Grammaticus,  351 
Saxo  Ppeta,  691,  698 


Scaliger,  J.   C.,  91,  100,  113,  130, 

131,  415,  426,  494,  515,  521,  523, 

525,  53i,  535,  537,  538,  541,  558, 
560,  561,  576,  669,  681 
Scandinavian  poetry,  339-352,  770- 

773 

Scandone,  F.,  229 
Scarano,  N.,  234 
Scarborough,  W.,  367 
Scarron,  P.,  469,  712 
Scartazzini,  G.  A.,  713,   714,  718 
Scevola  de  St.-Marthe,  398 
Schack,  A.  F.  von,  777 
Schaefer,  356 
Schaff,  P.,  88,  194 
Schaff  and  Herzog,  365 
Schaff  and  Wace,  517,  690 
Schaidenreisser,  S.,  576 
Schanz,  M.,  174-175,  189,  381,  656, 

.689 

Schaub,  E.  L.,  370,  373 
Schede,  P.  ("Melissus"),  320 
Schedel,  F.  J.,  354 
Scheder,  175 
Scheffel,  J.  von,  332 
Scheffel,  J.  V.,  and  Holder,  A.,  701 
Scheffer,  352 
Scheffler,  J.    ("Angelus  Silesius"), 

3i9 

Scheffler,  W.,  225,  708 
Scheler,  A.,  212 
Schelling,   F.    E.,   31,    72-73,    in, 

175-176,    265  ff.,   275,    279,   415, 

421,  561,  614,  744 
Schelling,   F.   W.   J.  von,  73,   134, 

349,  427  et  passim,  485,  495,  587, 

719,  725 

Schenkendorf,  M.  von,  331 
Schenker,  M.,  553 
Scherer,  E.  H.  A.,  no 
Scherer,  G.,  320 
Scherer,  W.,  134,  138, 141, 176,  309, 

312,  587,  589,  667,  752,  754 
Scherr,  331 
Schettini,  Pirro,  239 
Schevill,  R.,  184,  191,  210,  255,  258 
Schiller,  J.  C.  F.  von,  29,  34,  131- 

132,  138,  326,  328,  329,  349,  409, 
417,  427  et  passim,  449-450,  471, 
474,  475,  479,  495~496,  580,  581, 
582-583,  585,  614,  675 


9oo 


INDEX 


Schipper,  J.,  73,  270,  273,  419,  420 
Schlager,  G.,  315 
Schlaf,  J.,  332 
Schlechta-Wssehrd,  777 
Schlegel,  A.  W.  von,  134,  180,  301, 

331,  343,  409,  417,  456,  460,  479, 
496,  581,  675,  725,  764,  765 

Schlegel,  F.  von,  331,  333,  343,  460, 

479,  496,  581,  675,  735,  764,  781 
Schlegel,  J.  A.,  578 
Schliemann,  H.,  677 
Schlotterose,  O.,  692 
Schmedes,  G.  K.  J.,  758 
Schmeller,  J.  A.,  202,  203,  315 
Schmid,  L.,  762 
Schmidt,  Erich,  176,  317,  327,  328, 

374 

Schmidt,  J.,  304 
Schmidt,  J.  H.  H.,  21 
Schmidt,  K.  E.  K.,  409 
Schmitt,  H.,  304 
Schmitz,  L.  Dora,  471,  502 
Schnaderhupfl,  158,  174 
Schneckenburger,  331 
Schneegans,  E.,  598,  600,  656 
Schneider,  A.,  258 
Schneider,  C.  E.,  17 
Schneider,  F.,  739 
Schneider,  G.,  614 
Schneider,  L.,  337 
Schnorf,  K.,  754 
Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld,  316 
Schonaich,  763 
Schonbach,  A.   E.,  315,  316,   752, 

762 
Schofield,  W.  H.,  207,  268,  699,  702, 

728,  741 
Scholiasts,  137,  511,  513,  667,  678, 

681 

Scholle,  F.,  705 
Schomberg,  678 
Schoolcraft,  H.  R.,  748 
Schopenhauer,  A.,  73-74,  133,  134, 

332,  334,  427  et  passim,  496-497,' 
587,  603 

Schopf,  A.,  589,  656 

Schottel,  577 

Schrader,  H.,  513 

Schroder,  R.,  708 

Schroter,  A.,  129,  203,  320,  322,  393 

Schroter,  W.,  189 


Schrottner,  W.,  184,  191,  210,  255, 

393 

Schuchhardt,  C.,  677 

Schiick,  H.,  340,  345 

Schiick  and  Warburg,  340 

Schiicking,  L.   L.,   267 

Schiitz,  363 

Schultz,  A.,  315,   728 

Schultz,  Oscar,  210,  229 

Schulz,    Otto,   321 

Schulze,  -K.  P.,   177,  381 

Schulze,    W.,    443 

Schumacher,  J.,  327 

Schure,  E.,  177,  310,  656 

Schuster,  H.,  326 

Schwab,  G.,  443 

Schwabe,  682 

Schwanenfliigel,  H.,  352 

Schwartzkopff,  W.,  589 

Schwegler,  686 

Schweitzer,  319 

Schweitzer,  P.,  339,  340 

Schweringen,  G.  F.  van,  758 

Schwicker,  J.  H.,  354 

Sciacia,  381 

Scientific  criticism,  see  Historical- 
scientific  method  and  movement 
in  criticism;  and  Historical  re- 
search, principles  of 

Scoggin  and  Burkitt,  677 

Scolia,  15,  187 

Scollard,  C.,  296 

Scott,  F.  N.,  see  under  Gayley, 
C.  M.,  and  Scott,  F.  N. 

Scott,  J.,  of  Amwell,  118 

Scott,  J.  A.,  675 

Scott,  M.  A.,  275 

Scott,  T.,  304 

Scott,  Sir  W.,  125,  177,  290  ff.,  443, 
455,  497,  728,  743 

Scott,  W.  B.,  294 

Scottish  poetry,  see  English  poetry ; 
Appendix;  also  280,  306-308 

Scripture,  124 

Scrocca,  A.,  246,  725,  747 

Scudder,  V.  D.,  744 

Scudery,  G.  de,  539,  541,  542,  577, 
622,  711,  712 

Scudery,  Mile.,  541,  712 

Searles,  G.,  722 

Seber,  678 


INDEX 


9OI 


Seccombe,  T.,  289 

Seccombe,  T.,  and  Saintsbury,  G., 

280 

Seche,  L.,  536 

Seconde  rhetorique,  98-100,  535 
Secundus,  J.,  418 
Sedgefield,  W.  J.,  736,  738,  739 
Sedgwick,  D.,  306 
Sedley,  277,  278 
Sedlmayer,  381 
Sedulius  (Coelius),  193,  385,  690, 

694,  695 

Sedulius  Scotus,  200,  388 
Seeck,  O.,  674 
Seeley,  J.  R.,  574 
Seelmann,  E.,  703 
Segni,  B.,  524 
Segrais,  J.  R.  de,  466,   543,  558, 

567 

Segre,  C.,  234,  275,  421 
Seller,  F.,  311 
Seilliere,  E.,  334 
Selbach,  L.,  210 

Selborne,  Lord,  191,  306,  335,  366 
Seligmann,  C.  G.,  374 
Selincourt,  B.  de,  128,  289 
Selincourt,  H.  de,  279 
Selkirk,  J.  B.,  126 
Sellar,  W.  Y.,   74,   177,   191,  381, 

413,  433,  438,  497,  614,  682,  683, 

684 

Sellers,  Eugenie,  677 
Sem  Tob  of  Carrion,  251. 
Seneca  Rhetor,  87,  515 
Seneca  the  Younger,  87,  515,  724 
Sennucio  del  Bene,  233 
Sentimentalism,  344,  376-377,  378, 

384,  397,  399,  400,  444,  495,  583, 

680,  766  et  passim 
Sepulchral  poetry,  see  Young,  E.; 

also  395,  397,  408 
Sequences,  181,  193,  200,  201,  202 
SerafI,  P.,  261 

Serbian  poetry,  353-354,  775 
Serena,  16,  210 
Serveri  de  Gerona,  253 
Servius,  514-515,  687 
Sestina,  16,  210 
Settegast,  F.,  705 
Settembrini,  L.,  97,  236,  534 
Seuffert,  B.,  322 


Sewall,  F.,  244,  247 

Sextus  Empiricus,  510,  513 

Seyfriedslied,  754 

Seymour,  T.  D.,  598,  656,  677 

Shackford,  M.  H.,  447 

Shaftesbury,  Earl  of,  115,  565-566 

Shairp,  J.  C.,  74,  126,  145,  289,  304, 

497 
Shakespeare,    W.,    271,    272,    273, 

274,  275,  325,  403,  414,  461,  502, 

58i,  634 

Sharp,  C.  J.,  270 
Shafp,  Mrs.  E.  A.,  304,  307 
Sharp,  W.,  21,  74-75,  127,  224,  290, 

291,  294,  295,  296,  304,  307 
Sheavyn,  P.,  in 

Sheffield,  J.,  see  Mulgrave,  Earl  of 
Shelley,  Lady,  304 
Shelley,  P.  B.,  65,  74,  75,  78,  120, 

125  ff.,  138,  290  ff.,  405,  420,  497- 

498,  687 

Shenstone,  W.,  75,  117,  405,  611 
Shepherd,  R.  H.,  304 
Sheran,  W.  H.,  128,  574 
Sheridan,  C.  B.,  188 
Sherman,  F.  D.,  296 
Shevvan,  A.,  672 
Shorey,  P.,  184 
Short-story  and  idyl,  450,  451 
Shumway,  D.  B.,  755,  757 
Sibilet,  99-100,  101 
Sichel,  W.,  289 
Sicilian  school,  227-230 
Sidgwick,  F.,  498 
Sidgwick,  H.,  304 
Sidney,  Sir  P.,  112,  137-138,  271, 

272,  274,  276,  403,  404,  426,  444, 

556,  610 

Sidonius,  Apollinaris,  198,  386 
Siebert,  J.,  315 
Sievers,  311 
Sigerson,  G.,  307 
Sigura,  M.  G.,  732 
Sihler,  E.  G.,  128,  575 
Sijmons,  B.,  340 
Sikes,  E.  E.,  187 
Silius  Italicus,  453,  687,  719 
Silveira,  F.  da,  262 
Silvestre,  G.,  257 
Simcox,  G.  A.,  574,  743 
Sime,  J.,  758,  760 


902 


INDEX 


Simhart,  M.,  304 

Similes,  epic,  see  Formulae,  epic; 

also  467,  477,  579,  638 
Simonds,  W.  E.,  275,  421 
Simoni,  A.,  243 

Simonides  of  Amorgos,  184,  189 
Simonides  of  Ceos,  184,  185,  189, 

377,  378,  414,  4i8,  579 
Simrock,  K.,  320,  737 
Singels,  N.  I.,  687 
Singer,  S.  W.,  557 
Sirvente,  16,  169,  207,  210,  214,  252, 

3iS,  4i8 
Sismondi,  J.  C.  L.  S.  de,  657,  712, 

727,  735 

Sittl,  K.,  674 

Sjoberg,  E.   ("Vitalis"),  343 

Skaldic  poems,  767,  768 

Skelton,  J.,  269,  270,  402 

Skene,  W.  F.,  308,  309,  744,  749 

Skinner,  J.,  284 

Slaughter,  W.  S.,  686 

Smart,  Christopher,  282,  286,  287 

Smart,  j.  S.,  289 

Smart,  T.  B.,  304 

Smith,  A.,  364 

Smith,  Adam,  155-156,  177 

Smith,  Alexander,  294 

Smith,  D.  N.,  458 

Smith,  G.  G.,  in,  555,  557,  558, 
560,  608,  629,  741 

Smith,  Goldwin,  304 

Smith,  H.  P.,  365 

Smith,  James  and  Horace,  295 

Smith,  J.  H.,  205 

Smith,  K.  F.,  75,  375,  380,  381 

Smith,  M.  B.,  and  Jiriczek,  752, 
755,  759,  76o 

Smith,  M.  E.,  624 

Smith,  M.  K.,  152 

Smithson,  G.  A.,  657,  698,  740 

Smyth,  H.  W.,  177,  183,  187 

Smythe,  B.,  206 

Sneath,  E.  H.,  304 

Snell,  F.  J.,  230,  234,  420 

Snoilsky,  C.,  344 

Soboleski,  P.,  354,  775 

Social  conditions  and  poetry,  in- 
terrelation, 32,  40-41,  48,  108, 
121-122,  139,  144,  164,  172,  184- 

185,    190,    222,   280,   285,   292,  372, 


377-378,  379,  382,  383,  39i,  422, 
427-428,  437-438,  443,  460,  473, 
475,  481,  486,  489,  497,  498,  506, 
507,  53i,  545,  550,  553,  554,  558, 
565,  570,  57i,  572,  582,  584,  586, 
599,  600-602,  612,  616-617,  619, 
626-627,  629,  630,  634,  643,  644, 
647,  649,  653,  654,  656,  661, 
663,  675-678,  680,  684,  713,  716, 
726,  737,  740,  745,  746,  754 

Social  psychology,  258,  593,  601 

Societies,  literary,  344,  345,  347, 
348,  350,  408,  579 

Soerensen,  A.,  657,  775 

Solberg,  T.,  339 

Solerti,  A.,  238,  526,  725,  728 

Solger,  K.  W.  F.,  134,  586,  589 

Solomon,  Song  of,  613 

Solon,  184,  377,  380,  508 

Sommariva,  G.,  236 

Sommer,  H.  O.,  657,  744 

Sonden,  P.  A.,  340 

Song,  13-17,  112,  117-118,  125, 
152,  155,  157,  159,  164,  173,  177, 
181,  271,  273,  274,  275,  280,  284, 
296,  310,  331,  343,  345,  350,  366, 
369-374,  421-422,  440,  607-611 

Sonnet,  22-25,  iooff.,  112,  117,  134, 
157,  158,  163,  165,  169,  179,  180, 
216,  218-219,  228,  230,  236,  237, 
238-243,  244,  256,  258,  263,  271, 
273,  274,  275,  277,  283,  290,  296, 
320,  341,  35i,  359,  395,  398,  4°3, 
408,  414,  420-421 

Sophocles,  186 

Sophronius,  192 

Sordello,  227,  229 

Sorgel,  A.,  335 

Sorrentino,  A.,  238 

Souchay,  Abbe,  376 

Soumet,  400 

Souriau,  M.,  219,  687 

Sousa,  R.  de,  in,  224 

Southey,  R.,  120,  286,  287,  288,  294, 

304,  439,  573,  743 
Southwell,  R.,  278 
Souvestrej  fi.,  705 
Souze,  Mme.  de  la,  399 
Spanish  poetry,  156,  248-261,  410, 

720-734 
Sparling,  H.  H.,  767 


INDEX 


903 


Spectator,  The,  115,  125,  322,  561, 
562,  566 

Spedding,  J.,  304 

Spec,  F.  von,  319 

Spegel,  Bishop  H.,  341,  771 

Spence,  J.,  564,  566,  567,  579 

Spence,  L.,  741 

Spencer,  H.,  121,  127,  177,  370,  373 

Spencer  and  Gillen,  607 

Spenser,  E.,  112,  272,  273,  275,  276, 
278,  282,  391,  400,  417,  420,  447, 
448,  463,  481,  506,  556,  557,  560, 
561,  562,  568,  569,  573,  574,  575, 
581,  610,  611,  635,  724,  743,  744- 

745 

"  Spensereans,"  276,  279,  295 
Speratus,  318 
Speroni,  S.,  426,  526 
Spiegel,  202 

Spiegel,  F.,  359,  360,  778 
Spiegel,  P.  G.  von,  413 
Spieghel,  H.  L.,  337,  766 
Spielhagen,  F.,  436,  439,  498,  589, 

657 

Spielleute,  751 

Spiero,  H.,  309 

Spingarn,  J.  E.,  5,  90,  in,  113,  463, 
466,  490,  494,  498,  501,  518,  520, 
521-522  et  passim,  528,  557,  560, 
561,  562,  563,  572,  727  et  passim 

Spontanus,  537 

Sprat,  T.,  114,  419,  562 

Springer,  H.,  210 

Spronck,  M.,  224 

Spurgeon,  C.  F.  E.,  304 

Squire,  C.  R.,  124 

St.  Ambrose,  193,  197 

St.  Augustine,  517,  692 

St.  Bernard  of  Clairvaux,  193 

St.  Francis,  229,  231 

St.  Gall,  school  of,  200,  388,  700 

St.  Hilary  of  Poitiers,  193,  197 

St.  John  Damascene,  192 

St.  Mard,  R.  de,  106 

St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  193 

Stadtmueller,  H.,  188 

Stael,   Madame   de,   96,   107,    109, 

553-554,  735 
Stagemann,  331 

Staffeldt,  A.  W.  S.  von,  349,  352 
Stagnelius,  E.  J.,  343,  771 


Stainer,  Sir  J.,  268 

Stallbaum,  G.,  678 

Stampa,  Gaspara,  237,  396 

Stanley,  T.,  276,  277 

Stanyhurst,  R.,  556,  687 

Staring,  A.  C.  W.,  338 

Starter,  J.  J.,  338 

Statius,    190,   384,   453,    515,   516, 

687,  688 

Stawell,  F.  M.,  674,  675 
Stedman,  E.  C.,  76,  177,  290,  298, 

304,  448,  498-499,  593,  657,  719, 

747 

Steele,  Anne,  283 
Steele,  Sir  R.,  116,  280,  281,  285, 

287,  288 
Steenstrup,  J.  C.  H.  R.,  608,  657- 

658 

Steffens,  H.,  349 
Stehlich,  F.,  289 
Stein,  H.  von,  474 
Steiner,  B.,   189 
Steinhausen,  G.,  321 
Steinmar  von  Klingenau,  314 
Stein  thai,  H.,  432   et  passim,  499, 

588,  593,  599  et  passim,  619,  640, 

658-659,  674 

Stemplinger,  E.,  191,  218 
Stengel,  E.,  98,  196,  275 
Stengel,  F.,  210 
Stennett,  283 
Stenzler,  A.  F.,  782 
Stephanus  (French,  Estienne),  H., 

446 

Stephen,  J.  K.,  295 
Stephen,  Sir  L.,  115,  179,  289 
Stephens,  James,  291,  295 
Stephens,  Thos.,  306,  308 
Stern,  Adolf,  330 
Stern,  Alfred,  747 
Stern,  L.  C.,  306 
Sterry,  295 

Stesichorus,  184,  188,  417 
Steuerwald,  W.,  76 
Stev,  158 

Stevens,  W.  O.,  268 
Stevenson,  R.  L.,  291,  295,  296 
Sthen,  H.,  346 
Stiavelli,  G.,  722 
Stigelius,  Johannes,  203 
Stigliani,  T.%  93,  240 


904 


INDEX 


Stilgebauer,  E.,  315 
Stimming,  A.,  208,  209,  659 
Stjernhjelm,  G.,  341,  344,  77* 
Stoics,  criticism  of  poetry,  509-510, 

517,  518,  520 

Stokes,  W.,  and  Strachan,  J.,  307 
Stolberg,  F.  L.  von,  325,  327 
Stone,  C.,  290 
Storm,  E.,  346,  348,  772 
Storm,  T.,  330,  332,  409 
Stornello,  16,  395 
Storr,  F.,  701 
Story,  A.  T.,  289 
Stout,  G.  F.,  36 
Strabo,  Walafridus,  194,  200,  691, 

697,  698,  699 
Strachan,  J.,  307,  309 
Strachan  and  O'Keefe,  749 
Strachey,  Sir  E.,  728,  744 
Strambotto,  16,  158,  226,  395 
Strandberg,  K.  V.  A.,  344 
Straub,  L.,  187 
Streicher,  O.,  315 
Strindberg,  J.  A.,  344 
Strobl,  J.,  758 
Strocchi,  244 
Strodtmann,  A.,  327,  334 
Stronski,  S.,  210 
Stroza,  415 
Stuart,  A.  B.  C.,  783 
Stuart- Glennie,  J.  S.,  188 
Stub,  A.,  347 

Stuniga,  Cancionero  de,  251,  254 
Suardi,  G.  F.,  236 
Subjectivity,  epic,  499 
Subjectivity,  lyric,  4,  5-6,  8-10,  20, 

27,  45-46,  47,  48,  52,  57,  61,  72, 

73,  76,  80,  113,  120,  122,  126,  133, 

152,   172,   184,   214,   217,   221,   267, 

271,  292,  357,  366,  373,  380,  382, 
391,  418,  431,  502  et  passim 

Suchenwirt,  P.,  317 

Suchier,  H.,  213 

Suchier,  H.,  and  Birch-Hirschfeld, 
A.,  204 

Suckling,  276,  278 

Suddard,  S.  J.  M.,  305 

Sudre,  L.,  623,  624,  637,  711 

Suidas,    669 

Sully-Prudnomrne,  46,  in,  222,  400 

Sulpicia,  384 


Sulzer,  J.  G.,  76-77,  499-500,  580, 
585 

Sumerian  poetry,  363,  782-783 

Summers,  688 

Summo,  F.,  527 

Supernatural  in  the  epic,  see  Mar- 
vellous; also  Myth  in  epic 

Suphan,  B.,  476,  633 

Surrey,  Earl  of,  271,  272,  273,  275, 
403,  555,  687 

Susemihl,  F.,  178,  413,  511,  681 

Suttermeister,  O.,  77,  500 

Suttina,  L.,  233 

Svedberg,  J.,  341 

Swanwick,  A.,  305 

Swedish  poetry,  340-345,  770-772 

Swift,  J.,  282,  287,  417,  419,  426, 
427,  492,  565,  772 

Swinburne,  A.  C.,  21,  63,  77,  126, 
223,  289,  290  ff.,  405,  406,  418, 
420,  743 

Swiss  School  of  criticism,  130-131, 

578-579 

Sylvester,  J.,  711 
Symbolists,  46,  108,  in,  222,  224, 

264,  332,  409 
Symonds,  J.  A.,  77—78, 127, 178, 189, 

201,    202,   231,   248,  275,    294,  305, 

393,  395,  396,  413,  43i  et  passim, 
451,  498,  500,  593,  614,  659-660, 
712,  714,  728,  747 
Symons,  A.,  128,  224,  279,  289,  291, 

3°5 

Symons,  B.,  752 

Symposia,  376;  see  Convivial  lyric 
Synesius,  192 
Syriac  poetry,  355 

Tacitus,  749 

Tagelied,  315 

Taillandier,  R.  G.  E.,  no 

Taillemont,  C.,  398 

Taine,  H.  A.,  29,  108,  no,  123,  141 

Talavera,  S.,  252 

Tale,  metrical,  439,  472,  483,  783; 

see  also  Romances 
Talvj,  178,  774 
Tamizey  de  Lorroque,  542 
Tannahill,  284 
Tannenberg,  B.  de,  260 
Tannhauser,  Der,  314,  315 


INDEX 


905 


Tansillo,  L.,  237,  238,  396 

Tarbe,  P.,  212 

Tarde,  G.,  108,  145,  258,  601 

Tascherau,  220 

Tasso,  B.,  237,  419,  651,  724 

Tasso,  T.,  92,  237,  238,  426,  435  et 
passim,  458,  466,  470,  473,  492, 
500,  501-502,  507,  522,  524,  526, 
528,  529,  531,  533,  534,  S4i,  544, 
550,  559,  56i,  562,  568,  569,  57i, 
573,  578,  579,  S88,  599,  601,  610, 
686,  690,  720,  722,  723,  724,  725- 
728  (editions  and  translations, 
726-727),  745,  746,  747,  766 

Tassoni,  A.,  92,  500,  529,  543,  728- 
729 

Tate,  N.,  405 

Tatian,  519 

Taubert,  O.,  320 

Taylor,  Bayard,  296,  420 

Taylor,  £.,312 

Taylor,  H.  O.,  78,  88,  184,  192, 
196,  689,  702 

Taylor,  J.,  364 

Taylor,  T.,  513 

Taylor,  Tom,  309 

Taylorian  Lectures,  240 

Tedeschi,  A.,  289 

Tegner,  E.,  343~344,  345,  771 

Telleen,  J.  M.,  551 

Temple,  Sir  W.,  114,  492,  562 

Ten  Brink,  B.,  178,  338,  401,  593, 
628,  660,  738 

Tendencies  of  the  lyric,  146-147 

Tenneroni,  A.,  231 

Tennyson,  A.,  34,  68,  120,  125  ff., 
290  ff.,  405,  420,  429,  447,  448, 
450,  452,  742,  743,  748 

Tennyson,  H.,  305 

Tenson,  16,  207,  210 

Terkelsen,  346 

Terpander,  188 

Terrason,  Abbe  J.,  492,  547~548,  55i 

Terret,  V.,  593,  595,  660,  674 

Terry,  C.  S.,  289 

Tertullian,  517,  692 

Testa  d'Arezzo,  Arrigo,  228,  229 

Testi,  F.,  239,  396 

Tettau,  W.  J.  A.,  Freiherr  von,  774 

Teuffel,  W.  S.,  178,  191,  381,  660, 
689 


Teutonic  heroic  poetry,  stages  of, 

595,  667 

Texte,  J.,  108,  in,  224,  289,  305 
Thackeray,  W.  M.,  289,  295 
Tham,  W.,  354 
Thayer,  M.  R.,  184,  191 
Theagenes  of  Rhegium,  511,  521 
Theocritus,  186,  378,  379,  391,  443, 

445  et  pasfim,  452,  462,  464,  483, 

609,  610,  611-614,  626,  649,  680 
Theodor,  H.,  708 
Theodulf,  199,  385,  388,  696 
Theognis,  184,  377,  380,  508 
Theophile  de  Viau,  399 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,  519 
Theophrastus,  514 
Thidrekssaga,  754,  758 
Thiele,  J.  M.,  345 
Thiell,  C.  P.,  782 
Thieme,  H.  P.,  205 
Thiersch,  F.,  189 
Thimme,  A.,  135,  225 
Thorn,  W.,  284,  295 
Thomander,  345 
Thomas,  A.,  208,  229 
Thomas,  Calvin,  309,  313,  317,  329 
Thomas,  L.  P.,  258 
Thomas,  W.,  289 
Thompson,  A.  H.,  279 
Thompson,  E.  N.  S.,  562,  574,  747 
Thompson,  F.,   78,   128,   291,   295, 

302,  305 

Thompson,  G.  A.,  in 
Thompson,  Hamilton,  289 
Thompson,  J.  ("B.V."),  127,  294, 

295 

Thompson,  V.,  224 
Thomson,   J.,   281,   282,   285,   286, 

287,  288,  289,  322,  347,  397,  399, 

611 

Thomson,  J.  A.  K.,  674,  677 
Thorild,  T.,  343,  345 
Thornbury,  296 
Threnody,  267,  372,  375,  376,  377, 

379-380,  383,  384,  386,  387,  388, 

389,  390,  39i,  393-394,  395,  396, 

397,   398,   399,   400,   401  ff.,   406, 

407,  410,  411-412,  481 
Threnos,  15,  187 
Thurau,  G.,  78,  178 
Tibaud  de  Champagne,  211,  212 


906 


INDEX 


Tibullus,    75,    101,    103,    105,    163, 
190,  381,  382-384,  394,  400,  4°S 

Tickell,  405 

Ticknor,  248,  257 

Tieck,  L.,  331,  333,  343 
r  Tiedge,  331,  408 

Tiersot,  J.,  179,  213,  220,  225 

Tigri,  248 

Tille,  A.,  329,  330,  332 

Tilley,  216,  217,  537,  711 

Timayenis,  T.  T.,  677 

Timotheus,  186 

Tincani,  C.,  722 

Tinker,  C.  B.,  738,  740 

Tiraboschi,  G.,  95,  528,  530,  533, 
702 

Tissot,  E.,  223 

Tissot,  P.  F.,  400,  686 

Tittmann,  J.,  317,  321,  327,  336 

Tobit,  Book  of,  447,  613 

Toda,  E.,  261 

Todd,  J.  H.,  307 

Tollens,  H.,  338,  766 

Tollkiehn,  J.,  686 

Tolman,  A.  H.,  739 

Tolomei,  C.,  91 

Tomas,  Bishop,  340,  770 

Tombo,  R.,  327,  764 

Tomlin*on,  C.,  78,  234,  305 

Tommaseo,  97,  245,  248,  534 

Tommasso  de  Celano,  193 

Tompa,  M.,  354 

Tomson,  G.  R.,  188 

Topelius,  Z.,  344 

Toplady,  283 

Torraca,  F.,  97,  227,  229,  247 

Torrellas,  Pero,  252 

Torti,  G.,  95-96,  244 

Tory,  G.,  99 

Toscanella,  523 

Tottell,  271 

Tourreil,  J.  de,  492 

Tovey,  D.  C.,  289 

Toynbee,  P.,  713,  719 

Tozer,  H.  F.,  719 

Trail,  H.  D.,  305 

Transubstantiation,   literary    influ- 
ence of  doctrine  of,  622 

Trapp,  J.,  1 1 6,  564,  566,  567 

Traube,  L.,  199,  200 

Trautmann,  M.,  739,  740 


Trechmann,  E.  J.,  778 

Trelawny,  E.  J.,  305 

Trench,  R.  C.,  25,  89,  194 

Treneuil,  J.,  400 

Trent,  W.  P.,  305,  378,  747 

Trevelyan,  R.  C.,  291 

Trezza,  G.,  247 

Triolet,  16,  no,  129 

Triplett,  N.,  124 

Trissino,  G.  G.,  91,  426,  524-525, 
531,  601,  725,  727 

Troll,  P.,  381 

Troubadours,  98,  164,  170,  191, 
205-211,  214,  221,  227-229,  231, 
250-255,  262,  265,  269,  392-393, 
395,  402,  410,  716,  728 

Trouveres,  142,  143,  153,  207, 
211-213,  214,  231,  265,  269,  703- 
711,  728 

Trublet,  Abbe,  551 

Trucchi,  F.,  226 

Truffi,  R.,  721 

Tryphiodorus,  682 

Tscherning,  A.,  408,  417,  419 

Tschersig,  H.,  179,  333 

Tsountas  and  Manatt,  677 

Tubino,  F.  M.,  261 

Tucker,  F.  G.,  184 

Tucker,  S.M.,  416 

Tullin,  C.  B.,  346,  347,  351 

Turberville,  271 

Turk,  M.,  754 

Turkish  poetry,  354-355,  783 

Turrin,  C.,  398 

Twining,  T.,  454,  467 

Twyne,  T.,  555 

Tyler,  W.  S.,  677 

Tylor,  E.  B.,  371,  373,  593 

Tynan,  Katherine,  291 

Types,  literary:  their  growth,  140- 
141,  144-146,  147,  151,  152,  153, 
185,  216,  252,  263,  267,  271,  284, 
372,  377,  379,  383,  386,  387,  388, 
389,  390,  393,  414,  4i6,  421-422, 
429,  481,  545,  588,  599,  601,  609, 
610,  611-613,  618,  629-630,  631, 
640,  642,  645,  646,  647-648,  649- 
650,  680-681,  690,  693,  703,  706- 
707,  714-716,  721-722,  726,  737, 
741,  745,  746,  767-768,  776,  778- 
779 


INDEX 


907 


Tyroller,  F.,  624 

Tyrrell,  R.  Y.,  574,  683,  687 

Tyrtaeus,  184,  188,  377 

Tyrwhitt,  283 

Tzetzes,  J.,  521 

Uc  Brunet,  250 

Uc  de  Mataplana,  253 

Uc  de  San  Circ,  250 

Uhl,  W.,3ii 

Uhland,  L.,  310,  316,  319,  331,  333, 

336,  708,  752,  760 
Ulrich  von  Lichtenstein,  314 
Ulrici,   H.,  78-79,   431    et  passim, 

502-503,  586,  675 
Unflad,  L.,  329 
Unger,  J.  H.  W.,  338 
Ungnad  and  Gressmann,  783 
Unities  of  time  and  place,  454,  458, 

493 ,  524,  537 

Unity  of  the  epic,  idyl,  etc.,  424, 
426,  433,  435,  451,  454,  471,  473, 
484,  485,  489,  501,  505,  522,  525, 
526,  533,  539,  54i,  545,  546,  55*, 
568,  573,  580,  589,  602,  621,  626, 
628,  640,  655,  659,  664,  666,  725, 

73i 

Unity  of  the  lyric,  10,  12 
Upham,  A.  H.,  219,  275,  421,  537 
Urban,  E.,  179,  329,  415 
Urbanus,  200 

Usener,  H.,  375,  376,  597,  660 
Ussani,  V.,  686 
Utilitarianism,  121,  292,  332 
Uz,  J.  P.,  323,  4°9 

Vaganay,  H.,  179,  238,  420 
Valdes,  M.,  260 
Valente,  M.,  247 
Valentin,  V.,  135 
Valera,  J.,  260 
Valeriani,  L.,  226 
Valerius  Aedituus,  382 
Valerius  Flaccus,  687,  688,  719 
Valgius  Rufus,  384 
Valla,  L.,  523,  720 
Vallance,  A.,  305 
Vallmanya,  A.,  253 
Valmiki,  779,  781 
Vanderburgh,  F.  A.,  363 
Vannetti,  C.,  95 


Vannoz,  400 

Vanozzo,  F.,  234 

Vanzolini,  G.,  189,  376 

Varano,  A.,  241,  729 

Varchi,  B.,  527 

Varro  Atacinus,  382 

Varro,  Terentius,  513-514 

Vasconcellos,  M.  de,  249,  258,  261, 

265,  420,  732,  735 
Vaticana,  Cancioneiro  da,  262,  264, 

265 

Vaudeville,  16,  118,  214 
Vaughan,  C.  E.,  in,  305,  333 
Vaughan,  H.,  276,  277 
Vaughan,  W.,  560 
Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye,  102,  426, 

433,  535,  537 
Vauvenargues,  105 
Vaux,  Lord,  272 
Vedel,  A.  S.,  346,  351 
Vega,  Garcilaso  de  la,  see  Garcilaso 
Vega  y  Arguelles,  A.  L.  de  la,  258 
Veitch,  J.,  127,  145,  179,  743 
Venantius  Fortunatus,  see   Fortu- 

natus 

Venturi,  G.  A.,  239 
Veranek,  130 
Verdizzotti,  728 
Vere,  Aubrey  de,  127 
Verhaeren,  E.,  224 
Verlaine,  P.,  401 
Veron,  E.,  599,  661 
Verri,  A.,  397 
Verrier,  M.,  79 
Vers  de  societe,  32-33,  63,  114,  126, 

127,  168,  275,  277,  281-282,  295, 

349,  379,  406 
Versification,  medieval  vs.  modern 

French,  215 
Versification,  modern,  rise  of,  192, 

193,  195-197,  386,  387,  388,  389, 

692,  697,  699 
Vettori,  P.,  524 
Veyrieres,  L.  de,  179,  420 
Vial,  F.,  and  Denise,  L.,  102,  104, 

546 

Vianey,  J.,  218,  219,  420 
Vicente,  Gil,  263 
Vico,  G.  B.,  492,  530,  531-532,  533, 

534,  553,  584,  594,  617,  661-662, 

667,  670,  674 


908 


INDEX 


Victor,  C.  M.,  690,  694 

Victorinus,  690,  693 

Victorius  (for  P.  Vettori  ?),  523 

Vida,  M.  H.,  100,  138,  426,  433, 
463,  494,  503,  521,  522-523,  528, 
536,  537,  S4i,  552,  576,  603,  690, 
725 

Vidal,  Peire,  208,  250 

Vidal  de  Besalu,  R.,  98,  253 

Viehoff,  H.,  79,  134,  329,  503 

Viele-Griffin,  F.,  224  t 

Vierkandt,  A.,  373,  593 

Vigfusson,  G.,  339,  770 

Vigfusson  and  Powell,  340,  662,  758, 
768,  769,  770 

Vigie-Lecocq,  E.,  224 

Vignati,  C.,  243 

Vigny,  A.  de,  46,  221,  223,  400 

Vigo,  248 

Villanelle,  16,  214 

Villani,  N.,  529 

Villari,  97 

Villarosa,  March,  di,  226 

Villasandino,  252 

Ville  de  Mirmont,  H.  de  la,  681,  686 

Villemain,  M.,  79,  108,  109,  189 

Villemarque,  Vicomte  de  la,  306, 
308,  309,  711 

Villey,  P.,  100 

Villoison,  667,  670,  678 

Villon,  F.,  101,  214,  221 

Vilmar,  A.  F.  C.,  317,  320,  328,  329 

Vincent,  C.,  79,  503 

Vinet,  A.  R.,  109 

Vinje,  A.  O.,  351,  773 

Viperanus,  I.  A.,  91 

Virelay,  101,  207,  214 

Virgil,  196,  216,  255,  257,  384,  385, 
387,  391,  424,  425,  429,  433,  438, 
446,  449,  454,  458,  468,  469,  470, 
471,  472,  473,  476,  480,  481,  486, 
487,  488,  490,  491,  492,  493,  494, 
495,  497,  503,  504,  505,  5U,  514, 
515,  516,  517,  518,  521,  522-523, 
524,  526,  528,  529,  530,  531,  532, 
S34,  536,  539,  S4i,  543,  544,  549, 
550,  S5i,  552,  553,  555,  556,  557, 
558,  560,  561,  562,  563,  565,  566, 
567,  57i,  574,  576,  578,  579,  58i, 
593,  596,  599,  601,  610,  612,  613, 
614,  622,  638,  642,  643,  644,  649, 
657,  660,  667,  680,  681,  883-687, 


690,  691,  692,  693,  694,  696,  700, 
709,  712,  714,  716,  724,  746,  750, 
75i,  764,  766 

Visan,  T.  de,  224 

Vischer,  F.  T.,  80,  134,  138,  139, 

145,  332,  412,  427,  503,  587 
Visconti,  E.,  247 
Vision,  poetry  of  mystic,  241,  622, 

691,  699,  716,  718 
Vismara,  A.,  246 
Visscher,  Anna,  766 
Visscher,  R.  P.,  337,  766 
Visscher,  Tesselschade,  766 
Vittorelli,  J.,  241,  243,  395 
Vittorino  da  Feltre,  523 
Vivaldi,  V.,  728 

Vivian,  S.  P.,  279 

Vogl,  353 

Vogt,  F.,  312,  752,  758,  760 

Vogt  and  Koch,  763 

Voigt,  E.,  624,  637 

Voigt,  G.,  234,  662,  702,  713 

Voifeure,  103 

Volkmann,  R.,  513,  675 

Volkslied,  15 

Vollhardt,  270 

Vollmoller,  756 

Volpi,  G.,  232,  234,  721 

Volsunga  Saga,  491,  754,  767,  769 

Volta,  A.,  705,  725 

Voltaire,  F.  M.  A.  de,  105-106,  131, 
243,  399,  4i6,  426,  433,  457,  458, 
484,  504-505,  533,  537,  545-546, 
551,  552,  553,  570,  57i,  578,  587, 
601,  686,  712,  724,  734,  766 

Vondel,  J.  van  den,  338,  746,  748, 
766 

Voretzsch,  C.,  598,  623,  624,  662, 
7o8,  758 

Voss,  J.  H.,  325,  408,  687,  764 

Voss  or  Vossius,  G.  J.,  129,  523, 
541,  576,  589 

Vossler,  K.,  90, 179,  231, 273, 321,719 

Vukadinovie,  S.,  289 

Wace,  742 

Wackernagel,  F.  E.,  310 

Wackernagel,  P.,  336 

Wackernagel,  W.,  80-81,  134,  138, 
212,  327,  375,  406,  409,  418,  419, 
436  et  passim,  448,  451,  505,  587, 
597,  599  ^  Passim,  637,  662-663 


INDEX 


909 


Wackernagel,  W.,  and  Rieger,  M.,  314 

Waddell,  H.,  367 

Waddington,  S.,  25,  230,  290,  305, 

420 

Wagenseil,  316 
Wagner,  R.,  753,  762 
Wahlund,  C.,  206 
Waitz  and  Gerland,  373 
Walafrid  Strabo,  see  Strabo 
Walch,  G.,  107,  222 
Waldberg,  M.,  Freiherrvon,3i7,42i 
W  alder  e,  701,  736,  750 
Waldis,  B.,  318,  320 
Waldmiiller,  R.,  332 
Waliszewski,  K.,  353,  774,  775 
Walker,  E.,  275 

Walker,  Hugh,  289,  290.,  292,  305 
Walkley,  A.  B.,  128 
Wallaschek,  R.,  180,  374 
Wallenskold,  A.,  316 
Waller,  E.,  276,  277,  278,  417 
Wallis,  J.  P.  R.,  289 
Walpole,  283 
Walsh,  Clara  A.,  368 
Walsh,  W.,  405 
Walter,  E.  T.,  316 
Waltharius,  690,  700-701,  736,  750 
Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  314, 

315,  316,  407,  418,  665 
Walther  von  Speier,  701 
Walz,  513 

Walzel,  O.  F.,  460,  583 
Waniek,  G.,  326 
War  songs,  15,  151,  169,  177,  220, 

224,  266,  267,  290,  291,  323,  335, 

372,  375,  376,  377,  378,  415,  422, 

440;  see  also  Patriotic  poetry 
Warburg,  340 
Warburton,  W.,  564,  567 
Ward,  A.  W.,  279 
Ward,  H.  L.  D.,  711,  741 
Ward,  T.  H.,  266,  290,  305 
Warner,  A.  G.  and  E.,  776 
Warr,  G.  C.  W.,  178 
Warren,  F.  M.,  180,  195,  203,  624 
Warren,  T.  H.,  305 
Warren,  W.  F.,  677 
Warton,  J.,  115,  116,  117,  282,  283, 

286,  289,  564,  566,  567-568,  581, 

611 
Warton,  T.,  115,  118,  283,  286,  569, 

611,  664,  743,  744 


Wasson,  D.  A.,  431  et  passim,  505 
Waterhouse,  G.,  162,  321 
Waterman,  T.  T.,  592,  664 
Watson,  J.,  275,  280,  284 
Watson,  T.,  272 
Watson,  Sir  William,  291,  294,  295, 

296,  297,  305,  405,  416 
Watts,  H.  E.,  732 
Watts,  L,  116,  283 
Watts-Dunton,  W.  T.,  19,  22,  23, 

81-82,  127,  128,  289,  305,  431  et 

passim,  505,  602,  664 
Waugh,  A.,  305 
Way,  A.  S.,  678,  681 
Webbe,  W.,  112,  426,  556-557 
Weber,  A.,  361 
Weber,  E.,  589 
Weber,  H.  W.,  758 
Weber,  O.,  363,  782,  783 
Webster,  Augusta,  291,  295 
Wechssler,  E.,  316,  762 
Weckerlin,  J.  B.,  219,  225 
Weckherlin,   G.    R.,   318,   320-321, 

407,  417,  419,  577 
Weddingen,  O.,  316,  335 
Wedewer,  H.,  589,  686 
Weever,  416 
Wegener,  C.  F.,  351 
Weidinger,  611 
Weinberg,  611 
Weinhold,  K.,  316,  752 
Weise,  330 
Weise,  C.,  577 
Weiss,  A.,  36 
Weissenborn,  E.,  677 
Weitbrecht,  328 

Welcker,  F.  G.,  549, 650, 664,  675, 679 
Welhaven,  J.  S.  C.,  351,  352 
Wellauer,  681 
Weller,  E.,  319 
Weller,  P.,  711 
Wellhausen,  365 
Wells,  B.  W.,  758 
Wells,  C.,  33 
Wells,  J.  E.,  268 
Welsh   poetry,  see  Appendix;   also 

306-309 

Welstead,  L.,  116 
Welti,  H.,  134,  180 
Welwood,  J.,  566 
Wendell,  B.,  82,  614 
Wenig,  J.  G.,  356 


910 


INDEX 


Werenfels,  577 

Wergeland,  H.,  351,  352,  773 

Wernaer,  R.  M.,  180,  664 

Werner,  K.,  697 

Werner,  R.  M.,  82,  135,  137,  148- 

149,  180,  587 

Wernicke,  C.,  67,  415,  417,  577 
Wernicke,  F.  A.  E.,  682 
Wernsdorf,  J.  C.,  381 
Weselmann,  C.  A.  F.,  563 
Wesley,  John  and  Charles,  283 
Wessel,  J.  H.,  347,  348,  351 
Wessely,  E.,  353 
West,  E.  W.,  360 
West,  G.,  117 
Westermarck,  371 
Weston,  J.  L.,  268,  743,  758,  762 
Wetstein,  J.  R.,  669 
Weygandt,  C.,  128,  291,  305 
Wharton,  H.  T.,  189 
Wheeler,  A.  L.,  380,  381 
Wheeler,  S.,  305 
Whibley,  C.,  279 
Whibley,  L.,  189,  638,  668 
Whitcomb,  S.  L.,  574 
White,  F.  D.,  504 
White,  G.,  82-83,  305 
White,  J.  B.,  296 
Whiting,  Lillian,  305 
Whitman,  C.  H.,  740 
Whitman,  Walt,  296 
Whitmore,  C.  E.,  234 
Whitney,  W.  D.,  362 
Wicksteed,  P.  H.,  719 
Widmann,  W.,  760 
Wiedemann,  A.,  364 
Wieland,  C.  M.,  325,  328,  348,  349, 

399,  409,  675,  764 
Wielandlied,  749 
Wiener,  L.,  352,  775 
Wieselgren,  P.,  340,  345 
Wiffen,  256,  258 
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff,  U.   von, 

183,  191,  194,  380,  381,  382,  414, 

477,593,595,664-665, 675,679, 686 
Wilde,  O.,  291,  294,  297,  301 
Wiles,  J.,  775 
Wilkie,  W.,  439,  567,  568 
Wilkinson,  W.    C.,   433,   435,   603, 

748 
Will,  relation  of,  to  action  in  epic, 

502,  506,  573,  586,  755 


Willems,  624 

Williams  Ab  Ithel,  J.,  308 

Williams,  Taliesin,  308 

Williams,  T.  C.,  687 

Wilmanns,  W.,  314,  316,  665,  756, 
758,  759,  76o 

Wilmar,  A.  F.  C.,  310 

Wilmotte,  M.,  213,  224,  227 

Wilson,  C.  T.,  353 

Wilson,  D.,  289 

Wilson,  H.  H.,  362,  781 

Wilson,  J.,  120,  305 

Winchelsea,  Lady,  282,  287,  288,  611 

Winchester,  C.  T.,  83 

Winckels,  F.  G.  de,  246 

Winckler,  H.,  782 

Windscheid,  K.,  181,  275,  665 

Winkel,  J.  te,  337,  338 

Winkworth,  335 

Winstanley,  L.,  305 

Winternitz,  M.,  780 

Winther,  C.,  350 

Wirsen,  XT.  D.  af,  344 

Wirsung,  C.,  320 

Wirth,  A.,  505 

Wise,  T.  J.,  305 

Wiseman,  Card.,  492 

Wither,  276,  278,  282 

Witkop,  P.,  136,  309,  322 

Witkowski,  G.,  321,  326,  329 

Witte,  C.,  719 

W.  J.,  666 

Wodehouse,  Mrs.  E.  (A.H.),  17, 181 

Wb'rner,  686 

Wogue,  220 

Wolf,  F.  A.,  i.e.  Christ.  Wilh.  Aug., 
430,  479,  549,  553,  565,  57o,  584- 
585,  594,  616,  617,  621,  623,  627- 
628,  635,  641,  649,  650,  655,  661- 
662,  665,  666-667,  668,  669,  670- 
671,  672,  673,  674,  675,  678,  684, 
685,  756 

Wolf,  F.  J.,  181,  201,  249,  250,  256, 
264,  729,  735 

Wolf,  L.,  758 

Wolff,  E.,  6,  83,  132,  134,  141,  145, 
181,  330,  437,  506,  587,  667,  758 

Wolff,  O.,  310 

Wolfian,  or  composite,  theory  of 
epic  development,  482 

Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  313,  751, 
761,  762 


INDEX 


911 


Wollner,  W.,  775 

Woman-worship,  see  Feminization 
of  poetry,  Dolce  stil  nuovo, 
Troubadours,  Trouveres,  Minne- 
sang,  Meistergesang,  Erotic  lyric, 
Pastoral,  etc. 

Women  in  epic,  541,  680,  752,  762 

Women  of  Homer,  457-458,  500 

Wood,  E.,  306 

Wood,  R.,  533,  553,  565,  569,  584, 
617,  634,  667,  670,  674,  677-678 

Woodberry,  G.  E.,  84,  128,  306,  420, 
433  et  passim,  506,  659,  728,  735 

Woolner,  T.,  294 

Wordsworth,  C.,  306 

Wordsworth,  J.,  190 

Wordsworth,  W.,  7,  33,  34,  50,  65, 
84,  119-120,  125  ff.,  138,  144,  224, 
284,  290  ff.,  420,  452,  456,  743 

Work-songs,  142,  152,  155,  177,  422 

Worsley  and  Connington,  678 

Wotke,  K.,  203 

Wotton,  Sir  H.,  34,  278 

Wotton,  W.,  492,  562-563,  564 

Wrangham,  D.  S.,  202 

Wright,  C.  H.  C.,  205 

Wright,  T.,  202,  268,  413,  702 

Wright,  T.,  and  Halliwell,  J.  O.,  89 

Wright,  W.,  355 

Writing  in  relation  to  epic  develop- 
ment, 428,  443,  540,  582,  599, 
600,  625,  648,  665,  666,  668 

Wiilker,  R.  P.,  267,  268,  588,  604, 
736,  738,  740,  747 

Wundt,  W.,  9,  36,  370,  371,  373, 

593,  597 

Wurzbach,  W.  von,  327 
Wyatt,  271,  272,  274,  275,  403 
Wychgram,  J.,  329 
Wylie,  L.  J.,  in,  563 
Wyndham,  G.,  218 
Wyss,   310 

Xeno,  669 

Xenophanes,  378,  475,  508,   516 

Ximenez,  Father,  783 

Yalden,  T.,  419 

Yanez,  R.,  733 

Yeats,  W.  B.,  291,  295,  306,  307 


Yorke,  O.  (Mahoney,  F.  S.),  452- 

453 

Young,  C.  C.,  625 
Young,  E.,  22,  84-85,  116,  282,  287, 
•    288,  289,  323,  324,  397,  399,  405, 

417,  564,  566,  568 
Ysengrimus,  623,  624 

Zachariae,  F.  W.,  409 

Zacher,  375 

Zamora,  Chanson  du  siege  de,  733 

Zanella,  G.,  243,  244,  245,  246,  247 

Zanghieri,  T.,  189 

Zani,  C.,  528 

Zanotti,  F.  M.,  95 

Zapletal,  O.  P.,  366 

Zappi,  241 

Zarncke,  F.,  753,  756 

Zedlitz,  J.  C.  F.  von,  409 

Zell,  K.,  754 

Zenatti,  A.,  229 

Zenker,  R.,  208,  210,  762 

Zeno,  A.,  242 

Zenodotus,  511 

Zesen,  577 

Zhukovskiy,  V.,  353,  774  . 

Ziller,  F.,  705 

Zimmer,  743 

Zimmermann,  F.,  85,  432,  460,  506- 

507 

Zimmermann,  R.,  134,  589 
Zimmermann,  Z.,  681 
Zimmern,  Heinrich,  363 
Zimmern,  Helen,  776 
Zincke,  P.,  334 

Zingarelli,  N.,  229,  702,  705,  719 
Zingerle,  A.  R.,  182,  234,  381 
Zocco,  I,  234,  275,  421 
Zockler,  0.,  689 
Zoi'lus,  511 
Zorilla,  260 
Zorzi,  Bartol.,  227 
Zottoli,  367 
Zschalig,  H.,  98 
Zuccolo,  93 
Zumbini,  B.,  97,  234,  246,  247,  395, 

534,  722,  725 
Zutavern,  K.,  705 
Zwingli,  H.  (U.),  576 
Zyromski,  E.,  223 


ANNOUNCEMENTS 


BOOKS  IN 
ENGLISH  LITERATURE 

Alexander :  Introduction  to  the  Poetry  of  Robert  Browning 
Aristotle  on  the  Art  of  Poetry  (Cooper) 
'  Boynton  :  A  History  of  American  Literature 
Bright  and  Miller :   Elements  of  English  Versification 
Buck :  Social  Forces  in  Modern  Literature 
Cooper:  Methods  and  Aims  in  the  Study  of  Literature 
Corson  :  Primer  of  English  Verse 

Gayley:  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature  (Revised  Edition) 
Gayley  and  Kurtz :  Methods  and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism : 

Lyric,  Epic,  and  Allied  Forms  of  Poetry 
Gayley  and  Scott :  Introduction  to  the  Methods  and  Materials  of 

Literary  Criticism 

Genung :  Guidebook  to  the  Biblical  Literature 
Gummere  :  Handbook  of  Poetics 
Hudson :  Life,  Art,  and  Characters  of  Shakespeare.    2  vols. 

Cloth ;  half  morocco 

Lewis :  Beginnings  of  English  Literature 
Long :  American  Literature 
Long:  English  Literature 
Long :  Outlines  of  English  and  American  Literature 

Also  in  two  volumes  :  Outlines  of  English  Literature 

Outlines  of  American  Literature 
Minto :  Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature 
Painter :  Elementary  Guide  to  Literary  Criticism 
Phelps :  Beginnings  of  the  English  Romantic  Movement 
Saintsbury :  Loci  Critici.    Passages  Illustrative  of  Critical  Theory 
Sherman :  Analytics  of  Literature 
Smith :  Synopsis  of  English^  and  American  Literature 
Smith  :  The  American  Short  Story 

Sneath :  Wordsworth  —  Poet  of  Nature  and  Poet  of  Man 
Trent,  Hanson,  and  Brewster :  Introduction  to  the  English 

Classics  (Revised  Edition) 

Wild :  Geographic  Influences  in  Old  Testament  Masterpieces 
Winchester :  Five  Short  Courses  of  Reading  in  English  Literature 


GINN  AND   COMPANY   PUBLISHERS 


BOOKS  ON  THE  STUDY  OF  POETRY 


METHODS  AND  MATERIALS  OF  LITERARY  CRITICISM: 
LYRIC,  EPIC,  AND  ALLIED  FORMS  OF  POETRY 

By  CHARLES  "MILLS  GAYLEY,  University  of  California,  and  BENJAMIN  O.  KURTZ, 
University  of  California. 

A  CRITICAL  study  of  the  Song,  Hymn,  Ode,  Sonnet,  Epigram,  Elegy, 
Idyl,  Ballad,  Pastoral,  and  Heroic  Romance  in  all  times  and  among 
all  nations.  For  purposes  of  detailed  investigation  the  book  offers 
every  advantage. 

ENGLISH  POETRY  (1170-1892) 

By  JOHN  MATTHEWS  MANLY,  The  University  of  Chicago.   8vo,  cloth,  xxviii  +  580 
pages 

A  WELL-SELECTED  anthology  of  convenient  size.  The  introduction 
furnishes  interesting  and  necessary  information  concerning  authors 
and  poems. 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  ENGLISH  VERSIFICATION 

By  JAMES  WILSON  BRIGHT,  Johns  Hopkins  University,  and  RAYMOND  D.  MILLER, 
University  of  Missouri.    12010,  cloth,  xii  +  166  pages 

THE  metrical  form  of  poetry  is  comprehensively  treated  in  this 
volume.  Part  One  is  concerned  with  the  individual  verse ;  Part  Two 
deals  with  the  grouping  of  verses.  Fresh  and  varied  examples  from  the 
great  poets  illustrate  the  subject. 


ARISTOTLE  ON  THE  ART  OF  POETRY 

Translated  and  adapted  by  LANE  COOPER,  Cornell  University.    lamo,  cloth,  xxix  + 
101  pages 

AN  AMPLIFIED  version  of  the  "Poetics"  of  Aristotle,  which,  by 
means  of  a  running  marginal  gloss,  interpolated  comments,  and  the 
expansion  and  clarifying  of  Aristotle's  examples,  aims  to  make  this 
famous  treatise  thoroughly  intelligible  to  all  students  of  English. 


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